Reservoir Engineering for Technicians

RESR1003

5. Reservoirs

1
BASIC RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
CONCEPTS

2
 Subsurface Pressure
• Overburden Pressure = total weight exerted per unit area of
subsurface by rock material and fluids
=
• Lithostatic or Grain pressure = weight of rock material per unit
area, transmitted through grain-grain contacts into subsurface
+
• Fluid or Pore Pressure = Hydrostatic Pressure = weight of fluids in
pore space

3
 Pressure Gradients
• Lithostatic Pressure Gradients– variable depending upon fluid
pressure, common 1 psi/ft of depth
• Hydrostatic Pressure Gradients (temperature dependent; based
on density)
a. Water: 0.465 psi/ft
b. Oil: 0.35 psi/ft E.g. Assuming a fresh water pressure
gradient of 0.465 psi/ft; determine the total
c. Gas: 0.1 psi/ft hydrostatic pressure in psi at 2000ft.

4
 Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
• A reservoir is a subsurface accumulation of
hydrocarbons contained in porous or fractured rock
formations.
– Conventional reservoirs: hydrocarbons are trapped by overlying
rock formations with lower permeability
– Unconventional reservoirs: the rocks have high porosity and
low permeability which keeps the hydrocarbons trapped in
place

5
 Reservoir Rock Properties
• The material of which a petroleum reservoir rock may be composed can
range from very loose and unconsolidated sand to a very hard and dense
sandstone, limestone, or dolomite.
• The grains may be bonded together with a number of materials, the most
common of which are silica, calcite, or clay.
• Knowledge of the physical properties of the rock and the existing interaction
between the hydrocarbon system and the formation is essential in
understanding and evaluating the performance of a given reservoir.

6
 Reservoir Rock Properties: Core Analysis
Rock properties are determined by performing laboratory analyses on cores
from the reservoir to be evaluated.
Routine core analysis tests
1. Porosity
2. Permeability
3. Saturation

Special tests
1. Overburden pressure
2. Capillary pressure
Full diameter core (left) and core
3. Relative permeability plugs (right) cut for laboratory
4. Wettability measurements.
5. Surface and interfacial tension 7
 Porosity, Φ
• Porosity is the ratio of pore space in the
rock to the bulk volume of the rock.
• Fluids occupy these pore spaces.
• Porosity can be considered as the fraction
or % of rock not occupied by solids.
• Porosity is the primary governing factor
influencing the ability of rock to store
fluids

8
 Porosity Types

1. Total porosity: ratio of

the volume of all the
void spaces to the bulk
volume

2. Effective porosity:
considers the extent to
which pore spaces are
interconnected
9
 Classification of Porosity
Porosity can be classified
according to the time of
deposition:
1. Primary Porosity: porosity in
a rock due to sedimentation
process.

10
 Classification of Porosity
Porosity can be classified
according to the time of
deposition:
1. Primary Porosity: formed at
deposition e.g. sandstone
porosity
2. Secondary Porosity: formed
after deposition e.g. vugular
limestones, fractures, fissures,
joints
11
 Classification of Porosity

Porosity can be classified

according to the time of
deposition:
1. Primary Porosity: formed at
deposition e.g. sandstone
porosity
2. Secondary Porosity: formed
after deposition e.g. vugular
limestones, fractures, fissures,
joints
12
 Factors Affecting Porosity
1. Grain size:  In theory, porosity is independent of grain size.
Changes in grain size, however, affect grain shape and sorting.
Because these variables directly affect porosity, changes in grain
size indirectly affect porosity.
2. Grain shape: Porosity decreases as roundness increases due to
tighter packing arrangements associated with spherical grain

13
 Factors Affecting Porosity
3. Sorting: Porosity generally increases with sorting. If a sediment is
a range of particle sizes then the smaller particles may fill in the
voids between the larger particles.

Poorly Sorted                       Moderately Sorted                       Well Sorted                         Very Well Sorted

Low Porosity                          Poor Porosity                            Good Porosity                      Excellent Porosity
14
 Factors Affecting Porosity
4. Packing: arrangement of grains

15
 Porosity Values
• Highest theoretical value = 47.6%
• Sandstone: typically 8 – 39%, Average 18%
• Shales: ~40% - not effective porosity
• Carbonates (limestones & dolomites): typically 3 – 15%

Porosities tend to decrease in deeper and older rocks. Primarily

due to overburden stresses on the rock, and cementation.
– There are many exceptions to this general trend, when normal
overburden conditions do not prevail.

16
 Determining Porosity
Porosity, Φ, can be determined by measuring two of three variables:
1. Pore volume (Vp)
2. Bulk volume (Vb)
3. Grain volume (Vg)

Then applying: Vb  Vg V p
 
Vb Vb
Recall: Porosity is a measure of the void space within a rock of the bulk volume
of the rock:

17
 Bulk Volume Measurement
1. Direct measurement: Calipers can be
used to measure uniform samples directly,
and bulk volume is calculated from the
measured dimensions. Only suited for
cylindrical samples.
2. Fluid displacement: immersing a sample
in a nonwetting fluid (mercury). Bulk
volume = volume of mercury displaced by
the sample.

18
 Bulk Volume Measurement
3. Gravimetric method. The fully saturated sample is first weighed in air, and
reweighed while immersed in the wetting fluid.

The bulk volume is calculated from Archimedes' principle:

(Wsat – Wsub) where

Vb = bulk volume
Wsat = weight of sample in air (100% saturated)
Wsub = weight of sample submersed in saturating liquid
ρs = density of saturating liquid 19
 Exercise 1
a. A clean, dry sample weighed 20 g. This sample was saturated in
water of density 1.0 g/cc and then reweighed in air, resulting in an
increase in weight to 22.5 g. The saturated sample was immersed in
water of the same density and subsequently weighed 12.6 g. What
is the bulk volume of the sample?

20
 Grain Volume Measurement
1. Direct methods
1. The simplest is to obtain the dry weight of the sample and then
divide by the matrix or grain density. However, accurate matrix
densities are not usually known and thus this method is not
reliable.
2. Destructive methods: A crushed sample is placed in a
pycnometer and the weight change or volume change is
measured. Similar to previous displacement methods. Not very
accurate.

21
 Grain Volume Measurement
2. Gas Expansion methods
• Uses Boyle’s Law porosimeter. Non-destructive, reasonably
accurate.
• This gas transfer technique involves the injection and
decompression of gas (Helium, CO2, or N2) into the pores of a
fluid-free (vacuum), dry core sample.
• Either the grain volume or pore volume can be determined,
depending upon the instrumentation and procedures used.
• Gives effective porosity of the sample.

22
 Boyle’s Law Porosimeter
To determine grain volume using ideal gas law at
constant temperature:
1. connect two cells of known volume, V1 and V2
2. close valve between cells, apply pressure p1 to
cell1
3. place dry core sample in cell2, seal & evacuate
cell2  
4. open valve and measure pressure p2

Pr .Vr
Vg Vr  Vs  
Px Boyle's Law apparatus to
measure grain volume Vg
23
 Exercise 2
Given the data below found using the Boyle’s Law
Pr .Vr
Porosimeter, calculate: Vg Vr  Vs  
a) Vg Px
b)  given that Vb = 58 in3
c) Vp Vb  Vg V p
 
Vb Vb
(reference chamber pressure) Pr = 1000 psig
(reference chamber volume) Vr = 100 in3 V p Vb  Vg
(sample chamber volume) Vs = 60 in3
(equalization pressure) Px = 860 psig

24
 Pore Volume Measurement
Pore volume can be measured directly by resaturating a clean, dry
rock with a fluid.
Resaturation is done with either
1. gas (Boyle's law method) or
2. liquid (gravitational method)

Neither technique is suited for vuggy or fractured rocks

25
 Pore Volume Measurement
Gravitational method: a cleaned and dried sample is weighed and then
immersed in a saturating vessel. Vessel is filled with a saturating liquid and
pressured to 2000 psi for a minimum of 24 hours. After the pressure stabilizes,
the fully saturated sample is removed from the saturator, immediately rolled on
an absorbent material to remove the surface film of saturating fluid, and
weighed. Pore volume is calculated from the following equation:

(Wsat – Wdry)

where
• Vp = pore volume
• Wsat = weight of sample (100% saturated)
• Wdry = weight of sample (dry)
26
• ρ  = density of saturating liquid
 Exercise 1
b. A clean, dry sample weighed 20 g. This sample was saturated in
water of density 1.0 g/cc and then reweighed in air, resulting in an
increase in weight to 22.5 g. The saturated sample was immersed in
water of the same density and subsequently weighed 12.6 g. What
is the pore volume of the sample?
c. Calculate the porosity of the sample

27