PRECIPITATION

1 Introduction

The source of almost all our rainfall is the sea. Evaporation takes place from the ocean
and water is absorbed in the air streams moving across the sea’s surface. The moisture
laden air keeps the water vapour absorbed until it cools to below dew-point temperature
when the vapour is precipated as rain, or if the temperature is sufficiently low, as hail or
snow.

2 Forms of Precipitation

Any forms of atmospheric water must reach the surface of earth after condensation.
However, fog and frost are not part of precipitation as they are not falling moisture. Some
common forms of precipitation are:

a) Rain: When precipitation reaches the surface of earth in the form of droplets of
water, it is called rain. The size of drops vary from 0.5mm to 6mm as drops larger
than this size are found to breakup during their fall in the air. Rain is considered
as light if intensity of rainfall is up to 2.5mm/h, moderate from 2.5 to 7.5 mm/h
and heavy over 7.5 mm/h.
b) Snow: It is precipitation in the form of ice-crystals, normally hexagonal in shape.
Snow reaches the earth’s surface either separately or combines together to form
flakes. The density of snow is usually 0.10 g/cm3, which means that 10 cm of
snowfall is equivalent to 1.0 cm of rainfall.
c) Drizzle: Drizzle is defined as water droplets of size less than 0.5mm. It reaches
the ground with intensity less than 1.00 mm/h. These water droplets are so light
that they appear to be floating in air.
d) Glaze: It is the drizzle, which freezes immediately in contact with cold objects of
the earth’s surface.
e) Sleet: Where rain falls through air of subfreezing temperature, the drops freeze to
form grains of ice, called sleet. Sometimes snow and rain precipitates
simultaneously. The rain drops under this circumstance are half frozen.
f) Hail: It is the precipitating rain in the form of any irregular form of ice with size
ranging from 5.0 mm to 50 mm or above. Cummulonimbus connective clouds
with strong vertical currents are responsible for the formation of hail. The density
of hails are normally 0.8 gm/cm3. While falling they combine together to form
bigger sizes.
g) Dew: During nights when surface of the objects on earth cools by radiation, the
moisture present in atmosphere condenses on the surface of these objects forming
water droplets called dew.

3 Types of Precipitation

Moisture is always present in the atmosphere and there is no shortage of condensation

nuclei in the present days due to rapid industrialization. Adiabatic cooling of the moist air

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through lifting causes condensation. Precipitation, classified according to the factors
responsible for lifting the air mass, is of following types:

a) Convective: Unequal heating at the surface of earth is the main reason. In the
process, increasing quantities of water vapour are taken up by the air. When air
mass reaches to a great height, temperature falls below the dew point. At this
stage condensation releases latent heat, which is added to the air at the height of
condensation causing further heating to its upper air. This forces the air mass to
move up. As more moist air from surrounding joints the system, more energy is
added. The vertical air currents develop tremendous velocities and dynamic
cooling takes place. Depending on the moisture content, cooling and other factors,
the precipitation intensity varies from light showers to cloud bursts amounting to
300 mm or more rainfall per hour. Such type of precipitation covers limited aerial
extent and is normally found near equatorial zone.
b) Orographic: Orographic or mountain-range barriers cause lifting of air masses.
Dynamic cooling takes place causing precipitation on the side of the blowing
wind. Precipitation is normally heavier on the windward side and lighter on
leeward side.
c) Cyclonic: A cyclone is a low pressure area surrounded by a larger high pressure
area. When low pressure occurs in an area, especially over large water bodies, air
from the surrounding rushes, causing the air at the low pressure zone to lift. Such
a type of cyclone is called ‘Tropical cyclone’ or simply cyclone in India, Typhoon
in south-east Asia and Hurricane in US. The cyclone center is called eye and is a
calm area. This zone is surrounded by a very strong wind zone with wind speed
sometimes exceeding 300 km/h. Aerial extent of cyclone extends to a few
hundred kilometers.
d) Thunder storms: An air mass which moves from sea to land gets increased
friction over land. These air masses rise gradually as they move inland, giving rise
to condensation and precipitation over a limited area. Winter rainfall in southern
part of India and Indonesia are mainly due to this process. Sometimes thunder
storms result in very intense rainfall.

4 Measurement of Precipitation

Precipitation is measured with rain gauges. A rain gauge is an instrument that captures
precipitation and measures its accumulated volume during a certain time period. The
precipitation depth for a given period is equal to the accumulated volume divided by the
collection area of the gauge. The average precipitation intensity is equal to the
precipitation depth divided by the length of the period.

Any receptacle that has vertical sides and is open to the air is a de facto rain gauge and
can provide valuable information on accumulated rainfall during a storm. Two such
measurements however, are not directly comparable unless the receptacles are of the
same size and shape and similarly exposed. To increase the utility of the measurements, it
is necessary to use standard equipment and procedures.

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Rain gauges can be of these types:
1. Non recording
2. Recording

1. Non Recording gauge: They generally consists of open receptacles with vertical sides,
in which the depth of precipitation is measured by a graduated measuring cylinder or
dipstick. The two types of non recording gauges are standard gauges and storage gauges.
Standard gauges are ordinarily used for daily rainfall readings and consist of a collector
above a funnel leading into a reservoir. Rain gauges for locations where only weekly or
monthly readings are used are similar in design to daily type but have larger capacity.

2. Recording gauge: A recording gauge records the time it takes for rainfall depth
accumulation. Therefore, it provides not only a measure of rainfall depth accumulation
but also rainfall intensity. The slope of the curve showing accumulated rainfall depth
versus time is a measure of the instantaneous rainfall intensity.

Recording gauges rely on the following devices:

a) Tipping bucket: The tipping bucket gauge features a two compartment receptacles
(i.e. the bucket) pivoted on knife edge. The device is calibrated so that when one of
the compartments is full (with a fixed amount of rain) and the other is empty, the
bucket overbalances and tips. At the start, rain is funneled into one of the
compartments, which is positioned for filling. As rainfall continues to fill this first
compartment, the second remains empty. When the first compartment is full, the
bucket tips empties its content into a reservoir and at the same time placing the
second compartment in filling position. The tipping closes and electronic circuit,
which drives a pen that records on a strip chart fixed to a clock-driven revolving
drum. Thus each electrical contact representing a specific amount of rain is recorded.
The alternate filling and emptying of the two compartments continues until rainfall
ceases.

Disadvantages of tipping bucket are:

- During period of intense rainfall, some of the rain may not be measured while the
bucket is tipping
- The record consists of a series of steps rather than being a smooth curve and the
gauge is not suitable for measuring snow.

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 Figure 1 Tipping buckets

b) Weighing gauge: This type of gauge has a device that weighs the rain or snow
collected in a bucket. This type of gauge is useful in cold climates where it is
necessary to record both rainfall and snowfall.

Disadvantages:
- Wind action on the bucket
produces erratic traces on the
recording chart
- Overall lack of sensitivity of the
measurement.

Figure 2: Weighing rain gauge

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 c) Float gauge: A float located inside a chamber is connected to a pen strip chart
recorder. The float rises as the collected rain water enters the chamber, and the rise of
the float is recorded on the chart. Some float gauges are limited to the capacity of the
chamber. Others are equipped with a self-starting siphoning device that empties the
chamber when it becomes full and return the pen to zero position on the strip chart.
The siphoning action on the float gage can cause serious losses of rain during severe
storms. These gauges are limited to non freezing ambient temperatures.

3. Radar. Radar can be used to observe the location and movement of areas of
precipitation. Certain types of Radar equipment can provide estimates of rainfall rates
over areas within the range of the radar. Radar is sometimes used to get a visual image of
the pattern of rainfall-producing thunderstorms and is particularly useful for tracking the
movement of tornadoes. The introduction of color digital radar has made it possible to
measure rainfall in distant thunderstorms with more precision than was formerly possible.
The phenomenon upon which weather radar depends is the reflection of microwave
emitted by the radar transmitter by the droplets in the storms. The degree of reflection is
related to the density of the droplets and therefore the rainfall intensity.

4. Other gauges:
a) Totaliser: A totaliser has a large container with a small funnel like opening which can
hold rain catch of appreciable quantity. This can be used to record rain depth at a remote
place at the interval of one week, a fortnight or a month depending on the size of the
container.
b) Standpipe gauge or Storage gauge: Can be used for recording snow as precipitation at
remote locations. An antifreeze chemical like calcium chloride solution can be kept in the
storage of the gauge to melt the snow for recording its water equivalent. For both types of
gauges, a thin layer of oil is spread to prevent evaporation.

In recent years, there has been much more research into the effects of exposure on rain
gauges and it is now generally accepted that more accurate results will be obtained from a
rain gauge set with its rim some height above ground. It is necessary in a ground-level
installation to make a pit to house the gauge and cover it with an anti-splash grid.

Ideal Location for a Rain Gauge Station

The following points should be noted when setting up any rain gauge station:

i) The site should be on a level ground

ii) The site should be an open space
iii) Horizontal distance between the rain gauge and nearest objects should be twice the
height of the objects
iv) Site should be away from continuous wind forces
v) Other meteorological instruments and the fencing of the site should maintain the step
(iii) above
vi) Te site should be easily accessible
vii) The gauge should be truly vertical.

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viii) 10% of total number of rain gauge stations of any basin should be self-recording.
ix) The observer must visit the site regularly to ensure its proper readiness for
measurement.

Precipitation measurements are susceptible to the following errors:

a) in measurement
b) mistakes in recording
c) instrumental errors
d) initial loss in wetting the gauge
e) error due to rain drop splash
f) evaporation from the gauge
g) loss of 1.5% of rainfall if gauge is inclined 10 degree from its true vertical
position.

5 Analyses of Point Measurement

The point observations from a precipitation are subject to two regular problems:

1- A gauge site (station) may have a short break in the record because of instrument
failure or absence of the observer
2- Recording conditions at a gauge site may have changed significantly some time
during the period of record, due to relocation or upgrading of a station in the same
vicinity, difference in observational procedure, or any other reasons.

These problems are resolved by comparison with neighbouring sites.

5.1 Estimating Missing Data

Failure of any rain gauge or absence of observer from a station causes short break in the
record of rainfall at the station. These gaps are to be estimated before rainfall data are
used for analysis. The surrounding stations located within the basin help to fill in the
missing data on assumption of hydro-meteorological similarity of the group of stations.
The methods mostly used in hydrology for filling the missing data are discussed below.

Arithmetic Mean Method

The arithmetic average(mean) method averages the values of the precipitation from the
surrounding gauges and applies this value to the missing gauge, provided the normal
annual precipitation of the surrounding gauges is within 10% of the missing gauge. The
computation is in the form of:

1 Where: P1 , P2 … Pn are the precipitation of index station

Px = ( P1 + P2 + ... + Pn )
n Px is precipitation of missing station
n is the number of index station

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Normal-Ratio Method

The missing precipitation value can be estimated from concurrent observations at 3 or

more stations that are located as close to and evenly spaced from the missing-data station
as possible, known as index station. The normal-ratio method is used, according to
which:

Px 1 P1 P P P
= + 2 + 3 + ... + n
N x n N1 N 2 N 3 Nn

Where: Px : missing precipitation for station x

P1 , P2 … Pn : precipitation at the neighbouring station for the concurrent period
N x : Normal long-term, usually annual precipitation at station x
N 1 , N 2 … N n : Normal long-term precipitation for neigbouring stations.

Inverse Distance Method

This method require data from index stations, each located closest to the station X of
interest and in four quadrants delimited by north-south and east-west lines drawn through
station X. The estimated precipitation value at station X is the weighted average of the
values at the four index stations. For each index station, the applicable weight is the
reciprocal of the square of its distance L to the station X.

N
B
A
LB
LA

X
LC
C LD

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The missing precipitation at station X is given by the following formula:
i =n
2 Where: P = precipitation; L = distance between index
( pi / Li ) stations and station X; i refers to each one of the index
Px = i =1
i =n stations; and n: number of index stations (normally, n is
2
(1 / Li ) taken not more than 5).
i =1

Other methods of estimating missing precipitation includes Isohyetal method, Thiessen

Polygon method, Station-year-method, graphical method and rational method.

5.2 Checking Consistency

Changes in the location or exposure of a rain gauge may have significant effect on the
amount of precipitation it measures, leading to inconsistent data (data of different nature
within the same record)

The consistency of a rainfall record is tested with a double-mass analysis. This method
compares the cumulative annual (or alternatively, seasonal) values of station Y with those
of a reference station X. The reference station is usually the mean of several
neighbouring stations. The cumulative pairs (double mass values) are plotted in an x-y
arithmetic coordinate system, and the plot is examined for trend changes. If the plot is
essentially linear, the record at station Y is consistent. If the plot shows a break in slope,
the record in station Y is inconsistent and should be corrected. The correction is
performed by adjusting the record prior to the break to reflect the new state (after the
break). To accomplish this, the rainfall records prior to the break are multiplied by the
ratio of slopes after and before the break.

5.3 Conversion of Point Precipitation to Areal Precipitation

The representative precipitation over a defined area is required in engineering

applications, whereas the gauged observations pertain to the points precipitation. The
areal precipitation is computed from the record of a group of rain gauges within the area
by the following methods.

a) Arithmetic average
b) Thiessen Polygon
c) Isohyetal method
d) Grid point
e) Orographic
f) Icopercental

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5.3.1 Arithmetic Average method

This method is suitable for basins where the gauges are uniformly distributed and the
individual gauge catches do not vary much from the mean. It is the simplest form in
which the average depth of precipitation over the basin is obtained by taking simple
arithmetic mean of all the gauged amounts within the basin:

P1 + P2 + ... + Pn 1 n
Pav = = Pi
n n i =1

Where P1 , P2 ,..., Pn are the precipitation recorded by n number of gauges located within
the basin. This method gives rough estimate of the average precipitation and does not
account for the topographic or other influences.

5.3.2 Thiessen Polygon method

This method assumes that at any given point in the watershed the rainfall is the same as
that at the nearest gauge so the depth recorded at a given gauge is applied out to a
distance halfway to the next station in any direction. The relative wrights for each gauge
are determined from the corresponding areas of application in a Thiessen Polygon
network. These polygons are formed as follows:

a) The stations are plotted on a map of the area drawn to scale

b) The adjourning stations are connected by the dashed lines
c) Perpendicular bisectors are constructed on each of these dashed lines
d) These bisectors form polygons around each station. Each polygon is
representative of the effective area for the station within the polygon. For stations
close to the boundary, the boundary lines form the closing limit of the polygons.
e) The area of each polygon is determined and then multiplied by the rainfall value
for the station within the polygon
f) The sum of item (e) divided by the total drainage area provides the weighed
average precipitation.

5.3.3 Isohyetal method

This is the most accurate of the three methods and provide a mean of considering the
orographic (mountains effect). The procedure is as follows:

a) The stations are plotted on a map to a suitable scale.

b) The contours of equal precipitation (isohyets) are drawn. The accuracy depends
on the construction of the isohyets and their intervals
c) The area between successive isohyets is computed and multiplied by the
numerical average of the two contour (isohyets) values
d) The sum of item (c) divided by the drainage area provides the weighed average
precipitation.

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6 Storm Analyses

The total amount of rain falling at a point is the usual basic precipitation figure available.
For many purposes, however, this is not adequate and information may be required under
any or all of the following headings:

a) Duration: This is the period of time during which rain falls

b) Intensity: This is a measure for the quantity of rain falling in a given time (mm per
hour or cm per hour)
c) Frequency: The frequency of occurrence of events having the same volume and
duration.
d) Areal extent: This concerns the area over which a point rainfall can be held to apply
e) Volume: The amount of precipitation that occurs over the storm duration

Frequency can be discussed in terms of either the exceedence probability or the return
period, which are defined as follows:

Exceedence probability: The probability that an event having a specified volume and
duration will be exceeded in one time period, which is assumed to be one year.
Return Period: The average length of time between events having the same volume and
duration.

The exceedence probability (P) and return period (T) are related by:

1
P=
T

6.1 Volume-Duration-Frequency

Events having similar intensities may differ significantly in volume and direction when
there is a difference in frequency.

Volume (mm) Duration (h) Frequency (yr) Intensity (mm/h)

180 8 100 22.5
84 4 10 21
41 2 2 20.5

This example illustrates the need to consider the frequency of the event, as well as the
volume, intensity and duration.

6.2 Rainfall Maps

Rainfall depths are required for many design problems. Because of the frequent need for
such information, the depth of rainfall for selected durations and frequencies are often
provided in the form of maps that show lines, called isohyets; of equal rainfall depths.

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6.3 Intensity-Duration-Frequncy

IDF curves are readily available as rainfall intensity is used as input to many hydrologic
design methods. IDF curves are made available for most localities because of its
importance.

An IDF curve is a three parameter curve in which duration is taken on x-axis, intensity on
y-axis and the return period or frequency as the third parameter. By fixing a return period
of say 10-, 50-, 100-years, or any other period, a particular curve between the intensity
and duration can be obtained for the area. Through such a curve, an exponential equation
of the following order can be fit.

I = CT a ( D + b) − d

In which T: frequency or return period; I: intensity (cm/h or in/h); D: duration (h);

C,a,b,d: constants.

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6.4 Depth –Area-Duration (DAD)

Another way of describing relation between storm depth, duration and catchment area is
the technique known as Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) analyses. This technique is
basically an alternate way of portraying the reduction of storm depth with area, with
duration as the third variable.

To construct a DAD chart, a storm having a single major center (storm eye) is identified.
Isohyetal maps showing maximum storm depths for each of several typical durations (6h,
12h, 24h, etc) are prepared. For each map and each individual area, a spatially averaged
rainfall depth is calculated by dividing the total rainfall volume by the individual area.
These procedures provide DAD data sets used to construct a chart showing depth versus
area, with duration as a curve parameter.

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7 Presentation of Precipitation Data

Rainfall are usually presented in the form of the following graphs. Such graphs are useful
for analysis and design purposes.

7.1 Mass Curve

When cumulative rainfall taken as ordinate is plotted against time, the resulting plot is a
mass curve. Plot of a mass curve gives information about rainfall intensity, duration,
magnitude, onset and cessation of precipitation of any storm.

7.2 Rainfall Hyetograph

Rainfall intensity means the ratio of rainfall depth with time (cm/h or mm/h). From the
mass curve, a plot between the intensity of rainfall with time can be obtained. During a
storm, intensity always changes with time. When the plot of rainfall intensity with time is
presented in form of a bar graph, then such a graph is known as a hyetograph. The plot is
very useful for flood studies and calculation of rainfall loss indices.

Example:

Rainfall recorded by self recording rain gauge for the flood event on the 28th August 1996
at a station is given below. Construct a rainfall mass curve and plot the hyetograph for the
event.

Time (h) 9:00 9:30 10:00 10:30 11:00 11:30 12:00 12:30 1:00 1:30
Rainfall (cm) 0.0 0.55 2.25 3.5 3.85 4.25 4.5 4.85 5.3 5.4

Solution:

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