Revision of Soil Mechanics

27-02-2019
 Origin of Soil and soil water
relationships
• Soil is composed of particles found from the
disintegration of rocks.

• Formation of Soil takes place by two methods:

1. Physical Weathering
2. Chemical Weathering

2
 Soil Formation

Physical Weathering Chemical Weathering

Erosion of rock by Wind , water Chemical actions of

glaciers, alternate freezing and acids and alkalies in
defreezing water, air, glaciers, etc

Soil formed retain minerals and

Mineral composition is
composition
changed

Exp- sand and gravel Exp- clay

3
 Soil Deposits
• Residual Soils: Located at location of formation
• Transported Soil: Transported from parent location to
a new location
• Alluvial deposits: deposited by river
• Lacustrine deposit: deposited by still water of lakes
• Marine deposit: deposited by sea Water
• Aeolian deposit: deposited by wind , example Loess
• Glacial deposit: deposited by glaciers , example drift,
till
• Colluvial deposit: transported by Gravity expect Talus

4
 Some important Soils
• Bentonite clay:
– Has high percentage of montmorillonite
– Highly plastic, high swelling and shrinkage
– Formed due to volcanic ash, used as drilling mud
• Black cotton soil:
– Contains high percentage of montmorillonite
– Has high swelling and shrinkage potential
– Has very low bearing capacity
– Formed from chemical weathering of basalt
• Loam: mixture of sand silt and clay, known as Garden soil
• Indurated clay: hardening of clay due to heat and pressure
• Organic clays: soil gets mixed with decomposed vegetation and dead
and decayed matter
– Muck: inorganic + organic matter
– Peat: fully decomposed organic matter
– Humus: Top soil, it contains partly decomposed organic material

5
 Soil Water Relationships
Phase System

Three phase Two Phase

6
Soil Water Relationships

7
 Soil Water Relationships

• Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total

volume of soil (V )

• Degree of saturation (S) The volume of water (Vw) in a soil can

vary between zero (i.e. a dry soil) and the volume of voids. This
can be expressed as the degree of saturation (S) in percentage.

8
Soil Water Relationships

9
 Soil Water Relationships
• Bulk Unit Weight (ɣt): It is total weight by total volume of soil

• Dry Unit Weight of soil (ɣd): It is weight of solids divided by total

volume of soil

• Saturated Unit Weight (ɣsat) of soil:

• Submerged unit Weight of soil (ɣsub) :

10
 Soil Water Relationships
• Unit Weight of Solids(ɣs): It is weight of solids per unit volume of
solids

• Unit weight of water(ɣw): It is weight of water per unit volume of water

• True Specific Gravity (Gs):

• Mass Specific Gravity (Gm):

11
Relation between different terms
1. 7.

2. 8.

3. 9.

4. 10.

5. 11.

6. 12.

12
Methods of determination of Water
content (w)

1. Oven Drying method

2. Pycnometer Method
3. Sand Bath method
4. Calcium Carbide Method
5. Torsion Balance Method
6. Radiation Method
7. Alcohol Method
13
Methods of determination of Water
content (w)

14
 Methods of determination of Water
content (w)
2. Pycnometer Method

15
 Methods of determination of Water
content (w)

4. Calcium Carbide Method

• Water in soil reacts with
calcium carbide and forms
acetylene
• Pressure is co related with w/c
16
 Methods of determination of Water
content (w)
5. Torsion Balance Method
– Lab method
– Used for soil which quickly
absorbs moisture
– Equipment is costly
6. Radiation Method
• Radioactive isotope
Cobalt 60 is used

17
Methods of determination of Unit Weight (ɣ):

1. Core cutter method

2. Water Displacement Method
3. Sand Replacement Method
4. Water balloon method
5. Radiation method

18
Methods of determination of Unit Weight (ɣ):

1. Core cutter method

– Wt of empty cutter = W1
– Wt of Cutter+ soil= W2
– Wt of soil= W2-W1
– Vol of soil =1000cc

19
Methods of determination of Unit Weight (ɣ):

2. Water Displacement Method

• Wt of sample = W1
• Wt of sample + wax = W2
• We need to find volume of
sample
• Wax coating is done so as to put
it in water and we can find the
volume of Wax+ sample
• Then using ‘G’ of wax we find
volume of Wax which is then
subtracted from Total water
displaced

20
Methods of determination of Unit Weight (ɣ):

3. Sand Replacement Method

21
 Index Properties of Soil

1. Soil Aggregate Properties

– Depends on soil mass as a whole
2. Soil Grain Properties
– Depends upon soil grain size,
shape, etc

22
 Grain Size Distribution

1. Helps to find gradation and

uniformity
2. Separates out soil into different
fractions based on particle size

23
Grain Size Distribution

Coarse Grain Sieve Analysis

Sedimentation
Fine Grain
Analysis

24
 Grain Size Distribution

1. Sieve Analysis

25
Grain Size Distribution

26
 Sedimentation Analysis (Pippette Method)
• For particles less
than size
75micron (clay
and silt)
• Based on Stokes’
law
• Particle size is
from 0.0002mm
to 0.2mm

27
 Consistency

• The consistency of a fine-grained soil refers to

its firmness, and it varies with the water
content of the soil.
• Used mainly for fine soils
• Water content influences consistency of soil

28
 Consistency Limits

• The three limits are known as the shrinkage limit

(WS), plastic limit (WP), and liquid limit (WL) as
shown. The values of these limits can be obtained
from various methods
• Liquid limit (WL) - change of consistency from
plastic to liquid state
Plastic limit (WP) - change of consistency from
brittle/crumbly to plastic state laboratory tests.
• The difference between the liquid limit and the
plastic limit is known as the plasticity index (IP)
29
 Methods to find Liquid Limit

1. Casagrande Method
– When Groove of 2mm is
filled with 25 No. of blows,
then that water content is
called Liquid limit

2. Cone penetrometer Method

• 30 sec – 25 mm
• That water content is liquid limit

30
• Consistency Index:

• Liquidity Index:

• Activity:

31
• Toughness Index:

• Flow Index:

• Relative Density:

• Thixotrophy : Property by virtue of which loss of

shear strength on remolding can be regained if soil is
left undisturbed for sometime. The increase in shear
strength is due to regain of chemical equilibrium and
reorientation of water molecules.
• Sensitivity:

32
Consistency

33
34
 Clay Minerals
Clay Mineral
atomic structure

Silica Sheet Alumina Sheet

35
 Clay Minerals
• Kaolinite (1:1)
– H-bonding between layers
– Less swelling and shrinkage
– Antidiarrheal medicine

• Montmorrillonite (2:1)
– Weak vanderwaal forces
– High swelling and shrinkage
– Highly plastic

36
 Clay Minerals
• Illite(2:1)
• Isomorphous substitution
• consists of the basic montmorillonite
units but are bonded by secondary
valence forces and potassium ions

37
 Effective Stress
• Total Stress
When a load is applied to soil, it is carried by the solid grains and
the water in the pores. The total vertical stress acting at a point
below the ground surface is due to the weight of everything that
lies above, including soil, water, and surface loading. Total stress
thus increases with depth and with unit weight.

• Pore Water Pressure

The pressure of water in the pores of the soil is called pore water
pressure (u). The magnitude of pore water pressure depends on:
– the depth below the water table.
– the conditions of seepage flow.

38
 Effective Stress
• Effective Stress: The principle of effective
stress was enunciated by Karl Terzaghi . This
principle is valid only for saturated soils, and
consists of two parts:

39
Effective Stress

40
 Quick Sand Condition

• Effective stress becomes zero

• For Cohesionless soil (c=0), and hence Shear
strength becomes zero
• Contact force between grain particles becomes
zero.

• Critical Hydraulic gradient:

• Factor of Safety:

41
 Permeability
• In soils, the interconnected pores provide passage for water. A
large number of such flow paths act together, and the average
rate of flow is termed the coefficient of permeability, or just
permeability. It is a measure of the ease that the soil provides
to the flow of water through its pores.
• Darcy stated that discharge in One dimensional flow Q is
proportional to hydraulic gradient and area of cross section
• Q= K i A
• v = q/A = k.i
where k = permeability of the soil
i = Dh/L
Dh = difference in total heads
L = length of the soil mass

42
Permeability

43
Factors affecting Permeability

44
 Methods to determine Permeability
1. Constant Head Permeability Method

2. Variable/Falling Head Permeability Method

45
Permeability of Stratified Deposits

46
 Seepage in 2-D
• This is the Laplace equation governing two-dimensional steady state flow

• Flow Nets
Graphical form of solutions to Laplace equation for two-dimensional
seepage can be presented as flow nets. Two orthogonal sets of curves
form a flow net:
– Equipotential lines connecting points of equal total head h
– Flow lines indicating the direction of seepage down a hydraulic gradient

47
 Seepage in 2-D

• The space between two adjacent flow lines is

known as a flow channel, and the figure formed
on the flownet between any two adjacent flow
lines and two adjacent equipotential lines is
referred to as a field.
• Total seepage discharge of Flownet:
48
 Uses of Flownet

• Estimation of seepage losses from reservoirs

• Determination of uplift pressures below
dams
• Checking the possibility of piping beneath
dams

49
 Compaction

• Compaction is the application of mechanical

energy to a soil so as to rearrange its particles and
reduce the void ratio
• The objectives of compaction are:
– To increase soil shear strength and therefore its bearing
capacity.
– To reduce subsequent settlement under working loads.
– To reduce soil permeability making it more difficult for
water to flow through.

50
 Tests of Compaction

• Standard Proctor test:

– Wt of hammer = 2.5 kg
– Height of fall= 305mm
– Volume of mould= 944cc
– 3layers->25 no. Of blows
• Modified Proctor test
– Wt of hammer = 4.5 kg
– Height of fall= 457.2mm
– Volume of mould= 944cc
– 5layers->25 no. Of blows

51
 Tests of Compaction
• Indian Standard Light Compaction Test
Soil is compacted into a 1000 cm3 mould in 3 equal layers, each
layer receiving 25 blows of a 2.6 kg rammer dropped from a height
of 310 mm above the soil. The compaction is repeated at various
moisture contents.
Indian Standard Heavy Compaction Test
It was found that the Light Compaction Test (Standard Test) could
not reproduce the densities measured in the field under heavier
loading conditions, and this led to the development of the Heavy
Compaction Test (Modified Test). The equipment and procedure are
essentially the same as that used for the Standard Test except that
the soil is compacted in 5 layers, each layer also receiving 25 blows.
The same mould is also used. To provide the increased compactive
effort, a heavier rammer of 4.9 kg and a greater drop height of 450
mm are used.

52
Dry Density - Water Content Relationship

53
 Factors affecting Compaction

• The various factors which affect the compacted

density are as follows:
(i) Moisture content
(ii) Compactive effort
(iii) Type of soil
(iv) Method of compaction
(v) Addition of admixture.

54
55
Field Compaction Equipment

56
Field Compaction Equipment

57
Field Compaction Equipment

58
 Compression and Consolidation of
Soils
• Components of Total Settlement
The total settlement of a loaded soil has three components:
– Elastic settlement/Immediate settlement
– Primary consolidation
– Secondary compression

Compressibility Characteristics

59
 Some Parameters related to
Compression
1. Compression Index:

2. Coefficient of compressibility, av.

3. Coefficient of volume compressibility, mv

60
 Some Parameters related to
Compression
7. Overconsolidation ratio (OCR): is defined as
the ratio of the preconsolidation stress to the
current effective stress.

62
 Time rate of Consolidation
• Terzaghi's one-dimensional consolidation equation

• During the consolidation process, the following are

assumed to be constant:
1. The total additional stress on the compressible soil layer is
assumed to remain constant.
2. The coefficient of volume compressibility (mV) of the soil is
assumed to be constant.
3. The coefficient of permeability (k) for vertical flow is assumed to
be constant.

63
 Time rate of Consolidation
• In solution of the consolidation equation, non-
dimensional parameters are provided :
1. Drainage path ratio (Z):

H = drainage path which is the longest path taken by the

pore water to reach a permeable sub-surface layer above
or below.
z= depth at any point from top of clay layer

For single drainage H= D, for double drainage H=D/2

64
 Time rate of Consolidation
• In solution of the consolidation equation, non-
dimensional parameters are provided :
2. Time factor

65
 Shear Strength of Soil
• Soils consist of individual particles that can
slide and roll relative to one another. Shear
strength of a soil is equal to the maximum
value of shear stress that can be mobilized
within a soil mass without failure taking place.
• The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion can be
written as the equation for the line that
represents the failure envelope. The general
equation is

66
 Shear Strength Tests
1. Direct Shear Test
The test is carried out on a soil
sample confined in a metal box of
square cross-section which is split
horizontally at mid-height
The soil is sheared along a
predetermined plane by moving
the top half of the box relative to
the bottom half. The box is usually
square in plan of size 60 mm x 60
mm.
Tests on sands and gravels can be
performed quickly
67
 Shear Strength Tests
1. Direct Shear Test

68
 Shear Strength Tests
2. Triaxial Test

The triaxial compression test consists of two stages:

First stage: In this, a soil sample is set in the triaxial cell and confining
pressure is then applied.
Second stage: In this, additional axial stress (also called deviator stress) is
applied which induces shear stresses in the sample. The axial stress is
continuously increased until the sample fails.
69
The triaxial test has many advantages over the direct shear test:
• The soil samples are subjected to uniform stresses and strains.
• Different combinations of confining and axial stresses can be applied.
• Drained and undrained tests can be carried out.
• Pore water pressures can be measured in undrained tests.
• The complete stress-strain behaviour can be determined

70
 Shear Strength Tests
3. Vane Shear Test
Used in plastic cohesive clays
where obtaining undisturbed
sample is difficult

71
 Vertical Stresses

• As per Boussinesq Equation:

• As per westergaards solution

72
 Soil Exploration

• Field and lab studies that obtain necessary

information about soil characteristics including
position of ground water table is called Soil
Exploration.
• The investigation is performed in the following
phases:
– 1. Preliminary exploration 2. Detailed exploration 3. Special
exploration

74
 Methods of making Boreholes

1. Auger boring
1. Most effective in clay soil
2. Saturated sand, silt, medium to stiff
clay
3. Usually performed for small depths
exp highway, shallow foundation,etc

2. Wash boring
1. All types of soil except hard rock
2. Not suitable for taking good quality
undisturbed samples

75
 Methods of making Boreholes

3. Percussion boring
1. Best suitable for boulder and
gravel strata
2. Used for all types of rocks
3. Difficult in soft sticky clays

76
 Methods of making Boreholes

4. Rotatory boring
1. All soils except rocks
2. Suitable for soils
resistant to auger and
wash boring
3. Diamond bits are
used

77
SAMPLER

78
Soil Exploration

79
 Expansive Soils
• The soils that have tendency to increase in
volume on addition of water and decrease
volume on its removal are known as expansive
soils
• Expansive soil causes a lot of problems to
structures constructed on them
• Tests on Expansive Soil:

80
Expansive Soils

81
 Foundation

General requirements of Foundation:

 Should not settle in excess to permissible value
 Safe against Shear
 Should not get affected by seasonal water table 82
fluctuation
 Foundation
Foundation

Shallow Deep

Df/Bf <= 1 Df/Bf > 15

83
 Shallow Foundation

• Isolated (Spread
Footing)
– Supports only one
column

• Strap Footing
– Helps to join two
footings

84
 Shallow Foundation

• Strip/Continuous Footing
– L>>>B

• Combined Footing
– Footing supports more
than one column

• Raft/ Mat Foundation

– Single slab supports all
columns

85
 Bearing Capacity

• Gross Pressure Intensity:

• Net Pressure Intensity:

 When Backfill is provided

 When no backfill is
provided

86
 Bearing Capacity

• Ultimate Bearing Intensity:

• Net Ultimate Pressure

Intensity:

• Gross Safe Bearing

Capacity

• Net Safe Bearing Capacity

Note:
 No factor of safety is considered while dealing with
settlement criteria
 No FOS is considered while dealing with unit wt of soil
87
 Bearing Capacity

• Safe Bearing Pressure:

– Maximum intensity of
loading that can be
allowed on soil without
settlement exceeding the
permissible value

• Allowable bearing
Capacity/pressure:

88
 Bearing
Capacity General Shear
failure Φ > 36®
RD> 70 %

Local Shear Failure

Analytical Methods Φ < 29®
35<RD<70 %

Punching Shear
Failure Φ < 29®
RD<35 %
Bearing Capacity
Standard
Penetration Test

Field Test Methods Plate load test

Static Cone
Penetration test
89
Terzaghi Bearing capacity in GSF

Note: Terzaghi assumed GSF, so in case of Normal Shear Failure

1. cm = 2/3 c tan(φm) = 2/3 tan(φ)
2. If φ=0, As Per Terzaghi
– Nc = 5.7 2. If φ=0, As Per Pradatl
– Nq = 1 • Nc = 5.14
– Nɣ = 0
• Nq = 1
3. For purely cohesive soil, net ultimate capacity is dependent
only on cohesion • Nɣ = 0

90
 Skempton Method
• Skempton Bearing capacity analysis is for clay
soil that is saturated (φ=0)

• Nc = Skempton Bearing capacity Factor which

depends upon Df/Bf ratio

91
Bearing Capacity Based on Field Test
Data

Standard Penetration Test

Plate load test

Static Cone Penetration Test

92
 Bearing Capacity
Based on Field Test
Data
1. Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)

 Penetration value N is
calculated
 Suitable for granular soils
 Split spoon sampler is
used to make borehole
 Load of 65 kg and having
free fall 75cm is used
 N value is found out and
corrected

93
 Bearing Capacity
Based on Field Test
Data
2. Plate Load Test
 Plates of size 30, 45,
65, 75 cm are used
 Plate is placed at
proposed level of
foundation and
increment loading is
done
 For each increment
settlement is noted
 Short duration test
hence can not be done
for clays
 Settlement =>

94
 Bearing Capacity
Based on Field Test
Data
3. Static Cone
Penetration Test (SCPT)
 Difference between
SPT and SCPT is that we
obtain continuous
readings in SCPT and in
SPT, we get a
discontinuous record
 Cone is pushed into the
soil at the rate of
20mm/sec and upto a
depth of 100mm
 Used for soft clay, silt,
fine to medium sand

95
 EARTH PRESSURE
• Lateral force exerted by soil on any structure
retaining that soil
Earth Pressure
Earth Pressure Active Earth Passive Earth
at Rest Pressure Pressure

96
 Coefficient of Earth Pressure
• Earth Pressure at
Rest
• Failure plane makes an angle
45+φ/2 with horizontal plane
in case of Active Earth
Pressure
• Active Earth
• Failure plane makes an angle
Pressure 45-φ/2 with horizontal plane
in case of Passive Earth
Pressure
• Passive Earth Pressure

98
 Earth Pressure For Cohesive Soil
1. When tension cracks are not developed

2. When Tension Cracks are developed

Critical Height for Unsupported Vertical cutoff:

99