“HOT TOPICS”
Issue # 6, 2003
Effect of Carbon in Ductile Iron
1) Basic elemental information
Element & Atomic Atomic Melting
Symbol Number Weight Point
Carbon (C) 6 12.01 6900 F
2) How carbon is introduced in the iron
Sources of carbon include graphite, silicon carbide,
petroleum coke, pig iron, steel and foundry returns.
And, of course in cupola shops, coke is a primary
source of carbon. Some ferro-alloys, such as FeCr
and FeMn may also contain carbon. Some
inoculants consist of graphite and will also increase
the carbon content.
3) Effects on the Microstructure
Carbon occupies two microconstituents in ductile
iron – the graphite nodules and various carbide
phases. Most of the carbon present in ductile iron is
tied up in the form of graphite nodules, which
generally make up 9 to 12% (and can be as high as
16%) of the microstructure by volume. The
graphite volume fraction is lower in pearlitic iron
where upwards of 0.7% carbon is present as
cementite or iron-carbide.
The carbon associated with carbides in ductile iron
may be present as cementite lamellae in pearlite,
fine carbides in lower bainite and in tempered
martensite, and/or intercellular and chill carbides.
The carbon tied up as cementite lamellae in pearlite
is also referred to as combined carbon (for more
info on combined carbon and its effects of ductile
iron properties see the DIS article on combined
carbon).
When present as graphite, the graphite particles are
essentially 100% carbon and occur as nodules,
vermicular graphite forms or flake graphite. ASTM
standard A 247 contains the definitions of these
various graphite morphologies, referred to as
graphite types, and it specifies the method used for
reporting graphite structures in ductile iron. DIS
has also published a wallchart for rating nodularity
in ductile irons. The wallchart can be obtained
from the DIS main office.
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When the carbon content is exceptionally high,
large graphite nodules can form in the melt prior to
eutectic solidification. Such graphite is called
“primary graphite” because it has formed directly in
the liquid metal at temperatures above the eutectic
temperature. Primary graphite nodules are
generally large; they grow more rapidly because
their growth is not hindered by the formation of the
solid metallic phase, which (during eutectic
solidification) often encompasses the growing
graphite nodule and, thus, slows the diffusion of
carbon atoms to the growing nodule.
The formation of primary graphite can lead to
several degenerate forms of graphite including
enlarged graphite nodules, exploded graphite,
graphite clustering and graphite flotation. Graphite
flotation is more prevalent as the carbon content or
carbon equivalent (CE) increases (see section below
for a definition of carbon equivalent). With the
exception of heavy-section castings, most ductile
iron is poured with chemistries that are modestly
hypereutectic. Thus most ductile iron is prone to
develop primary graphite nodules. The propensity
for graphite clustering and graphite flotation
increases with CE, section size, some inoculation
practices, and pouring temperature. Photographs of
exploded graphite and graphite flotation, resulting
from excess carbon, are shown in Figures 1a & 1b.
Figure 1a. Exploded graphite in high CE ductile
iron. After Fuller & Blackman.
 Table 1 Maximum C and Si Contents to Minimize
Risk of Graphite Flotation in Ductile Iron of
Varying Section Size and Cast at 1400C (2550F)

Maximum Carbon Content %

Silicon
For Various Bar Section Sizes
Content
20mm 30mm 50mm 80mm
1.8 4.00 3.96 3.88 3.76
2.2 3.90 3.86 3.78 3.65
2.6 3.80 3.76 3.67 3.55
3.0 3.69 3.65 3.57 3.45
3.4 3.59 3.55 3.47 3.34
3.8 3.49 3.45 3.36 3.24
4.2 3.38 3.34 3.26 3.13
Figure 1b. Graphite flotation in high CE ductile
iron. After Fuller & Blackman.
silicon is very predictable and is often described as
a substitutional element for carbon in a "carbon
A hypereutectic composition (CE >4.3) is generally equivalent" relationship.
desirable in ductile iron to encourage graphitization
and avoid chill. However, an excessively high CE The shift in the eutectic carbon content with each
will lead to graphite flotation. With thinner cast alloying addition is rather well behaved over a
sections the upper limit of acceptable CE values can range of compositions and the effect can be
be as high as 4.8. With heavy sections the upper approximated by using an algebraic formula with an
limit of acceptable CE values can be as low as 4.3. alloy factor for each element. Various investigators
Therefore, there is a range of CE values that are have proposed alloy factors and a common formula
recommended for pouring ductile iron castings and for carbon equivalent is listed below.
this range shifts to lower CE values as the cast
section size increases. A major study (Ref. 2) was CE = %C + %Si/3 + %P/3
conducted to determine the limits of C, Si, section
size and pouring temperature and they are shown in By calculating the “carbon equivalent” in this
Table 1. manner, the technologist will know how close the
alloy is to the eutectic composition. When the CE
Carbon Equivalent value is 4.3, the alloy has a eutectic composition
and solidifies with 100% eutectic. Alloys with
The term carbon equivalent is used in conjunction lower CE values (<4.3) are hypoeutectic and
with the iron-carbon phase diagram, in which the display less than 100% eutectic solidification i.e.,
eutectic carbon content is nominally 4.3% and the some primary austenite will form prior to eutectic
eutectic temperature is 2110F or 1155C (for the solidification. Alloys with higher CE values (>4.3)
stable austenite-graphite eutectic reaction), see are hypereutectic and again exhibit less than 100%
Figure 2. Many elements influence the eutectic eutectic solidification i.e., some primary graphite
composition. They either lower or raise the carbon will form prior to eutectic solidification. The CE
content of the eutectic composition, primarily information will be used to control composition and
through their influence on the solubility of carbon in avoiding chill, shrinkage porosity and/or graphite
in iron. The term carbon equivalent, or CE, is used clustering and graphite flotation in the casting.
to try and explain the influence of various alloying
elements on the eutectic composition of cast iron. Note that the same CE can be achieved with iron
compositions having different C and Si contents.
The most important element having an influence on Also note that the carbon equivalent values used to
the eutectic carbon content is silicon; silicon lowers describe casting behavior in cast irons should not be
the solubility of carbon and, thus, lowers the carbon confused with the carbon equivalent term used to
content of the eutectic composition. The effect of characterize weldability in steels.
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 Figure 2. Fe-C phase diagram illustrating the eutectic point at 4.3% C.
4) Effects on the Mechanical Properties
As a general rule, carbon has little effect on the
mechanical properties. The tensile and yield
strengths are reduced by about 350 psi and 375 psi,
respectively, for each 0.10% increase in carbon
content, and hardness is decreased by about 5 HB
for each 0.15% increase in carbon content.
Increased C content can also increase tensile
elongation values, when it increases ferrite content,
and, likewise, can also improve impact properties.
In addition, the modulus of elasticity is modestly
affected (reduced) in proportion to the volume of
graphite present.
Zones of graphite flotation have been shown to
reduce tensile strength and impact toughness by
20%. The presence of even a small flotation zone
has an effect on properties almost as great as when
the whole cross section is affected.
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5) Effects on Castability
The combined effects of carbon and silicon may be
described using the Henderson diagram, Fig 3.
While the carbon content present in commercial
ductile iron ranges from 3.0 to 4.0%, it is more
typical to encounter C contents between 3.5 and
3.9% with the higher values typical of thin-section
castings (e.g. below 3/8”) and the lower values
found in heavy section castings (e.g. over 1.5
inches). The combination of high carbon content
(more accurately carbon equivalent) and low
solidification cooling rates will result in graphite
flotation and the presence of degenerate graphite.
For thin section (less than ½ inch) castings a 4.55%
CE is recommended; for moderate sections
(between ½ and 1-1/2 inches) a 4.35 to 4.45% CE
may be used and for heavy sections (over 2”) the
CE may be limited to a maximum of 4.3%. In

Figure 3. Typical carbon and silicon ranges for
ductile irons as limited by processing factors (after
H. Henderson)
centrifugal castings, the carbon content may be
limited to a maximum of 3.5% to minimize the
formation of surface wrinkles.
During solidification of ductile irons, the formation
of graphite is accompanied by a volumetric
expansion, so that, as the carbon (and silicon)
content is reduced, the feed metal requirements of a
casting may be increased and feeding may also be
impaired. The Henderson diagram above suggests a
lower limit of 3.9% (%C + 1/7%Si) to avoid
excessive shrinkage, but this parameter must be
considered only as a guideline, since effective
feeding of a casting depends upon a number of
factors other than C and Si contents.
6) Environmental considerations
There are no known environmental or health
concerns associated with carbon as free graphite or
as a dissolved component in cast iron.
7) Effects on melting and chill
Melting losses are generally low and predictable.
Silicon and other elements are stronger oxidizers at
lower temperatures and protect the melt. Above the
inversion temperature (2600-2650F), carbon
protects the melt and losses are greater. Carbon
will react with silica in the slag and reduce SiO2 to
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metallic Si. As a consequence, at higher temps and
lower silicon levels, C losses increase and the Si
content can increase.
A significant loss occurs during Mg treatment, with
“final” carbon falling well below the base iron
chemistry. Higher carbon contents favor lower
chilling propensity, however, care must be taken to
avoid graphite flotation.
8) Considerations in various ductile iron grades
a) In ferritic ductile irons, carbon content (and
CE) are often increased above that of pearlitic
ductile iron.
b) In quenched and tempered ductile iron,
secondary graphite usually develops during the
tempering cycle. In general, this condition
cannot be helped.
9) Effect of section thickness
Section thickness affects the upper limit of carbon
(and CE) that can be tolerated without causing
graphite flotation. In heavy sections carbon
equivalent is generally limited to 4.3% max. In
thin-cast sections, carbon is usually increased to
encourage graphitization and avoid chill.
10) Counteracting detrimental effects
As has been previously discussed, excessive carbon
levels lead to exploded graphite, nodule clustering
and graphite flotation. Carbon must be limited to
avoid these degenerate forms of graphite.
11) References
1. Ductile Iron Handbook, American Foundry
Society, Des Plaines, IL , 1992.
2. Fuller, A.G., Blackman, T.N., “Effects of
Composition and Foundry Process Variables on
Graphite Flotation in Hypereutectic Ductile Irons,
AFS Trans. Vol. 94, pp.823-862 (1986).
3. Blackman, T.N., “Preliminary Investigation to
Determine the Effects Graphite Flotation Upon the
Tensile and Impact Properties of Ductile Iron
Castings, AFS Trans. Vol. 97, pp.213-224 (1989).
Prepared by Richard Gundlach
Climax Research Services, Inc.