SPE-177100-MS

Chemostratigraphical Characterization of Stratigraphic Sequences: Upper

B Sandstones of Eocene Misoa Formation, Maracaibo Basin, Western
Venezuela
A. E. Laya and L. Camposano, PDVSA- INTEVEP

Copyright 2015, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference held in Quito, Ecuador, 18 –20 November
2015.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
of the paper have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect
any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written
consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may
not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract
The Misoa Formation (Eocene) is characterized by a monotonous succession of sandstones and shales
with scarce faunal content. This unit has been divided into several operational bodies based on its
lithological, electric and radioactive log character. Its rich oil content, expressed in the wells studied in
the area, leads to the need for a better knowledge and understanding of its stratigraphic development, in
order to enhance its exploitation. This works is focus on the upper informal units (B1, B2, B3, B4 and B5)
where their lithological content of interbedded sandstones and shales, make difficult to generate accurate
chronostratigraphic correlations.
Chemical analysis of 298 samples from three wells were developed to establish concentrations of major
(wt%) chemical elements expressed in oxide SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO, CaO, MgO, Na2O, K2O,
P2O5, minor and trace elements (ppm) Ba, Ce, Co, Cu, La, Mo, V, S, Sn, Rb, Sr, Zr, Y, Cr, Ni, Pb and
Zn, by using optical emission spectrometry with inductively coupled plasma (ICP-OES). In addition,
mutivariate statistical analysis was undertaken to conduct chemical characterization of informal units for
each well. The use of inter-elemental ratio (V/Al) and V/(V⫹Ni) help to define maximum flooding
surfaces (MFS) and flooding surfaces (FS), allowing to confirm the MFS-43 previously defined by
seismic correlation in the study area.
These results point out those B-informal units have higher geochemical fingerprint that can be
chemically correlated and used in other areas of interest at this level of the Misoa Formation. This method
probe to be a valuable tool, to be applied reliably statistically in siliciclastic sequences with little or no
biostratigraphic control in order to reduce the uncertainty of the stratigraphic model, also this method
contributes to the definition of high-frequency stratigraphic surfaces (thirth, fourth, fifth and up to sixth
order).

Introduction
Traditionally, the correlation between wells for most of the sedimentary sequences are improved by using
a combination of well logs, seismic, biostratigraphic and sedimentological information. However, these
2 SPE-177100-MS

techniques may not always produce the full resolution required to detail a stratigraphic model (Pearce et
al., 2005).
In the Maracaibo Basin there have been carried out several stratigraphic models, particularly for
geologic units of Eocene age. However, on the East Coast of Lake Maracaibo, these models have a high
uncertainty, due to the stratigraphic models have been defined by conventional correlation tecniques such
as lithological composition from logs (electrical, radioactive), cutting samples, seismic and biostrati-
graphic methods often have insufficient resolutions. The occurrence of thick monotonous succession of
sandstones and shales with repetitive features in well logs and the absence of prominent seismic reflectors,
often makes correlations of such sequences are difficult to perform (Pearce et al., 2005).
The Misoa (Eocene) Formation has these characteristics of monotonous succession of sandstones and
shales, which have been divided in informal units (B and C), based on their lithological characteristics,
using as support, electrical and radioactive records available in the study area. In this paper, on the upper
informal units (B1, B2, B3, B4 and B5) that according to their lithological content are made up of
interbedded sandstones and shales with poor faunal content will be studied (Figure 2), making it difficult
to correlate these units from the point of view chronostratigraphic, and somewhat subjective way, is
effected using lithology with neighboring wells. On the upper informal units, generate great interest for
its rich oil content, expressed in the wells studied A-1X, B-7 and B-8, which leads to the need for greater
knowledge and understanding of them. For this area, until now, it has not conducted studies in
Chemostratigraphy hence the need for this research arises. The study area is located at the Southeast of
the Maracaibo basin (Figure 1).

Figure 1—Location map of the study area

SPE-177100-MS 3

Figure 2—Stratigraphic column of the area

Samples and Methods

Approximately 298 samples, taken on average at 20 feets interval, were collected from the Misoa
Formation on the upper informal units (B1, B2, B3, B4 and B5). The sampled interval was approximately
6.331 feets divided in tree well; well A-1X (2.582 feet, 123 samples), well B-7 (2.067 Feet, 86 samples)
and well B-8 (1.682 feet, 89 samples). Samples were selected primarily based on regular systematic
spacing, details of sample preparation and chemical analisys are described by Arias (1999). Major and
trace elements abundances were determined by conventional inductively coupled plasma source atomic
emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). On the other hand, the statistical data analysis involves the separation,
indentification and measurement of the variation in set of variables, both among themselves as between
a dependent variable and one or more independient variables (Hair, F et al, 2005). The Figure 3 shows
the box plots where the behavior of the major elements are illustrated, in order to appreciate and contrast
each major element of the well A-1X.
4 SPE-177100-MS

Figure 3—Box plots for the major elements of the A-1X well in typified scale

Sandstone petrography
The characterization of the formation of terrigenous sediments on the basis of geochemical data of rocks,
had been achieved through a classification scheme, based on their chemical composition, contrary to the
traditional classification, based on petrographic study, using thin sections of sedimentary rocks (Dott
1964, Folk 1968 and Pettijhon et al 1972) from Chacin (2003). The chemical classifications scheme
defined by Herron (1998) was applied to each of the intervals using the lithological tops, for each of the
wells in the study (A-1X, B-7 and B-8). From chemical concentrations in order to make sandstone and
shale classification by using the natural logarithms of the SIO2/AL2O3 and Fe2O3/K2O and Ca concen-
trations.
The SIO2/AL2O3 ratio is used as an index of mineralogical maturity, in regard to the Fe2O3/K2O ratio
is more effective for discriminating lithic fragments of feldspars and can also be used as a chemical index
mineralogical stability Herron (1998) From Scasso & Limarino (1997). All this information is very helpful
in inter-well correlations, interpretation of sedimentary enviroments as well as tectonic and reservoir
quality.

A-1X well
It is very important to appreciate the geologic column Figure 4, where is showing the lithostratigraphic
and chronostratigraphic tops, also lithologic composition through the well, characterized by shale and
sands interbedded. Applying the sandstones classification by Herron (1988), based on each of those
defined interval from lithostratigraphic interwell correlation in the study area. The analysis of the
lithostratigraphic informal units was carried on from the top to the base in the same drilling direction (B-1,
B-2, B-3, B-4, B-5) (Figure 4). According to the chemical classification schemes applied in this works,
it is possible to observe each informal units mentioned before. If we consider the chemical classification
by B-1 informal units, the diagrams suggest that the distribution of those samples show a 55,6 %
subarkose, 22,2% sublitharenite, 11,1% arkose and 11,1% quartz arenite (Figure 5).
SPE-177100-MS 5

Figure 4 —Column stratigraphic A-1X well

Figure 5—Chemical classification by Herron (1988), the upper informal unit B-1

The arkosic and subarkosic arenites are those characterized by showing feldspar/lithic ratio greater than
1, less than 90% of quartz grains and low matrix. The arkose, the term originally coined by Brongnirt
(1826) (From Pettijohn et al, 1987) for sandstones produced by the desitegration of granites and mainly
compound of quartz and feldspar. On the order hands, the subarkose was introduced in the geological
literature by Folk & Pettilhon (1954). By definition, the subarkose differ from arkose due to its
6 SPE-177100-MS

compositional maturity according to contents of quartz sandstone (From Scasso & Limarino, 1997). The
B-2 informal unit presents higher concentration of arkose with 46, 7 %, subarkose and sublitharenite 20
% and litharenite 13, 3 %, all of this, shows that this unit has a higher content of clay (Figure 6).

Figure 6 —Chemical classification by Herron (1988), the upper informal unit B-2

The litharenites and subtitharenites represent a mirror image of arkose within the triagle of sadstone
classification and are, therefore, sandstone compounds by rocks fragments with higher feldspars content,
and less than 90 % quarzt.
From another point of view, the existence of lithic sandstone has sometimes been linked to climate
regimes capable of inhibiting chemical weathering (Suttner & Duta 1986, Mack & Jerzykiewicz 1989)
From Scasso & Limarino, 1997). The Figure 7, shows the B-3 informal unit with 75% arkose and in
relation to the sandstone 25% wackas. This unit is characterized by high shale content in relation to the
sandstone; the gamma ray log and Master-Log confirm that.

Figure 7—Chemical classification by Herron (1988), the upper informal unit B-3

The B-4 informal unit is classified by 51, 9% sublitharenite, 22, 2% arkose, 14, 8%, subarkose, 7, 4%
wackas and Fe-Sandstone (Figure 8). Finally, we can distinguish the B-5 informa unit with 35, 3% arkose,
23, 5 subarkose, 17, 6% between wackas and sublitharenites and 5, 9% litharenites (Figure 9).
SPE-177100-MS 7

Figure 8 —Chemical classification by Herron (1988), the upper informal unit B-4

Figure 9 —Chemical classification by Herron (1988), the upper informal unit B-5

The wackas are closely related to the concept of graywackes and emerged as an alternative terminol-
ogy, due to different definitions. The use of wackas term (in the original sense of Gilbert, From Williams
et at, 1953) to include all those sandstone containing more than 10% matrix or 15% for other classifi-
cations (From Scasso & Limarino, 1997).
The wackas have generally dark colors (gray, green, black), due to its high proportion of matrix. From
the chemical point of view, they are characterized by greater proportion of Na2O than K2O (unlike most
arkse) and have lower proportion of SiO2 than Al2O3.
Finally at the A-1X well, the informal units (B-1, B-2, B-3, B-4, B-5) could be describe according to
chemical sandstone classification by Herron (1988) as follow; arkoses, subarkose, sublitharenite and to a
lesser proportion wackas and quartz arenite (Figure 10). From the sedimetological, biostratigraphic
studies, where were carried out cutting samples description and petrographic analysis of thin section in
order to know and quantitatively evaluate mineralogical compounds (Detrital and authigenic) of some
lithostratigraphic units in the well, with the goal to make an assessment of the quality reservoir rock. The
lithological classification from petrographic studies of cutting samples are: Sublitharenite, arkose and
subarkose (Contreras, 2005).
8 SPE-177100-MS

Figure 10 —Chemical classification by Herron (1988), for all informal units

B-7 and B-8 wells

For these wells were carried out the same methodology like A-1X well. The results, based on the chemical
classification by Herron (1988); the B-7 well was classified as arkose, subarkose, wackas, a lesser
proportion quartz arenites, litharenite, and the B-8 well in arkose, subarkose, litharenite, sublitharenite and
a lesser proportions of shale. (Figure 11 and Figure 12). Unlike A-1X well, for the B-7 and B-8 wells, it
was not possible to have a petrographic analysis in order to make a comparison with the chemical
classification, however, taking consideration the results from A-1X, in which the petrographic and
chemical analysis ajudsted very well, showing that this technique gives excellent resuts.

Figure 11—Chemical classification by Herron (1988), for all informal units of B-7 well
SPE-177100-MS 9

Figure 12—Chemical classification by Herron (1988), for all informal units of B-8 well

All this allows us to have a greater confidence in the chemical classification scheme by Herron (1988)
for each informal units of the A-1X, B-7 and B-8 wells.

Definicition of quimiofacies applying multivariate analysis

In a broad sense, it refers to all statistical methods to analyze multiple measurements of each individual
or object under investigation simustaneously. Any simustaneously analysis of more than two variables can
be considered approximately as a multivariate analysis (Hair. J et al 2005).
First of all were defining a interpretation from profiles of each major chemist element seach as: SiO2,
TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO, CaO, MgO, Na2O, K2O, P2O5, the minor and trace, Ba, Ce, Co, Cu, La, Mo,
V, S, Sn, Rb, Sr, Zr, Y, Cr, Ni, Pb y Zn, for each well (A-1X, B-7 and B-8) by using bivariate analysis
Figure 13, where were determined chemical facies. After that, these chemical facies were correlated for
each well (Figure 14). After that was used the cluster constrained, by using the software Multi-Variate
Statistical Package 3.0 (MVSP 3.0), with it was applied the technique ⬙constrained⬙, it maintain the same
stratigraphic position (depth) where the sedimentary sequences are compared and cluster with samples
above and below them. The principal results are represented by dendogram. (Figure 13, 14 and 15).
Finally was compare both technique resulting the same chemical facies with only slightly different. In the
Table 1 is shown the chemical facies tops for each well.
10 SPE-177100-MS

Figure 13—Profiles of chemical concentrations of the major elements expressed as oxides along with gamma ray logging, chemical
facies defined, chronostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic tops for A-1X well
SPE-177100-MS 11

Figure 14 —Profiles of chemical concentrations of the minor and trace elements expressed (ppm) along with gamma ray logging,
chemical facies defined, chronostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic tops for A-1X well
12 SPE-177100-MS

Figure 15—Profiles of chemical concentrations inter elementary relations expressed as oxides, along with gamma ray logging,
chemical facies defined, chronostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic tops for A-1X well
SPE-177100-MS 13

Table 1—Chemical facies for each well

The relationships between the different chemical elements such as: SiO2/Al2O3 y (Al2O3⫹SiO2)/CaO
according Briceño et al. (1996) theses relationsships represent energy changes of the medium, mineral-
ogical maturity and ratio between carbonate and siliciclastics sedimentation. Yarincik et al. (2000),
considered these relatios Mn/Fe2O3, Al2O3/K2O, TiO2/Al2O3, as indicative of redox conditions (shallow-
ing and/ or deepening), relations of types clays, grain relations, and energy of medium. The relation
TiO2/V indicate oxygen of the environment (Yarincik et al. 2000, Briceño & Callejón 2000). From the
relationship of the chemical elements, these can be described in conjunction with the previously made
with chemical elements such as major, minor and trace, in order to substantiate interpretations (Figure 18).
Definitions of maximum flooding surface
In regular conditions, the deepening of the basin due to increase in the water column leads to lower levels
of dissolved oxygen in contrast to shallow environments. According to this hypothesis and under changes,
in sediment provenance, degree of diagenesis, weathering and other factor, no changes are recorded in the
water column (Rodríguez, C. 2006). On the basis this paper, focused on the study and determination of
the redox conditions, in order to delimit flooding surface and/or maximum flooding surface, also
boundaries associated with transgressive and regressive cycles.
The relations Ni/Co and V/Al serve to infer the redox conditions of the sedimentary environment
(Jones & Manning, 1994; Martínez-Ruiz et al., 2000, in Moreno et al., 2004), when are compared to the
average values PAAS (Post Archean Average Shale) Taylor & Mclennan (1985) IN Moreno et al. (2004).
Analyzing Figure 16 can be seen as the values of the V/Al were higher than average in several PAAS
depth intervals, where maximum values occur. Furthermore, these ⬙peaks⬙ are conssiten with high
concentrations of chemical elements associated with redox environment, such as Cr, Mn, Mo, Cu, Ni and
Zn. From this interpretation, it can be inferred that there are sudóxicas and/or conditions for these
14 SPE-177100-MS

intervals. At the depth 15900 feet, according the stratigraphic interpretation, it can be observed that exist
a maximum flooding surface (MFS-43), suggesting a good correlation surface. Considering before
mentioned, it can be suggested that another maximum or picks present at the depths 16800, 16400, 15480
and 14700 feet, as possible maximum flooding surface (MFS) and the others interval that overcome the
PAAS valius, but the minor magnitude as flooding surface (FS).

Figure 16 —((V/Al)-PAAS) relation profiles that indique posibles sudoxycas zone environment for the A-1X well

Algeo & Maynard (2003), stablished that the elements U, Zn, PB and V, recorded subtle changes in
redox conditions due to successive changes valence linked to depositional environments, Davis & Pratt
(1997), mentioned in Kertznus (2002), propose V(V⫹Ni) ratio as an indicator of stratification in the water
column reflecting anoxic conditions (figure). According to Algeo & Maynard (2004), the Mn is
accumulated in periodos of active circulation and oxygenation in botton waters. It is very important to take
in consideration the rest of elements, where it can be evidence at the depths 16400 and 15480 feet the
values of the elements V, Zn, Mn, Mo, Pb, Cu, Ni, and Cr reach high values and compare with Marter-Log
confirms shale levels. Everything suggest a possible maximum flooding surface, like previously inter-
preted at 15900 feet, maximum flooding surface (MFS-43) (Figure 17).
SPE-177100-MS 15

Figure 17—V/(VⴙNi) relation profiles that indique posibles oxycas-reductor zones environment for the A-1X well

Figure 18 —((V/Al)-PAAS) relation profiles that indique posibles sudoxycas zone environment for the B-7 well
16 SPE-177100-MS

After being analyzed, the stacking patterns in chemical profiles of the major elements, minor and trace,
inter elementary relations expressed as oxides and gamma ray logging and Well-Log Master, some setting
are proposed (lithostratigraphic, chronostratigraphic and chemical.facies). It is proposed to move the
chronostratigtraphic unit SB-42.5 at the depth where is located the lithostratigraphic unit B-4, and the
chemical-facies QF-5 to be located at the depth of lithostratigraphic unit B-3. In addition, it is proposed
three new maximum flooding surface (MFS) at the depths 16800, 14700 and 15480 feet, because these
levels show many evidences.
For the B-7 and B-8 wells were used the same methodology that in the A-1X well, for this reason it
is going to highlight the most important results of both. For the B-7 well in the Figure 18, it is can be
interpreter that exist intervals with reductor environment. It is proposed two maximum flooding surface
(MFS), the first, at the base of the section at the depths 17250 feet and the second at the 15900 feet, at
these depths occurred a strongs change in the concentrations of the chemical elements, associate redox
contitions V, Pb, Ce, Sr, Zn, Mo, Co, Ni, Cu, and Y, suggesting possible maximum flooding surfaces
(Figure 19). For the B-8 well, it is can be interpreter that V/Al ratio indicated a possible maximum
flooding surface (MFS) at the depth 16400 feet, where it is appreciate how the concentration overcome
the PAAS values. Nevertheless, the MFS-43 surface, defined at the well, it is located approximately 60
feet below. Meanwhile it is proposed two intervals as possible reductor environment at the 16000 and
15000 feet, according with the high values of these elements, Cr, Mo, Sr, Ce, V, Cu, Ni, Zn, La and Y
(Figures 20 and 21).

Figure 19 —V/(VⴙNi) relation profiles that indique posibles oxycas-reductor zones environment for the B-7 well
SPE-177100-MS 17

Figure 20 —((V/Al)-PAAS) relation profiles that indique posibles sudoxycas zone environment for the B-8 well

Figure 21—V/(VⴙNi) relation profiles that indique posibles oxycas-reductor zones environment for the B-8 well

V/(V⫹Ni) ratios, it is can be appreciate, increase and decrease staking patter of the concentrations, the
constant increase of the concentrations suggesting reductor environment and opposite direction oxygen-
18 SPE-177100-MS

ated enviroment (Figure 20 and 21). After these analyses, it is proposed two maximum flooding surface,
the first at the depth 16000 feet and the second at 15030 feet, also it is confirmed the MFS-43 surface
definided previously, nevertheless, it is propoused move 150 feet from its original place.
Conclusions
Detection and measurement of concentrations (% by weight) of the major chemical componets, trace
elements minority (in ppm), excesses of the elements and the inter-elemental ratios were a powerful tool
in the chemostratigraphy analysis. All of this contributed to the validation of previously defined
stratigraphic surfaces, as well as of new ones.
The chemical classification scheme based on Herron (1988) allowed getting an understanding of the
lithological types present in Misoa Formation (B-top units). For instance in the well A-1X result in the
following lithological classification: from 123 samples, arkose 38%, subarkose 23%, sublitharenite 22%,
wacke 10% and the remaining percentage of 7% between lithoarenite, quartz sandstone and sandstone
ferrous. This classification was compared with the petrographic thin section made to the cutting samples
at differents depths in the well, giving as result a high success percentage. On the other hand, the B-7 and
B-8 wells were classified, but was not possible compare with petrographic thin section, due to there were
not available. According to the results mentioned previously at the paragraph confirms that classification
method works very well.
The inter-elemental ratios (V/Al) and V/(V⫹Ni) contributed to define stratigraphic surface such as
maximum flooding surface (MFS) and / flooding surface (Fs) and validate the MFS-43 previosly defined
by stratigraphic correlation in the study area. For A-1X well is proposed to place three new maximum
flooding surface and/or flooding surface at depths of 16800, 14700 and 15480 feet, also is confirmed the
MFS-43 at 15900 feet. For the B-7 well, is proposed two (MFS) and/or (Fs), the first one locate at the
lower part of the section at 17250 feet, the second ones at the depth 15900 feet, and also is confirmed the
MFS-43 at the depth 16750 feet. Finally, for the B-8 well is proposed two stratigraphic surface (MFS),
the first locate at the depth 16000 feet and the second at the 15900 feet, the MFS-43 nevertheless, is
proposed to adjust at the depths 16400 feet, 150 feet of difference of its original interpretetation.
The discriminant analysis allowed to differentiate or discriminate with a high success percentage (over
90 %), the quimifacies, sequences and lithostratigraphic tops defined for the Misoa Formation (B-upper
unit).

Acknowledgements
This works was carried out thanks to the collaboration of Petroleos de Venezuela S.A (PDVSA), in
particular to the management of exploration who gave me the technical and financial support.

References
Arias F. 1999. El Proyecto de Investigación. Caracas: Editorial Episteme, (3era Edición) 50 p.
Algeo T. & B. Maynard. 2004. Trace-element behavior and redox facies in core shales of Upper
Pennsylvanian Kansas-type cyclothems. Elsevier Science B.V, Chemical Geology 206: 289 –318.
Arreaza C. 2002. Caracterización química de las Formaciones Naricual y Querecual en sus localidades
tipo, Estado Anzoátegui. Universidad Central de Venezuela, Facultad de Ingeniería, Escuela de
Geología, Minas y Geofísica. Trabajo de grado de Maestría para optar al título de Magíster
Scientiarum en Ciencias Geológicas. Geos (Caracas) 36: 412 p. en CD (2003).
Baritto I. 2009. Quimioestratigrafía de la Formación La Luna y Grupo Cogollo en núcleos del
subsuelo del lago de Maracaibo, Cuenca de Maracaibo, occidente de Venezuela. Universidad
Central de Venezuela, Facultad de Ingeniería, Escuela de Geología. Trabajo de grado de Maestría
para optar al título de Magíster Scientiarum en Ciencias Geológicas. Geos (Caracas) 41: 279 p.
en CD (2011).
SPE-177100-MS 19

Beicip-Franlab. 1998. Evaluación exploratoria de hidrocarburos en el área de Bachaquero- Lagunillas.

PDVSA. Maracaibo. Informe inédito. EPC-16958. 100 p.
Briceño H., Callejón A. y Lander R. 1996a. Caracterización de Quimiofacies en rocas Cretácicas del
área sur del Estado Táchira, Venezuela Occidental. V Congreso Latinoamericano de Geoquímica
Orgánica. Cancún, México. AAPG Bulletin. 80 (8):1276.
Berner R. A. & R. Raiswell. 1984. C/S method for distinguishing fresh water from marine sedimentary
rocks. Geology 12:365–368.
Bhatt J. 1974. Ti/Al ratio as chemical index of paleoenvironment—a note. Chem. Geol. 13:75–78.
Calanchi N., E Dinelli., F Lucchini. & A. Mordenti. 1996. Chemostratigraphy of Late Quaternary
sediments from Lake Albano and Central Adriatic Sea cores (PALICLAS Project). Mem.1st. Ital.
Idrobiol 55: 247–263.
Camposano L. & N. Martínez. 2000. Caracterización química y radiométrica de secciones estratigrá-
ficas de las formaciones Barco y Mirador, San Pedro del Río, estado Táchira. Universidad Central
de Venezuela, Facultad de Ingeniería, Escuela de Geología. Trabajo de grado para optar al título
de Ingeniero Geólogo. Geos (Caracas) 36: 248 p. en CD (2003).
Camposano L. 2007. Estudio de los factores que controlan la sedimentación terrígena y biogénica
durante el Pleistoceno/Holoceno en la Plataforma Deltana de Venezuela Universidad Central de
Venezuela, Facultad de Ingeniería, Escuela de Geología. Trabajo de grado de Maestría para optar
al título de Magíster Scientiarum en Ciencias Geológicas. Geos (Caracas) 41: 137 p. en CD
(2011).
Chacín C. 2003. Caracterización química y radiométrica de muestras de canal correspondientes a
cuatro pozos del campo Petrolífero La Concepción, Estado Zulia. Universidad Central de Vene-
zuela, Facultad de Ingeniería, Escuela de Geología. Trabajo de grado para optar al título de
Ingeniero Geólogo. Geos (Caracas) 36: 254 p. en CD (2003).
CIEN- Comité interfiliales de estratigrafía y nomenclatura. 1997. Código Geológico. http://www.p-
dvsa.com/lexico. Consulta 25 Julio 2007
Cullers R. L. 1988. Mineralogical and geochemical changes of soil stream sediment formed by intense
weathering of the Danburg granite, Georgia, USA. Lithos 21: 301–314.
Cullers R. L. 1994. The chemical signature of source rocks in size fractions of Holocene stream
sedimen derived from metamorphic rocks in the Wet Mountains region, Colorado, USA. Chemical
Geology, 113: 327–343.
Canavos G. 1988. Probabilidad y Estadística: Aplicaciones y Métodos. Madrid, Mc. Graw-Hill, 191
p.
De Toni, B.; Loureiro, D.; Coletta, B.; Roure, F.; Gou, Y. y Marquez, C. 1994: Análisis geológico
integrado de las Cuencas Barinas y Maracaibo. Síntesis Estructural. INT-02779, 94.
Das N. 1997. Chemostratigraphy of sedimentary sequences: a review of the state of the art. Journal
Geological Society of India 49: 621–628.
Escalona A. & P. Mann. 2006. Sequence Stratigraphic analysis of Eocene clastic foreland basin
deposits in central Lake Maracaibo using high resolution well correlation and 3-D seismic data.
AAPG Bulletin 90:581–623.
Gamboa A. 2004. Aplicación del método de comparación de cocientes coincidentes (CCC) como
herramienta en la correlación lateral en tres localidades donde aflora la Formación Cerro Pelado,
cuenca central de Falcón, Venezuela. Universidad Central de Venezuela, Facultad de Ciencias
Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra Trabajo de grado para optar al título de Especialista en
Gerencia Integrada de Yacimientos, 111 p.
Ghosh S. 1995. Síntesis geológica, marco secuencial y perspectivas exploratorias del Eoceno de la
cuenca de Maracaibo. PDVSA. Maracaibo. Informe inédito. EPC 13494. 90p.
20 SPE-177100-MS

González de Juana C., J. Iturralde & X. Picard. 1980. Geología de Venezuela y de sus Cuencas
Petrolíferas. Caracas, Ed. Foninves, 2 tomos, 1021 p.
Grimm L.G. & P. R. Yarnold. 1995 Reading and Understanding Multivariat Statistics. American
Psychological Association, Washington, DC
Herron M. 1988. Geochemical classification of terrigenous sands and shales from core or Log Data.
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 58(5): 820 –829.
Jarvis I. 1992. Sample preparation for ICP-MS. En K.E. Jarvis., A.L. Gray & Houk, RS. (Eds.),
Handbook of Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. Glasgow (Blackie), 172–224.
Jarvis I. 1988. Chemostratigraphy of Madeira Abyssal Plain Miocene- Pleistocene Turbidites, Site
950. En P.P.E. Weaver, H.-U. Schmincke, J. V. Firth, & W. Duffield. Proceeding of Ocean
Drilling Program. Scientific Results. 157:535–558.
Jörgensen N. 1986. Chemostratigraphy of upper cretaceous chalk in the Danish sub-basin. Bull. Amer.
Asocc. Petrol Geol., 70 (3): 309 –317.
Kertznus V. 2002. Bioestratigrafia y paleoecología de la Formación La Luna en Los Andes Ven-
ezolanos. Universidad Central de Venezuela Facultad de Ingeniería, Escuela de Geología Trabajo
de grado para optar al título de de Ingeniero Geólogo Trabajo Especial de Grado, Inédito, 179
p.
Leal J. & J. Rivero. 2004. Estudio de litofacies y quimioestratigráfico de la sección superior de la
Formación El Paraíso como herramienta para determinar posibles características de potencialidad
generadora y/o almacenadota de hidrocarburos en la sección geológica de la quebrada Paraíso.
Universidad Central de Venezuela, Facultad de Ingeniería, Escuela de Geología. Trabajo de grado
para optar al título de Ingeniero Geólogo, 209 p.
Lugo J. & P. Mann. 1995. Jurassic-Eocene tectonic evolution of Maracaibo basin, Venezuela,
Petroleum basins of South America. AAPG Memoir 62: 699 –725.
Moralez M. 2002. Propuesta geológica: localización: FRANQUERA-1X, área Tomoporo Sur. PD-
VSA. Maracaibo. Informe inédito. PDVSA000593. 80 p.
Murray R. W., C. Knowlton, M. Leinen, A. Cmix & C. H. Polsky. 2000. Export production and
terrigenous matter in the Central Equatorial Pacific Ocean during interglacial oxygen isotope stage
11. Global and Planetary Change. 24: 59 –78.
Murray R. & M. Leinen. 1996. Scavenged aluminum and its relationship to bulk titanium in biogenic
sediment from the Central Equatorial Pacific Ocean. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 60 (20):
3869 –3878.
Noguera M. & S. Yépez. 2002. Caracterización química de secciones Estratigráficas: formaciones
Naricual y Querecual, estados Anzoátegui y Monagas. Trabajo Especial de Grado. Facultad de
Ingeniería. Dpto. Geol., Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, 281 p.
Olivares C. & S. Padrón. 1994. Caracterización Sedimentológica de la Formación Aguardiente en la
Región de Casigua-Catatumbo. Maraven, informe interno, N° EPC-13.305, MAR003087.
Parnaud F., Y. Gou, J. C. Pascual, M. Capello, I. Truskowski & H. Passalacqua. 1995. Stratigraphic
synthesis of Western Venezuela, Petroleum Basins of South Amer, AAPG Memoir 62: 681–698.
Pearce T., B., Besly D. Wray & D Wright. 1999. Chemostratigraphy: A Method to Improvide
Interwell Correlation in Barren Sequences – A Case Study Using Onshore Duckmantian/Stepha-
nian Sequences (West Midlands, U.K). Sedimentary Geology. 124: 197–220.
Pearce T. J. & I. Jarvis. 1992a. Applications of geochemical data to modelling sediment dispersal
patterns in distal turbidites: Late Quaternary of the Madeira Abysal Plain. J. Sediment. Petrol.,
62:1112–1129.
Pearce T. J. & I. Jarvis. 1992b. Composition and provenance of turbidite sands: Late Quaternary of
the Madeira Abissal Plain. Mar. Geol., 109:21–53.
SPE-177100-MS 21

Pearce. T. J. Chemostratigraphy – A new tool for the correlation of ancient sequences. www.che-
mostrat.co.uk/newtool.html.
Pearce T. & I. Jarvis. 1997. High-resolution chemostratigraphy of quaternary distal turbidites: a case
study of new methods for the analysis and correlation of sequences. Geological Society Special
Publication. 89: 107–143.
Peña, A., León, F., Sarzalejo, S., León, K., Morales, V., Luna, F., Diaz, J., Benkovics, L., Gallango,
O., Zambrano, C., Sornes, G., Quintero, J., De Los Rios, A., Escandón, L., 2000. Informe Final
del Proyecto de Generación de Prospectos, Zulia Oriental. Informe Técnico. EP.076, 2000 IT.
Pestman, P.; Ghosh, S.; Meléndez, L. y Lorente, M. A. 1998: Marco tectonoestratigráfico y paleo-
geografía de la cuenca de Maracaibo y áreas vecinas durante el Paleógeno. Bol. Soc. Venezolana
de Geól., 23: 28 –45.
Rodríguez C. 2006. Caracterización quimioestratigráfica de los pozos auriol-9 y auriol-10 en el
intervalo mioceno temprano-medio para la validación del modelo estratigráfico-secuencial del área
tacata Universidad Central de Venezuela, Facultad de Ingeniería, Escuela de Geología Trabajo de
grado para optar al título de de Ingeniero Geólogo. Geos (Caracas) 36: 254 p. en CD (2006).
Scasso r. a. & Limarino c. o. 1997. ⬙Petrología y diagénesis de rocas clásticas⬙, Asociación Argentina
de Sedimentología, Publicación Especial 1, 259 p.
Serrano M. 2002. Caracterización química de una sección del Eoceno en el subsuelo del Lago de
Maracaibo, Cuenca de Maracaibo, Estado Zulia. Universidad Central de Venezuela, Facultad de
Ingeniería, Escuela de Geología Trabajo de grado de Maestría para optar al título de Magíster
Scientiarum en Ciencias Geológicas. Geos (Caracas) 36: 201 p. en CD (2003).
Saito S. 1998. Major and trace geochemistry of sediments from east Greenland Continental Rise:
implication for sediment provenance and source area weathering. En Saunders, A.D, H.C. Larsen
& Wise, Jr.. (Eds), Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 152: 120 –140
Slansky J. M. 1985. Geochemistry of high-temperature coal ashes and the sedimentary environment
of the New South Wales coals, Australia. International Journal of Coal Geology, 5(4): 339 –376.
Sandoval M. 2000. Diagénesis de Areniscas. Universidad Central de Venezuela, Consejo de Desar-
rollo Científico y Humanístico. 414 p.
Winchester J. A. & M. D. Max. 1996. Chemostratigraphic correlation, structure and sedimentary
environments in the Dalradian of the NW Co. Mayo inlier, NW Ireland. Journal of the Geological
Society, 153: 779 –801.
Walton W. M. 1968. Las unidades Eocenas informales en el subsuelo. En ⬙La estratigrafía del Eoceno
en la Cuenca de Maracaibo⬙ AVGMP. Publicación Especial 1:39 –48.
Yarincik K. M., R. W. Murray, T. W. lyons, l. C. Peterson & G. H. Haug. 2000. Oxygenation history
of bottom waters in the Cariaco Basin, Venezuela, over the past 578.000 years: Results from
redox-sensitive metals (Mo, V, Mn and Fe). Paleoceanography. 15 (6):593–604.
Yoris F., M. Ostos & L. Zamora. 1997. Petroleum Geology of Venezuela. En Schulumberger Surenco
C.A. Venezuela WEC 1997 Well Evaluation Conference. Jolley Printing Inc, Houston, p. 1–44.