ادا البئر 2

PEE 255
Well Performance
Review
Reservoir Rock Properties
By
Dr. Saad Alkafeef
Reservoir Rock Properties
Rock properties or characteristics that affect

reservoir oil productivity are:
1. Porosity.
2. Fluid Saturations.
3. Capillary Pressure.
4. Permeability.
Dr. Saad Alkafeef

1. Porosity
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 3

1. Porosity
As the sediments were deposited and the rocks

were being formed during past geological times,
some void spaces that developed became isolated
from the other void spaces by excessive
cementation. Thus, many of the void spaces are
interconnected while some of the pore spaces
arecompletely isolated. This leads to two distinct
types of porosity, namely:
• Absolute porosity
• Effective porosity
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 4
1. Porosity
Porosity can be defined as the ratio of voids to the total volume
of rock. It is represented as a decimal fraction or as a
percentage and is usually represented by the Greek letter phi, (  )
Volume of Pores
Porosity (  )  * 100  _________ %
Total Volume of Rock
The amount of internal space or voids in a given volume of

rock is a measure of the amount of fluid a rock will hold. This
is illustrated by equation above and is called the total porosity.
The amount of void space that is interconnected, and thus able
to transmit fluids, is called effective porosity. Isolated pores and
pore volume occupied by adsorbed water are excluded from a
definition of effective porosity but are included in the
definition of total porosity.
1. Porosity
Porosity is defined as the ratio of the pores volume to the bulk
volume of a material.
Porosity represent the total space available for storage of gas, oil and
water.
Bulk Volume (Vb) = Grain Volume (Vg) + Pore Volume (Vp)
Pore Volume (Vp) = Bulk Volume (Vb) - Grain Volume (Vg)
Pore Volume
POROSITY = X 100
Bulk Volume
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 6

1. Porosity
Porosity ():
Vp Vp
 
Vb V p  Vg
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 7

1. Porosity
Porosity () Classifications
Absolute Porosity, abs

Total pore volumes(connected and disconecte d )

Bulk volume
Effective Porosity, eff Connected pore volumes

Bulk volume
Effective porosity: It is the ratio of the interconnected pore space in the
rock to the bulk volume minus the irreducible saturation. For highly
cemented sandstone and carbonate rocks, there can be a significant
difference between the absolute and effective porosities.
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 8

Ranges of vlaues of porosity
Vp Vp
 
Vb V p  Vg
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 9

1. Porosity
Porosity Measurements:
Vp Vp
 
Vb V p  Vg
Pore Volume; Evacuation-saturation method, Hg-

injection, Helium Porosimeter(Boyle‘s Law), ... etc.
Bulk Volume; Dimesion method, Russell volumetric
(coating), Archimedes method, Helium
Porosimeter(Boyle‘s Law), ... etc.
Grain or solid volume; Pycnometer, Russell volumetric,
... etc.
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 10

1. Porosity
Example 1
Given the following true values for a core sample;
BV = 12.45 cm3
GV = 9.89 cm3
Dry weight = 26.21 g
Solution to Example 1
Calculate the porosity and sepcific gravity of the rock?
Pore volume (Vp) = (Bv - Gv) = (12.45-9.89) = 2.56 cm3
Porosity (φ) = Vp/Vb = 2.56/12.45 = 0.206 or 20.6%
Grain Density (ρg) = (Wt. of Dry sample)/(Grain Vol.)
= (26.21/9.89) = 2.65 g/cm3

1. Porosity
Example 2
An experiment has been performed to determine the porosity of an
irregularly shaped core sample. The cleaned dry sample was
weighed in air. It was then evacuated and fully saturated with an oil
with a density of 0.85 gm/cc and then weighed again in air.
Afterwards, the saturated sample was weighed when it was fully
immersed in the oil. Here are the results of the experiment.
Weight of dry sample in air = 42.40 gm

Weight of the saturated sample in air = 45.49 gm
Weight of the saturated sample immersed in the oil = 28.80 gm
Calculate the porosity of the core?

1. Porosity
Solution to Example 2
Wt of dry sample (Wdry) = 42.40 gm
Wt of saturated sample (Wsat) = 45.49 gm
Wt of sample immersed in oil (Wi) = 28.80 gm
Density of saturating oil (ρ) = 0.85 gm/cc
To calculate the porosity of the sample:
Pore volume (Vp) = (Wsat – Wdry)/ρL = (45.49–42.40)/0.85 = 3.64 cc

Bulk volume (Vb) = (Wsat – Wi)/ρL = (45.49–28.80)/0.85 = 19.64 cc
Porosity (φ) = Vp/Vb = 3.64/19.64 = 0.185 or 18.5%

1. Porosity
Example 3
A core sample coated with paraffin was immersed in a Russell
tube. The dry sample weighed 20.0 gm. The dry sample coated
with paraffin weighed 20.9 gm. The paraffin coated sample
displaced 10.9 cc of liquid. Assume the density of solid paraffin is
0.9 gm/cc. What is the bulk volume of the sample?
Solution Example 3
Weight of paraffin coating = 20.9 gm - 20.0 gm = 0.9 gm
Volume of paraffin coating = 0.9 gm / (0.9 gm/cc) = 1.0 cc
Bulk volume of sample = 10.9 cc - 1.0 cc = 9.9 cc

1. Porosity
Example 4
The core sample of example 3 was stripped of the paraffin coat,
crushed to grain size, and immersed in a Russell tube. The volume
of the grains was 7.7 cc. What was the porosity of the sample?
Is this effective or total porosity.
Solution Example 4
Bulk Volume = 9.9 cc
Matrix Volume = 7.7 cc
 = (Vb – Vm) / Vb
= (9.9 cc- 7.7 cc) / 9.9 cc = 0.22 * 100 = 22%
It is the total porosity.

1. Porosity
Example 5
Calculate the porosity of a core sample when the following
information is available:
Dry weight of sample = 427.3 gm
Weight of sample when saturated with water = 448.6 gm
Density of water = 1.0 gm/cm3
Weight of water saturated sample immersed in water = 269.6 gm

1. Porosity
Solution Example 5
Vp = (sat. core wt. in air - dry core wt.) / (density of water)
Vp = (448.6 gm - 427.3 gm) / (1 gm/cm3)
Vp = 21.3 cm3
Vb = (sat. core wt. in air - sat. core wt. in water) / (density of water)
Vb = (448.6 gm - 269.6 gm) / (1 gm/cm3)
Vb = 179.0 cm3
 = Vp / Vb = (21.3 cm3) / (179.0 cm3) = 0.119
 = 11.9%

1. Porosity
Continue Solution Example 5

What is the lithology of the sample?
Vm = Vb - Vp
Vm = 179.0 cm3 - 21.3 cm3 = 157.7 cm3
rm = wt. of dry sample = 427.3 gm = 2.71 gm/(cm3)
Matrix vol. 157.7 cm3
The lithology is limestone.
Is the porosity effective or total? Why?

Effective, because fluid was forced into the pore space.

2. Fluid Saturations

In a petroleum reservoir, there is always more than one fluid phase
occupying the pore space. In petroleum reservoir, gas, oil and
water occupy the pore space. This called FLUID SATURATIONS.
Fluid saturation is defined as that fraction, or percent, of
the pore volume occupied by a particular fluid (gas, oil,
or water). This property is expressed mathematically by the
following relationship:

If Sg = gas saturation, So = oil saturation, Sw = water saturation,

then by applying the previous mathematical concept of
saturation to each reservoir fluid gives:
Sg  So  Sw  1.0
3. Capillary Pressure

If a glass capillary tube is placed in a large open
vessel containing water, the combination of surface
tension and wettability of tube to water will cause
water to rise in the tube above the water level in the
container outside the tube as shown in the next
Figure.
The water will rise in the tube until the total force
acting to pull the liquid upward is balanced by the
weight of the column of liquid being supported in
the tube.

The capillary forces in a petroleum reservoir are the result of the
combined effect of the surface and interfacial tensions of the rock and
fluids, the pore size and geometry, and the wetting characteristics of
the system. Any curved surface between two immiscible fluids has the
tendency to contract into the smallest possible area per unit volume.
This is true whether the fluids are oil and water, water and gas (even
air), or oil and gas. When two immiscible fluids are in contact, a
discontinuity in pressure exists between the two fluids, which depends
upon the curvature of the interface separating the fluids. We call this
pressure difference the capillary pressure and it is referred to by Pc.
Capillary pressure = (pressure of the nonwetting phase) –

(pressure of the wetting phase)
pc = pnw - pw 25
4. Permeability

4. Permeability
Permeability is the ability of a rock to transmit fluids. It is related to
porosity but is not always dependent upon it. Permeability is controlled by
the size of the connecting passages (pore throats or capillaries) between
pores. It is measured in darcys or millidarcys (md) and is represented by the
symbol K. The ability of a rock to transmit a single fluid, when it is
completely saturated with that fluid, is called absolute permeability.
Effective permeability refers to the ability of the rock to transmit one fluid
in the presence of another fluid when the two fluids are immiscible.
Permeability is defined through Darcy’s law. For a horizontal system,

Darcy’s law for single phase flow in differential form is
4. Permeability
For steady-state linear flow of a single phase liquid in a
horizontal medium as shown in Figures below, Darcy’s Law
may be integrated to give P 1
Flow
P 2
q dl h
A q
kAP1  P2  kAp
w
L
q  ,
L L
P1 L P2
q L q L
k  
AP1  P2  Ap q D
q
Figures of linear flow geometry
14.72* Q * L * 
Permeability( K )  * 1000  _________ mD
A* 60 sec .* P
4. Permeability
By compares Darcy units
with oilfield units. Darcy’s
equation for linear flow can
be written in oilfield units as
follow:
For radial flow into a wellbore as shown

in Figure, Darcy’s law may be expressed
in radial coordinates in oilfield units as
0.00708khPe  Pwf 
qsc 
 re 
o ln  r 
 w
Permeability Flow Systems
I.Parallel flow, Linear beads:

k1Wh1 k 2 Wh 2 k 3 Wh 3
q1   p1  p2  ; q2   p1  p2  ; q3   p1  p2 
L L L
kWh t  k1Wh1 k 2 Wh 2 k 3 Wh 3 
  p1  p2        p1  p2 
L  L L L 
k1h1  k 2 h 2  k 3h 3
 kh t  k1h1  k 2 h 2  k 3h 3  k=
ht
Arithmetic average general form (more weight to high
permeability zone): n
 k jh j
k  j1n
hj j1
II. Parallel flow, Radial beads:
This case is the same as the horizontal case

2k1h1 p 2k 2 h 2 p 2k 3h 3 p
q1  ; q2  ; q3 
 ln  re rw   ln  re rw   ln  re rw 
2kh t p
qt 
 ln  re rw 
k1 h1  k 2 h 2  k 3 h 3
k=
ht
PEE 255
Well Performance
Chapter 1
(Reservoir Characteristics)
By
Dr. Saad Alkafeef
Fundamentals of Fluid Flow
The primary reservoir characteristics that must be

considered include:
Types of Fluids in the Reservoir

Flow Regimes
Reservoir Geometry
Number of Flowing Fluids in the Reservoir
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 2

Types of Fluids in The Reservoir
Types of fluids:
V 
 Incompressible fluids  0, and 0
P P
V  Vref 1  C  pref  P , and
 Slightly compressible fluids
   ref 1  C  pref  P 
 Compressible fluids 1 1  Z 
Cg    
P Z  P T
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 3

Types of Fluids
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 4

Types of Fluids
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 5

Reservoir Geomtery
The actual flow geometry may be represented

by one of the following flow geometries:
Radial flow
Linear flow
Spherical and hemispherical flow
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 6

Reservoir Gemtery : Radial Flow
If the fluids move

toward the well
from all directions
and coverage at the
wellbore, the flow Radial Flow
called radial flow
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 7

Reservoir Gemtery : Linear Flow
It occurs when
flow paths are
parallel and the
fluid flows in a
Linear Flow
single direction
and the cross-
sectional areal to
flow is constant.
Ideal Linear Flow into Vertical

Dr. Saad Alkafeef 8
fracture
Reservoir Gemtery: Speherical &
Hemispherical Flow
A well with a limited
perforated interval could
result in spherical flow.
Spherical Flow due to Limited
A well that only Entry
partially penetrates the

pay zone could result in
hemispherical flow.
Hmispherical Flow in a partial

Dr. Saad Alkafeef 9
Penterating Well
Number of Fluids
There are generally three cases of flowing
systems:
Single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas)
Two-phase flow (oil-water, oil-gas, or gas-

water)
Three-phase flow (oil, water, and gas)

Permeability
Concept:
Permeability is a property of the porous
medium that measures the capacity and
ability of the formation to transmit fluids.
Founded by French Engineer Henry
Darcy in 1856.
k dP kA dP
v q
 dL  dL

Darcy’s Law Assumptions
The assumptions behind Darcy’s Law are:
1. Homogeneous rock.
2. Non-reactive medium or rock.
3. The rock is fully saturated (100%) with single phase fluid.
4. Newtonian fluid.
5. Incompressible flow.
6. Laminar flow.
7. Steady state flow.
8. Isothermal flow.
9. The flow is linear.
10.The flow direction is perpendicular to the cross-sectional.

Permeability Equation
q  ,
L L
q L q L
k  
AP1  P2  Ap

Lab Measurements of
Permeability

Permeability Measurements
q k  dP  k  P1  P2 
      
A   dL   L 
Turbulence
Slope = k/
P1-P2/L

Darcy and cm 2
Darcy = 0.986923 m2

= 0.986923*10-12 m2
=0.986923 *10 -12 *1000 000 mm2
=0.986923 *10-6 mm2

Example: Permeability
L =78.4 cm
D = 5 cm
A Berea rock core sample has the following information:

•The rock core sample length = 78.4 cm
•The core sample diameter = 5 cm
Calculate the core permeability of reservoir brine flowing at 8 ml/minute and the
differential pressure is 75 psi.
Solution:
14.72 * Q * L * 
Permeability ( K )  * 1000  _________ mD
A * 60 sec. * P
14.72 psi * 8c.c.* 78.4cm * 1cp

Permeability( K )  * 1000  104.5 mD
(  * 2.5 )* 60 sec .* 75 psi
2

Factors which Affecting
Permeability Measurement
Fractures – rocks
Gas slippage (Klinkenberg effect )
Reactive fluids ( Formation water reacts with clays, clay swelling, low k )
Overburden pressure ( some times 60% reduction in perm value )

Factors Affecting the Magnitude of
Permeability in Sediments:
Typical Reservoir Rock Permeability:
0.1 to >1000md general perm range.

k< 1 md poor or tight
1<k<10 md fair
10<k<50 md moderate
50<k<250 md good
K>250 very good
(East Texas fields 4600 md)
Factors affecting k in sediments:

(a) Shape and size of sand grains
(b) Lamination:
(c) Cementation:
d) Fracturing and solution
Shape and Size of Sand Grains

Lamination:
Platy minerals such as muscovite, and shale
laminations, act as barriers to vertical
permeability.
In this case the kh/kv ratio generally ranges from
1.5 to 3 and may exceed 10 for some reservoir
rocks.
Sometimes, however, kv is higher than kh due to

fractures or vertical jointing and vertical solution
channels

Cementation:

Fracturing and solution
• In Sandstone rocks, fracturing is not an
important cause of the secondary
permeability, except where sandstones are
interbedded with shales, limestones, and
dolomites.
• In carbonates, the solution of minerals by
percolating surface and subsurface acidic
waters as they pass along the primary
pores, fissures, fractures, and bedding
planes, increase the permeability of the
reservoir rock.
Permeability – Porosity
Relationships

Permeability – Porosity
Relationships
• Kozeny Correlation :
 r2   1  3
k    k  2 
 8   5S  1   2
 vgr 
 1 
k   r radius
 2S 2 
 vp   tortuosity coefficient
 1  3 Svgr specific surface area
k  
 2S  1   2
2
Svp internal surface area
 vgr 
per unit of pore volume.

Tortuosity Coefficient ()
2
 La 
  
 L
where La is the actual
flow path and L is the
core length. Note that in
the literature tortuosity is
sometimes defined as
La/L.

Permeability (k)
Permeability,
( ka)
Flow Direction
Linear Radial Spherical
Flow Flow Flow
Fluids Types
Compressible Compressible
Incompressible Compressible Incompressible Incompressible
Fluids Fluids
Fluids Fluids Fluids Fluids

Linear Flow:

Linear Flow:

Linear Flow:

Linear Flow:

Linear Flow:
Incompressible Fluids
kA P
q
 L
Flow
P1 P2
L P2
kA
q  dL    dP q dl
A h
q
o
 P1 w
L
qL  
kA
P2  P1 

q  ,
L L
q L q L
k  
AP1  P2  Ap
Linear Flow:
Compressible Fluids
Flow
P1 P2
q dl h
A q
w
L

Linear Flow:
Compressible Fluids

Klinkenberg Effect

Klinkenberg Effect
 b
k g  k L 1  
 Pm 
b =  (Gas type, k,..)

Radial Flow:
Incompressible Fluids re Pe
kA
q
kA dP q  dr   dP
 dr rw
 Pwf
re Pe
dr k
q   dP
rw
2rh  Pwf
rearrangin g ;
r Pe
q e dr k

2r rw r

  dP;
Pwf
and integrating;
q
ln re  ln rw   k Pe  Pwf ;
2h 
solving for the flow rate, q, results in :
2khPe  Pwf  0.00708khPe  Pwf 
qsc 
q
 re  o ln  re r 
 ln  r   w
 w
Radial Flow:
Compressible Fluids
khPe2  Pwf2 
qb  ,

CPb ln 
re 

 wr
or
2khPe  Pwf 
q
 re 
 ln  r 
 w
Spherical Flow:
Incompressible Fluids
1
 A  4r 2   2r 2
2
k 2r 2  dP
q 
 dr
dr 2k
re Pe
r r 2  q  p
Pwf
e  Pwf 
w
2k  pe  Pwf 
q 
 1 1
   
 rw re 
 rw  re
2k  pe  Pwf rw
q 

PEE 255
Well Performance
Chapter 2
(Well Productivity)
By
Dr. Saad Alkafeef
Well Productivity
Problems that can affect well productivity
divided into four groups:
1. Reservoir problems– such as low formation
permeability and low reservoir pressure.
2. Fluid problems – high viscosity, gas evolution, water
encroachment, etc.
3. Well problems (skin damage) – clay swelling,
emulsion blocking, water blocks, poor perforation
performance, etc.
4. Equipment problems – worn pumps, worn gas lift
valves, poor valve and/or string design.
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 2
Well Productivity
Two basic factors:
 Inflow Performance - the capacity of a reservoir to
pass fluids against down-hole conditions.
 Vertical or Outflow Performance - the ability of the

produced fluids to flow through the well conduit to
surface
The two factors are closely linked, because the final condition of the
inflow performance, is the starting point of the vertical flow
performance.
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 3

Well Productivity
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 4

Flow Models for Stabilized Well
Inflow
LINEAR
RADIAL
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 5

Pressure Drawdown in the Wellbore
Well
r w
r e
Pe
P̄ P̄
PDD
Pwf
Pwf
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 6

Darcy’s Law
L
Area A
q q
p1 p
p2
k dp kAdp
v q  vA  
 dx dx
 = fluid viscosity
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 7
Radial Flow
re
r
dr
h
pe pwf pe
h
rw re
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 8
Different Flow Regimes
Transient
Transientflow
flow Pseudo
Pseudo steady flowflow Steady
steady flow
Steady flow
P
tpss
time
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 9

Reservoir – Well Flow Regimes
3 common conditions of flow
Transient State Flow (or the infinite acting radial
flow period):
 No outer boundary.
 Reservoir appear infinite acting.
 Pressure decline with time, changes.
 Solution in field units (w/zero Skin).
162.6qo Bo  o
pi  pwf  {log t  log  c r 2  3.23}
k0
ko h o t w

Semi-Steady State Flow:
 No flow across outer boundary
 Reservoir is finite
 Pressure decline with time is constant
 p
 const , for rw  r  re
t
 Solution in field units (w/zero skin)
141.2qo Bo  o re 1
pe  pwf  [ln( )  ]
ko h rw 2
Steady State Flow:
 flow in = flow out (at outer boundary)
 reservoir is finite
 constant pressure at all points in the drainage
volume
 p
 0, for rw  r  re
t
 solution in field units (w/zero skin)
141.2qo Bo  o re
pe  pwf  ln( )
ko h rw
Reservoir – Well Steady State
Flow
Liquid flow in Laminar Flow through a permeable

medium is described by Darcy’s Law
qo 
0.00708ko h Pe  Pwf  
Bo o ln re / rw 
Summary of Stabilized Inflow
Equations
Semi-Steady State Steady State
General 141.2qB 141.2qB

p  pwf 
2
relationship p  pwf  {ln rr  r 2 } {ln rr }
between
kh w 2 re kh w
p and r
141.2qB 141.2qB r
Expressed in pe  pwf 
r
{ln re  12} pe  pwf  {ln re }
terms of: kh w kh w
p = pe at r = re
Expressed in 141.2qB 141.2qB re

pR  pwf 
re
{ln r  4}
3 p R  p wf  {ln  1}
terms of kh rw 2
kh w
Average reservoir
pressure
Darcy’s Law for Non-Circular
Drainage Area(1)
(PSEUDO STEADY STATE FLOW)
0.00708ko hP  Pwf 

qo 
o Bo ln0.472 X   S 
 re 
X =   is obtained for different shapes and well positions in drainage
area. rw 
(1) After Odeh,A.S.

Factor (X) for Different Shapes and Positions
in a Drainage Area
SYSTEM X SYSTEM X
re/rw 1
0.966A1/2
rw
2
0.571A1/2 1.440A1/2
rw 1
rw
2
0.565A1/2
rw 2.206A1/2
1
rw
0.604A1/2 2
rw 1.925A1/2
1
rw
0.678A1/2 4
1/3 rw
1
1
6.590A1/2
1
0.668A1/2 rw
2 rw 4
1 1.368A1/2 9.360A1/2
1
4
rw rw
1
2.066A1/2 4
5 rw
0.610A1/2
0.884A1/2
60o rw
rw
1.485A1/2 Dr. Saad Alkafeef 16
r
Radius of Drainage (re) for Various Well
Spacing’s
Drainage Radius (re) - m (ft)
Well Spacing
Radius m (ft)
m2 acres circular area to Square Triangular
per well per well equal well spacing spacing
spacing
20,234 (5) 80 (263) 71 (233) 76 (250)

40,468 (10) 113 (372) 101 (330) 108 (355)
80,937 (20) 161 (527) 142 (466) 153 (501)
161,874 (40) 227 (745) 201 (660) 216 (709)
323,748 (80) 321 (1053) 284 (933) 306 (1003)
647,497 (160) 454 (1489) 402 (1320) 432 (1418)
1,294,994 (320) 642 (2106) 569 (1867) 611 (2006)
2,589,988 (640) 908 (2979) 804 (2640) 865 (2837)

PEE 255
Well Performance
Chapter 3
(NODAL Analysis)
By
Dr. Saad Alkafeef
Production Optimization and
Forecasting…
 Production optimization means – Balance

between production rate/deliverability and
demand.
 Production optimization includes a good
understanding about Production Systems &
Reservoir Fluid.
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 2

Production Systems
Production Systems includes:
 Reservoir (Inflow Performance Relationship)
 Wellbore (Completions, Tubing etc)
 Surface Facilities (Flow lines, Separator, Pipelines, etc )
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 3

Phase Transition in Oil Reservoir
Zone A: above pb
Separator Zone B: below pb, flash
Zone C: differential
Oil
Well Gas
Reservoir
C B A
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 4

Dr. Saad Alkafeef 5

Dr. Saad Alkafeef 6

Dr. Saad Alkafeef 7

Production Systems
 Movement or Transport of reservoir fluid from
reservoir to surface requires energy to
overcome the frictional losses or the pressure
drop.
 The pressure drop of the fluid at any time
would be the initial fluid pressure minus the
final fluid pressure.
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 8

Production Systems
 Deliverability of a well can be severely restricted by
the performance of only one component in the
system.
 If the effect of each component on the total system
performance can be isolated, the system performance
can be optimized in more economic way.
 In system analysis we use a method where we
consider whole production system as a single unit.
Then we choose a point within the unit where input
and output pressure is the same.
 This is Nodal Analysis*
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 9
NODAL Analysis
 Node is a point where –

 Flow into the node equals flow out of the node.
 Only one pressure exist in the node.
 Upstream of node is called inflow
 Downstream of node is called outflow
 Node pressures are
 Inflow to the node PR - ΔPupstream  Pnode
 Outflow from the node Psep - Pdownstream  Pnode

NODAL Analysis
 Pressure drop dP varies with the flow rate q.
 Pressure verses flow rate will produce two
curves.

NODAL Analysis
 Intersection of Inflow and outflow satisfy

the conditions.
 This P is the optimum for that flow rate. If
any change is made anywhere i.e. inflow or
outflow then only that curves will be shifted
and other will be same.
 Intersection will be changed.

NODAL Analysis
 Node can be select anywhere in the production system.
 List of possible positions of node:
1. Separator ( Sales or Stock tank)
2. Surface Choke
3. Wellhead
4. Safety Valve
5. Restriction
6. Bore hole Pwf
7. Sand Face Pwfs
8. Reservoir
 Most of the cases node is placed in number 6.
 System will divide into Reservoir and Piping Components.
NODAL Analysis

Production Pressure Profile

NODAL Analysis

NODAL Analysis

NODAL Analysis
Node at the Pwf, (point 6):
 Inflow to Node:
P - Pres  P
R wf
 Outflow from Node:

Psep  P  P P
flowline tubing wf

NODAL Analysis
Node at the Well Head (point 3):
 Inflow to Node:
P - Pres - P P
R tubing wh
 Outflow from Node:

Psep  P P
flowline wh

Effect of Changing Inflow Performance
on Natural Flow

Effect of Tubing Diameter
on Natural Flow

Effect of Wellhead Pressure
on Natural Flow

PEE 255
Well Performance
Chapter 4
(Well Productivity Index)
By
Dr. Saad Alkafeef
Productivity Index
The relationship between flow rate (q) and the
flowing bottom-hole pressure (pwf) is described with
an equation for easier analysis for well performance.
q
PI or ( J ) 
pe  pwf
If q in STB/D and pressure in psi, the unit of PI is

STB/D/psi
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 2

Productivity Index
According to the previous equation, if

PI = 5 STB/D/psi
It means, for every 1 psi increase in pressure

change, the production rate will increase 5 STB/D
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 3

Productivity Index
PI can be calculated using Darcy’s equation for
radial flow (field’s units):
0.00708kh  pe  pwf 
q Steady-State Flow
B 
ln 
re 

 wr
Re-arranging the equation to calculate PI, will yield:
q 0.00708kh 1
J 
 pe  pwf  B ln  e 
r
 rw 
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 4
Productivity Index
 pe refers to constant outer boundary pressure.
Most reservoirs are having declining pressure, and

using pseudosteady-state flow is more appropriate.
For pseudosteady-state flow, the average reservoir

pressure is used instead:
q 0.00708kh 1
J 
 pr  pwf  B ln  e   0.75
r
 rw 
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 5
Productivity Index
Equation also can be written in the following form:
q 0.00708kh 1
J 
 pr  pwf  B  0.472  re
ln 


 rw 
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 6

Productivity Index
 For simplification, the PI is assumed to be
constant.
 Plotting q vs. pwf will result in a straight line.
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 7

Constant Productivity Index
The PI equation is expressed as a straight line form
as follows:
1
pwf  pe  q
J
pe: is the y-intercept
Slope = - 1/J
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 8

Example on PI
A well is producing from a reservoir, having an average
pressure of 2085 psig, at a rate of 282 STB/D when
bottomhole flowing pressure was 1765 psig. Calculate:
1. The productivity index

2. The producing rate if pwf is decreased to 1485 psig.
3. The flowing bottomhole pressure necessary to
obtain an inflow of 400 STB/D.
4. The inflow rate if pwf is reduced to zero, i.e.,
absolute open flow (AOF) or qomax.
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 9
Example # 1
q 282
1 J    0.88 STB / D / psi
 pr  pwf  2085 1765
2  q  J  pr  pwf   0.882085  1485  528 STB / D
qo 400
3  pwf  pr   2085   1630 psig
J 0.88
4  qo max  J  pr  0  0.882085  0  1835 STB / D

Note
• The results obtained in the example are correct
only if PI remains constant.
• We are fairly safe if we have a strong water drive

with pressure above bubble point.
• But this may cause an error if we are producing

below bubble point, like in solution-gas drive.

Example # 2
Looking at the provided data, which well has better
productivity, well A or well B?
Well A Well B
q (STB/D) 200 1000
pr (psia) 2500 3000
pwf (psia) 2200 2700
h (ft) 20 100
J (STB/D/psi) 0.67 3.3

The Specific Productivity Index
The specific Productivity Index (Js) is the

productivity index divided by the net pay thickness.
It’s commonly used to compare different wells in a
given field,
J q STB
Js   
h h pr  pwf  D  psi  ft

Exercise # 1
An oil well is producing at a rate of 175 STB/D from a
5 ft reservoir in thickness, having an average pressure
of 3000 psig, at pwfof 2450 psig. Calculate:
1. The productivity index

2. The producing rate if pwf is decreased to 2000 psig
3. The flowing bottomhole pressure necessary to
obtain an inflow of 350 STB/D
4. The inflow rate if pwf is reduced to zero, i.e.,
absolute open flow (AOF) or qomax
5. Specific productivity Index (Js)
Exercise # 2
From the graph, find pr , qomax, and J.

PEE 255
Well Performance
Chapter 5
(Inflow Performance Relationship)
“Vogel’s Method”
By
Dr. Saad Alkafeef
Productivity Index Concept
BOTTOM HOLE FLOWING PRESSURE, Pwf
Pr
Q
Pwf = Pr - Q/J J=
Pr - Pwf
Slope = - 1/J
Intercepts: Pr y Qmax
0
0 Qmax Pr – Pwf: DRAW-DOWN
FLOW RATE, Q
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 2

Straight-Line IPR Relationship
Valid for single phase liquid flow
p
R (k, , Bo = constant)
p wf
 p Pwf > Pb
pwf1
q omax
q1 q
qo1 qo1 qo max qo1  qo 2
PI  J    tan   
p p  pwf 1 p pwf 2  pwf 1
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 3
The Productivity Index (PI)
qo
Pwf  PR -
J
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 4

EXERCISE
APPLICATION OF PRODUCTIVITY INDEX
CALCULATIONS
A well that is producing from a reservoir having an average pressure of 2085 psig
produced at a rate of 282 STB/D when bottomhole flowing pressure was 1765 psig.
Calculate:
1. The productivity index J.

2. The producing rate if Pwf is decreased to 1485 psig.
3. The bottomhole flowing pressure necessary to increase the producing rate
up to 400 STB/D.
4. The inflow rate if Pwf is reduced to zero (AOF: Absolute Open Flow Potential
or qomax).
Pr=2085
(1) J=Q/(Pr-Pwf)
1765
(2) Q=Jx(Pr-Pwf)
(3) Pwf = Pr- Q/J
Pwf
0
282
0 Q Alkafeef
Dr. Saad Qmax 5
IPR for Two-Phase Reservoir
 IPR is not always constant
 IPR for Two-Phase reservoir is complicated
 The complication can be simplified
 What about Two-Phase, undamaged reservoir

solution?
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 6

Vogel’s Method
 Generated the IPR for 21 different reservoirs
 After plotting the IPR for all the reservoirs, he

didn’t notice anything special
 After plotting the curves on a different axes

(pwf/pr vs qo/qomax) he noticed similar behavior
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 7

Vogel’s Method
After plotting the
IPR for all the
reservoirs, he
didn’t notice
anything special.
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 8

Vogel’s Method
After plotting the
curves on a
different axes
(pwf/pr vs qo/qomax)
he noticed unified
behavior
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 9

Vogel’s Method
He ended up by 1.00
developing a general
curve for all two-phase
reservoirs
pwf/pr
1.00
Dr. Saad Alkafeef qo/qomax 10
Vogel’s Method
The Vogel equation for the curve is
2
qo pwf  pwf 
 1  0.2  0.8 
qo max pr  pr 
For constructing an IPR curve, all what you need is

a single test point

Vogel’s Method
For comparison, look at the equation for constant PI
compared to Vogel’s equation
qo pwf
 1 (PI)
qo max pr
2
qo pwf  pwf 
 1  0.2  0.8  (Vogel)
qo max pr  pr 

Vogel’s Method
pwf can be calculated using Vogel’s equation by
solving the quadratic equation
2
 pwf  pwf  qo 
0.8   0.2    1  0
 pr  pr  qo max 
and the solution is,
pwf qo
 1.266  1.25  0.125
pr qo max

Example on Vogel’s Method
A well tests 65 bbl/D with a flowing bottomhole pressure of
1,500 psi in a field where the average reservoir pressure is
2,000 psi. Determine the followings:
1) The maximum flow rate.
2) Construct the IPR curve using straight line method and

Vogel’s equation and plot both IPRs on the same graph.
3) The flow rate if the flowing bottomhole pressure reduced

to 500 psi using Vogel’s equation and straight line
method.
4) pwf @ qo = 125 STB/D Dr. Saad Alkafeef 14

Example: Solution
1) First we calculate the ratio qo/qomax using Vogel’s equation.
2
qo 1500  1500 
 1  0.2  0.8   0.4
qo max 2000  2000 
then
65
qo max   162.5 bbl / d
0.4
Then, the Vogel’s equation for constructing the IPR curve is,
 p  p 
2

qo  162.51  0.2  0.8  
wf wf
 2000  2000  
 
Cont. Example: Solution
2) The table shows the flow rates using Vogel’s method and
PI method
Vogel's
equation PI method
qo, pwf, qo, pwf,
bbl/D psi bbl/D psi Assume different
162.5 0 260 0 values for pwf.
156 250 228 250
146 500 195 500
114 1000 130 1000 Then, use the
65 1500 65 1500 equation to calculate
35 1750 33 1750 qo.
0 2000 0 2000


3) Find qo @ pwf = 500 psi.
a- Using Vogel’s equation:

 500  500 
2

qo  162.51  0.2  0.8    146 bbl / D
 2000  2000  
 
b- Using PI method:
65
Jo   0.13 bbl / D / psi
2000  1500
qo  0.13(2000  500)  195 bbl / D

overestimated
4) pwf @ qo = 125 STB/D
 125 
pwf  2000   1.266  1.25  0.125   854 psi
 162.5 

Example on Vogel’s Method
A well is producing from a reservoir having an average reservoir
pressure of 3020 psig. A stabilized production test on the well
resulted in a producing rate of 312 STB/D when the flowing
bottomhole pressure was 2100 psig. The bubblepoint pressure is
3035 psia. Find:
1. Maximum Flow rate using Vogel’s equation.
2. Construct the IPR curves using Vogel’s equation and PI

method.
3. qo if pwf is reduced to 1755 psig for both methods.
4. The bottomhole pressure necessary to obtain an inflow rate of

600 STB/D Dr. Saad Alkafeef 20
Example: Solution
qomax = 658 STB/D (Vogel) Vogel’s method PI method
qo, Pwf, psi qo, Pwf, psi
qomax = 1024 STB/D (PI) STB/D STB/D
658 0 1024 0
642 250 939 250
622 500 855 500
557 1000 685 1000
463 1500 515 1500
405 1750 431 1750
340 2000 346 2000
188 2500 176 2500
0 3020 0 3020

Inflow Performance Relationship
(Pwf < Pb)
pR
Straight Line IPR
pb
Pressure
Curved IPR
Flow Rate
Two-phase flow

Inflow Performance Relationship
(Pwf < Pb)
qo pwf pwf 2
 1  0. 2( )  0. 8( )
qo(max ) pR pR

Vogel’s Dimensionless IPR
1.00
0.80
pwf
0.60
p
R
0.40
0.20
0
0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
q 1. 8 q
L
 L
q p
maxAlkafeef J
L ( )
R
Dr. Saad 24
Predicting Present Time IPR’s for Oil Wells
(Vogel Method)
Undersaturated Reservoirs (Pr > Pb)
2
q - qb  Pwf   Pwf 
 1 - 0.2  - 0.8 
q=J (Pr–Pwf) qm ax  qb  Pb   Pb 
Pr
qb=J(Pr –Pb)
dq
Pb J -
Pwf
dPwf
1.8( qmax- qb)

J=
Pb
Constant J Vogel
0
0 qb qmax
FLOW RATE
Steady State
0.00708ko h(Pe  Pwf )

q
Bo o (ln re / rw )

Exercise: 1
An oil well producing from a reservoir

whose boundary pressure is 4000 psig and
whose thickness is 120 feet would be
expected to produce the following rates
under the various conditions specified
below:

Well Data:
• re = 1200 ft rw = 6 inches
• Oil viscosity = 1 cp
• Reservoir absolute permeability 200 md
• Oil relative permeability = 0.7 FVF=1.25
bbl/STB.
• Complete the following table remembering the
equation given above in field units and plot the
data on coordinate paper
Solution:
• The effective permeability is = kkro = 0.7(200)
= 140 md.
• Substituting into the equation suitable for this
situation
0.00708  200  0.7 120
q
1200
( )
4000  Pwf  12.226( 4000  Pwf )
11.25 ln
0.5

Pseudo-Steady State
with Average Pressure
  
0.00708ko h P  Pwf 
q  
o Bo(ln( re / rw )  0.75  S )

Exercise: 2
Given reservoir parameters:

k = 30 md
h = 40 ft
o = 0.5 cp
Bo = 1.2 RB/STB
hole size = 8 ½ inches
s = 0

Exercise: 2
Calculate:
– J for re = 1,000 ft
– q for a drawdown ( p  p wf ) of 750 psi
– q for a drawdown of 1,000 psi
– With p = 3,000 psia, calculate q for a complete
drawdown (absolute open flow potential).

Productivity Index
A common indicator of liquid reservoir
behavior is PI or productivity index
* Referred to as “J” in SPE nomenclature
q
J (STB/ D / psi)
p  p wf

Productivity Index
 
0.00708ko h P  Pwf 
q  
o (ln( re / rw )  0.75  S )
0.00708ko h
J
o (ln( re / rw )  0.75  S )
Exercise: 3
Determine the productivity index for an oil
well with the following data:
Production rate = 3000 STB/day, average
reservoir pressure = 3500 psig, and the
observed flowing bottom-hole pressure is
2500 psig. Also determine the well
potential and its production when the
flowing bottom-hole pressure decreases to
1500 psig. Dr. Saad Alkafeef 36
Solution: 3
Substituting for the given values we obtain:
J = 3000 STB/day/(3500-2500) psi
= 3.0 STB/day/psi
q = 3.0 STB/day/psi (3500-1500)psi
= 6000 STB/day
qmax = 3.0 STB/day/psi(3500)psi
= 10500 STB/day
Exercise: 4
For the above well, the reservoir rock and

fluid data are as follows:
Ko = 140 md, h = 80 ft, Bo = 1.25,
re =1200 ft, rw = 0.5 ft, and the oil viscosity
is 3.0 cp, find the productivity index.

Solution: 4
0.00708 140  80
J  3.0STB / day / psi
3.0 1.25(ln( 1200 / 0.5)  0.75)

Exercise: 5
A flow test was run for an oil well and the
following data was obtained:
Pwf, psig q, STB/day
2400 1200
2000 1800
Determine the productivity index and the
average reservoir pressure.
Solution: 5

J  q /( P  Pwf )

J  1200 /( P  2400 )

J  1800 /( P  2000 )

Continue Solution: 5
Solving the above equations for J and the
average pressure, J = 3/2, and the average
pressure is 3200 psig.
This indicates that for a well producing
from a reservoir whose average pressure is
Unavailable, two flow test are needed to
determine its productivity and the average
Pressure.
PEE 255
Well Performance
Chapter 6
Predicting Present IPR for
Non-zero Skin
(Standing Modification)
By
Dr. Saad Alkafeef
Skin Factor
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 2

Skin Factor
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 3

Skin Factor
Permeability changes
due to invasion of
fluids to the area
around the wellbore
because of:
Drilling,
Workover
slickline/coil tubing
work.
Injection operations
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 4

Skin Factor
Undamaged formation Damaged formation
Positive Skin Factor

Dr. Saad Alkafeef 5
Skin Factor
Undamaged formation Stimulated formation

(Improved formation)
Negative Skin Factor

Dr. Saad Alkafeef 6
Skin Factor
For damaged zone,

we need more
pressure drop to
overcome the
increased resistance
to flow.
Damaged formation
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 7

Skin Factor
p : no change
ps : due to
increased damage
Skin:
Damaged formation
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 8

Flow Efficiency (FE)
We can relate the flow of fluid through damaged
zone to the flow of fluid through ideal zone using
Flow Efficiency:
Let,
Dr. Saad Alkafeef 9

Dr. Saad Alkafeef 1 0

Flow efficiency can have three values:
1- Equal to 1.0 --- No change to the formation.

2- Less than 1.0 --- Damaged formation.
3- Greater than 1.0 --- Improved (Stimulated)
formation.

The change of skin factor, affects the IPR
Improved
Damaged
formation
formation

FE and skin are constants for certain reservoir and they can
be changed for the following situations:
1- Fracturing or acidizing job could result in:

- Increase of the value of FE.
- Decrease of the value of skin (less than zero).
2- Damage [drilling fluid] could result in:

- Decrease of the value of FE.
- Increase of the value of skin (greater than zero).

IPR for Non-zero Skin
The flowing bottomhole pressure for non-zero skin reservoir
is calculated using the following equation:

Vogel's equation was developed for Non-zero skin reservoir
To account for the damage in Vogel's equation, we need to

calculated the pwf (ideal) and then substitute it in Vogel's
equation. And Vogel's equation will be:

The following procedure was used by Standing to construct
dimensionless IPR curves flow wells with flow efficiencies
below and above 1:
1 Select
. a value for FE.
2 Assume
. a range of values for pwf
3 Calculate
. pwf/pr.
. each value of pwf/pr, calculate the corresponding value
4 For
of p'wf/pr.
5 Calculate
. for each value of p'wf/pr.

Example
A well has been tested and then shut in for pressure buildup analysis.
The data from the test was as follows
Test No. pwf (psig) qo (bbl/d)

1 1440 172
pr = 1850 psig
FE = 0.7

Establish the IPR curve for the well with its damage. Also establish the
IPR curve for the well if a stimulation job was done and flow
efficiency increased to 1.3.

Example: Solution
First we calculate the flowing bottomhole pressure at FE =
'
1.0 (p wf).
Then we calculate maximum flow rate at FE = 1.0

Example: Solution
Following the procedure of Standing, we got the following
table

Example: Solution

Example: Solution
First we calculate the flowing bottomhole pressure at
'
FE = 1.0 (p wf).
Then we calculate maximum flow rate at FE = 1.0

Example: Solution
Following the procedure of Standing, we got the following
table

Example: Solution
pwf = 0, produces 376 bbl/d
pwf = 500 psi, produces 376 bbl/d

Example: Solution
To solve the problem of the limitation of Vogel's
equation, we calculate qomax from the following
equation:
Then we extrapolate the curve to the calculated value above

Example: Solution

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PEE 255

Rock properties or characteristics that affect

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As the sediments were deposited and the rocks

The amount of internal space or voids in a given volume of

Bulk Volume (Vb) = Grain Volume (Vg) + Pore Volume (Vp)

Pore Volume (Vp) = Bulk Volume (Vb) - Grain Volume (Vg)

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Porosity () Classifications

Absolute Porosity, abs

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Pore Volume; Evacuation-saturation method, Hg-

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Weight of dry sample in air = 42.40 gm

Calculate the porosity of the core?

To calculate the porosity of the sample:

Pore volume (Vp) = (Wsat – Wdry)/ρL = (45.49–42.40)/0.85 = 3.64 cc

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It is the total porosity.

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Continue Solution Example 5

Is the porosity effective or total? Why?

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If Sg = gas saturation, So = oil saturation, Sw = water saturation,

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Capillary pressure = (pressure of the nonwetting phase) –

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Permeability is defined through Darcy’s law. For a horizontal system,

Figures of linear flow geometry

For radial flow into a wellbore as shown

I.Parallel flow, Linear beads:

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This case is the same as the horizontal case

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The primary reservoir characteristics that must be

Types of Fluids in the Reservoir

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The actual flow geometry may be represented

Spherical and hemispherical flow

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If the fluids move

called radial flow

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Ideal Linear Flow into Vertical

partially penetrates the

Hmispherical Flow in a partial

Single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas)

Two-phase flow (oil-water, oil-gas, or gas-

Three-phase flow (oil, water, and gas)

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