ARCHAEOLOGY

on Three Continents

ARCHAEOLOGY on Three Continents 2006 – 2011

2006 – 2011
(5 years of the Slovak Archaeological and Historical Institute SAHI)

Drahoslav Hulínek
Dominik Bonatz
Milan Kováč (eds.)
ISBN: 978 – 80 – 89704 – 01 – 9 Bratislava 2015
 Archaeology on Three Continents 2006 – 2011
10. VOLCANIC ASH IN ANCIENT MAYA CERAMICS.1
MINERALOGICAL AND PETROGRAPHICAL CHARACTERIZATION
OF MAYA CERAMICS FROM UAXACTÚN, GUATEMALA.
MILOŠ GREGOR, SLOVAK NATIONAL MUSEUM - NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, BRATISLAVA
MILAN KOVÁCˇ, COMENIUS UNIVERSITY IN BRATISLAVA AND SLOVAK ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL INSTITUTE
BRANISLAV KOVÁR, INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY, SLOVAK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES2
ABSTRACT
In terms of the Maya ceramic’s study, the site of Ua-
xactun in Guatemala is unique, especially because its
pottery was used to create chronological framework,
subsequently used as model for the entire Maya regi-
on (Smith 1955). However, due to the present state of
the art it didnot undergo the modern mineralogical and
petrographical analyses. The aim of this paper is to fill
this gap in the history of exploration and in this way also
enrich the comparative database of such analyses for the
entire Central Petén in Guatemala. In addition, it will
attempt to locally assess the pottery of Uaxactún in its
periods and variations, in order to improve our under-
standing of local technologies and long-distance trade,
and especially seeks to contribute to the debate on cer-
tain aspects of the use of volcanic ash as temper in cera-
mics in the examined region.
The main task we set for ourselves was to determine
the exact mineralogical and petrographic composition
of Maya ceramics from the archaeological site of Ua-
xactun. Based on the data obtained from the mineralogi-
cal and petrographic study of ceramics, it was possible
to determine, for example, the firing temperature, the
production technology and provenance of raw materials
used for ceramics production. The results were compa-
red with published work specifically dealing with the
archeometry of the Maya ceramics. The Maya pottery
is, in respect to the firing temperature and provenance
of raw materials, very complex and diverse, requiring
a separate study, which the present analysis could take
into account only marginally.
SAMPLE SELECTION
T he core sample of this study consists of 40 ceramic
sherds obtained from excavations conducted by the
Slovak Archaeological and Historical Institute (SAHI),
which were examined using optical microscopy and X-
-ray diffraction analysis. These samples were selected in
two ways: 23 sherds were chosen by random selection
from a range of Uaxactun’s groups, where excavations
were conducted in 2009 (Kováč-Arredondo, 2009). Af-
ter processing the results, the second set of 17 sherds
was chosen in 2010, with regard to the results of the
first set, preferring locations or ceramic types, which in
the first sample set contained the admixture of volca-
nic ash. Therefore, While the first set of 23 sherds is
representative, the second set of 17 sherds was used to
confirm or refute the hypothesis, established following
the examination of the first set. Nevertheless these 40
sherds together can serve as a good sample to form more
general conclusions, especially because it was specifica-
lly compiled to represent the diversity of locations and
ceramic types in Uaxactun.
From sherds standard petrographic thin sections
were prepared, which were analyzed using a polari-
zing microscope Amplival Carl-Zeiss (Slovak National
Museum, Natural History Museum in Bratislava). For
refinement of the results gained from optical microscopy
and for determination of the mineralogical composition
of the matrix, orientated powder specimens were prepa-
red from selected samples. Specimens were analyzed by
X-ray diffractometer Bruker D-8 Advance (Department
of Mineralogy and Petrology, Faculty of Natural Sci-
ences, Comenius University in Bratislava) operating at
40 kV and 40 mA using CuKα radiation. The scan speed
recording intensities was 0.02 °2θ/1s and it was scanned
in a range of 4-84 °2θ. Besides the mineralogical and
petrographic composition the granulometric compositi-
on of selected samples was also estimated by using in-
Division according to period:
Preclassic samples (Chicanel), in total: 13
Of these, with volcanic ash: 1
Early Classic samples (Tzakol), in total: 10
Of these, with volcanic ash: 6
Late Classic samples (Tepeu), in total: 17
Of these, with volcanic ash: 9
Tab. 1 Division according to period
157
 Miloš Gregor, Milan Kováč, Branislav Kovár

Fig. 1 Crystalo-
clasts of calcite
and lithoclasts
of intrasparitic
or micritic lime-
stone. Photo:
Project SAHI –
Uaxactun.

tegrating device Eltinor IV (Department of Geology and
Paleontology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius
University in Bratislava).
CARBONATE GROUP
Based on the mineralogical and petrographic compo-
sition of temper and matrix of analyzed fragments, two
main petrographic groups were distinguished. The first
group, consisting of 24 out of 40 sherds is marked as UA-
X/C (Uaxactun / Carbonates) and its composition con-
tains subangular to angular crystaloclasts of calcite, and
lithoclasts of intrasparitic or micritic limestone (Fig. 1).
Occasional crystaloclasts of euhedral to anhedral quartz
or chalcedony, and lithoclasts of silicites were also iden-
tified (Fig 3). The matrix is characterized by an isotro-
pic optical character and in the X-ray diffraction record
quartz and calcite were identified. The diffraction peaks
that would correspond to clay minerals (illite, kaolinite)
were not observed. According to the modified Wentworth
granulometric classification (Ionescu and Ghergari, 2002)
the samples from UAX/C can be divided in to two sub-
groups that differ in their matrix: temper ratio. In the sub-
group C1 temper clearly prevails over the matrix, where
as in the subgroup C2 temper occurs more sporadically
(Fig 2). This is also reflected in the modified Wentworth
granulometric classification where the samples from sub-
group UAX/C1 belong to the class of coarse ceramics
and the samples from subgroup UAX/C2 to the semi-
-fine class ceramics. The structure of matrix also differs
between the subgroups. The chaotic structure of matrix is
characteristic for the C1 subgroup, whereas the matrix in
subgroup C2 is mainly fluidal.
Division according to ceramic type, with
indicated ad mixture of volcanic ash:
TEPEU
Total amount of Tinaja Rojo: 5
Tinaja Rojo with volcanic ash: 4
Total amount of Cambio sin engobe: 5
Cambio sin engobe with volcanic ash: 3
Total amount of Maquina Café: 2
Maquina Café with volcanic ash: 2
TZAKOL
Total amount of Aguila Naranja: 8
Aguila Naranja with volcanic ash: 6
CHICANEL
Total amount of Laguna verde inciso: 1
Laguna verde inciso with volcanic ash: 1
Tab. 2 Division according to ceramic type, with indicated ad
mixture of volcanic ash

158
 Volcanic Ash in Ancient Maya Ceramics. Mineralogical and petrographical characterization
of Maya ceramics from Uaxactún, Guatemala.

Fig. 2 Fragment
of potery – sub-
group C2. Photo:
Project SAHI –
Uaxactun.

GROUP WITH VOLCANIC ASH THE FIRING TEMPERATURE

The second group UAX/VA (Uaxactun/Volcanic The firing temperature in both groups was inferred
Ash), which consists of 16 out of 40 sherds, is composed based on the changes observed in the mineralogical
of samples with a specific type of temper. In this case,
the temper is composed of volcanic material, including
Ceramic types without any indication
fragments of volcanic glass, fragments of plagioclases
and amphiboles (Fig 4, 5). Occasionally pumice frag- of volcanic ash admixture:
ments were also identified. In some samples thermally TEPEU
altered calcites were observed (Fig 6). Based on the Encanto Estriado 3
granulometric composition, this group was also divided Camarón Inciso 1
into two subgroups VA1 and VA2. Engobe Café (no determinated)1 : 1
The samples from subgroup VA1 belong to the class
of coarse ceramics, and the samples from subgroup VA2
to the class of semi-fine ceramics. Nevertheless, the mi- TZAKOL
neralogical composition of these two subgroups is al- Triunfo estriado : 1
most identical, except for a higher content of evidently Balanza negro : 1
thermally altered calcite, identified in the case of sub-
-VA2. In general, the matrix of this group is characteri- CHICANEL
zed by an isotropic optical character and its structure is Sierra Rojo: 6
chaotic. In the X-ray diffraction records minerals such Zapote Estriado: 2
as plagioclases or amphibole were identified. X-ray di- Polvero Negro: 2
ffraction records are characterized by the presence of a Negro Crema: 1
diffuse maximum in range 20 - 30 °2θ corresponding to Flor Crema. 1
a presence of the amorphous phase, which in this case
is the volcanic glass. As in the previous case, no diffrac- 1
Placed to phase Tepeu, based on the archaeological context
tion peaks corresponding to clay minerals (i.e. kaolinite
Tab. 3 Ceramic types without any indication of volcanic ash
or illite) were identified. admixture

159
 Miloš Gregor, Milan Kováč, Branislav Kovár

Fig. 3 Crys-
taloclasts of
fast euhedral
quartz. Photo:
Project SAHI
– Uaxactun.

composition of the matrix and temper, using optical (Maggetti, 1982; Riccardi et al., 1999; Cultorne et al.,
microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis. The resul- 2001; Ionescu and Ghergari, 2002, Reedy, 2008). The
ting data were then compared with published work presence of thermally unalterd calcite in the group UA-
dealing with the identification of firing temperature X/C corresponds to temperatures that did not exceed
Fig. 4 Volcanic
glass in sample.
Photo: Project
SAHI – Uaxac-
tun.

160
 Volcanic Ash in Ancient Maya Ceramics. Mineralogical and petrographical characterization
of Maya ceramics from Uaxactún, Guatemala.
Fig. 5 Fragments
of amphiboles.
Photo: Project
SAHI – Uaxactun.
800 °C. The absence of diffraction peaks of clay mi-
nerals, might, besides temperature, to some extent also
reflect the original composition of clay-rich raw materi-
al. If the material contained illit, one of the most com-
mon clay minerals, it would be possible to observe the
diffraction peaks of this mineral also in ceramics fired
at temperatures over 900 °C. The absence of diffraction
peaks of clay minerals at the maximum firing tempera-
ture up to 800 °C may correspond with the presence of
kaolinite in the original composition of clayish material.
Within the temperature range 500-600 °C, the kaolinite
is transformed to metakaolinite, which is amorphous.
The process of transformation of kaolinite to metaka-
olinite is observable as a gradual diminishing of the
diffraction intensities of kaolinite, until their disappea-
rance at a temperature of 600 °C. The isotropic optical
character of the matrix and the absence of diffraction
peaks of clay minerals may, therefore, suggest that the
original material was composed mainly of kaolinite. In
this respect, the firing temperature of the UAX / C can
be determined as being within the range of 600-800 °C.
The firing temperature for the group UAX/VA is sig-
nificantly higher than for the UAX/C group. As in the
previous case, no diffraction peaks corresponding to
clay minerals were observed. This could be due either
to the higher firing temperature, or to the composition of
the clay material. Thermally altered calcite corresponds
to temperatures having been higher than 800 °C. If the
matrix was composed from illite, then its optical cha-
racter would correspond to temperatures exceeding 800
°C. However, no diffraction peaks corresponding to il-
lite were observed in the X-ray diffraction record, and
the matrix also shows no signs of melting, which would
correspond to temperatures over 1000 °C. It is therefo-
re likely that the clay-rich raw material was composed
mainly of kaolinite. Based on the changes observed in
the matrix and temper, the firing temperature of cera-
mics from the group UAX/VA was higher than 800 °C.
POTTERY MAKING PROCESS
The forming techniques were derived from the ob-
served structure and the data were compared with ex-
perimental work and published data (Shepard, 1957;
Velde and Druc, 1999; Ionescu et al., 2007, Reedy,
2008). All analyzed matrix structures are characteristic
for the ceramics-forming technique by modeling. A high
proportion of temper and chaotic structure in the sub-
group UAX/C1 and UAX/VA could correspond to the
technique by pressing the prepared material on a form.
The vessels are made of more than two pieces. The flui-
dal structure of the matrix and a smaller proportion of
temper in subgroup UAX/C2 probably corresponds to
the hand building method, where the gradual drawing
up and shaping of the walls is used. This structure also
corresponds to the so-called paddle and anvil technique.
For a more precise identification of the modeling tech-
161
 Miloš Gregor, Milan Kováč, Branislav Kovár
nique, a detailed study of macroscopic features on the
surface, or within the ceramic, would be necessary. Only
their combination with microscopic features, would,
however, finally allow the refinement of individual for-
ming techniques.
The potential sources of temper and clay material,
from which the pottery was made, were derived based
on the mineralogical and petrographic composition of
the matrix and ceramics. The results were compared
with the geological situation in the wider surroundings
of the site, as well as with previously published data (Jo-
nes, 1986, Lyeden et al., 1993, Hardy, 2006; Ford and
Spera, 2007). The group UAX/C, characterized by the
presence of carbonates used as temper, and raw material
rich in kaolinite, was probably made from local materi-
al sources, as the wider area around the site is built up
mostly by Mesozoic carbonate rocks. This assumption,
however, can only be proven by a more detailed petro-
graphic study of material taken directly from the site.
ORIGIN OF VOLCANIC ASH
The use of volcanic ash as temper in Maya pottery has
long been demonstrated (Shepard, 1939, 1942); analyses
and discussions about specifics, however, continue with
intensity. The presence of volcanic material in the group
UAX/VA therefore is not surprising, but represents a
specific problem. The wider surroundings of the site are
composed of carbonate rocks, and the nearest volcanic
162
Fig. 6 Thermally
altered calcite.
Photo: Project
SAHI – Uaxac-
tun.
formations can only be found in a considerable distance
from the site. Uaxactún is at least 300km from every
possible source of volcanic ash, and more like 400-500
km along some likely pedestrian routes. Therefore, this
group of ceramics may represent either the import of
ceramic vases or ash from volcanic areas. Alternative-
ly, it could indicate the use of deposits from volcanic
ash carried by air over long distances. The volcanoes
El Chichón and Cerro Quemado are mainly indicated as
the source of volcanic ash in the Petén area; Acatenan-
go, Tajumulco or Pacaya volcano (or Volcano the Agua)
in the lake Amatitlan may also be alternative candidates
(Ford and Rose 1995, 159).
According to Ford and Spera (2007), ceramics tem-
pered with volcanic ash are characteristic of the Late
Classic period. Our study indicates practically the same
proportion also during the Early Classic. Volcanic ash
in the Uaxactún area probably originates from volcanic
eruptions in the west or the south. Ash was indeed trans-
ported in the form of large ash clouds over long distan-
ces, as evidenced by layers of ash in the sediment cores
from Lake Petén Itzá (Leyden et al., 1993). If these ash
fallouts were indeed the source, they had to be used to-
pically- immediately after deposition, as the analyzed
fragments of volcanic glass and pumice do not show any
signs of weathering (!). Volcanic ash was subsequently
mixed with the clayey material derived from the wider
surroundings of Uaxactún. Ceramics with added volca-
 Volcanic Ash in Ancient Maya Ceramics. Mineralogical and petrographical characterization
of Maya ceramics from Uaxactún, Guatemala.
nic ash were fired at higher temperatures than normal
ceramics (tempered with carbonate rocks), providing
better utility characteristics.
Jones (1986) considers volcanic material to be an im-
port, brought to lowland environment through existing
obsidian trade routes. Volcanic ash is very light, even
at large volumes, therefore it can be easily transported
over longer distances. The hypothesis is also supported
by Hardy (2006). Volcanic ash-tempering was a com-
mon practice in the Central Lowlands, its use already
begun during the Preclassic period (Hardy, 2006). The
evidence of extensive long distance trade, resulting in
Specification according to architectural groups in Uaxactun:
Group H North
Total amount: 11
Number containing volcanic ash admixture: 0
period / total amount / with volcanic ash
Chicanel / 9 / 0
Tzakol / 2 / 0
Group H South
Total amount: 2
Number containing volcanic ash admixture: 2
period /total amount/ with volcanic ash
Tzakol / 2 / 2
Group G
Total amount: 7
Number containing volcanic ash admixture: 4
period / total amount/with volcanic ash
Tepeu / 5 / 3
Chicanel / 2 / 1
Group C
Total amount: 7
Number containing volcanic ash admixture: 3
period / total amount /with volcanic ash
Tzakol / 5 / 3
Tepeu / 2 / 0
Group F North
Total amount: 4
Number containing volcanic ash admixture: 1
period / total amount /with volcanic ash
Chicanel / 2 / 0
Tepeu / 2 / 1
Tab. 4 Specification according to locality
ceramics containing volcanic ash, has been known from
the pre-Mamom phase (Sunahara et al 2006). Our ana-
lysis has brought further evidence of the Preclassic use
of volcanic ash in ceramics, although it is clear that in
Uaxactún, this was a less widespread phenomenon du-
ring the Preclassic.
CONCLUSIONS
We believe that the idea that volcanic ash used in ce-
ramics came from natural deposits created by ash fallout
is not sustainable for several reasons. The frequency of
the use of volcanic ash during the Early and the Late
Group F South
Total amount: 2
Number containing volcanic ash admixture: 1
period / total amount/ with volcanic ash
Tzakol / 1 / 1
Tepeu / 1 / 0
Group B
Total amount: 3
Number containing volcanic ash admixture: 2
period / total amount/ with volcanic ash
Tepeu / 3 / 2
Group A
Total amount: 1
Number containing volcanic ash admixture: 1
period / total amount/ with volcanich ash
Tepeu / 1 / 1
Tz´ibatnah
Total amount: 3
Number containing volcanic ash admixture: 2
period / total amount/ with volcanic ash
Tepeu / 3 / 2
163
164
Sample UAX5D2-1/001 UAX5B/002 UAX5X10-3/003 UAX5D2-1/004 UAX5A3-2a/005 SB1E-2/006 UAX5D-1C4/007 UAX5D1-2b/008 UAX5X1-1/009 M010
Petrographic group UAX/C2 UAX/C2 UAX/C1 UAX/C1 UAX/C1 UAX/C2 UAX/C2 UAX/C2 UAX/C1 UAX/VA2
Colour of matrix dark brown brownish brownish reddish red-brown dark brown brownish dark brown dark brown dark brown
Optical character of matrix anisotropic anisotropic isotropic anisotropic isotropic anisotropic anisotropic anisotropic anisotropic anisotropic
Structure of matrix fluidal fluidal chaotic chaotic chaotic orientated chaotic fluidal weakly orientated weakly orientated
Granulometric composition medium medium coarse coarse coarse medium medium medium coarse coarse
Quartz + + + + + + + + + +
Chalcedony – – – – – – – – – –
Plagioclase – – – – – – – – – +
Calcite + + + + + + + + – –
Hematite – – – + + – – – – +
Amphibole – – – – – – – – – +
Limestone + + + + + + + + + –
Silicit – – – – – + – – – –
Volcanic rocks – – – – – – – – – +
Pedogenic nodules – – – + – – – – – –
Sample EE-011 UAX-4E1-1/012 UAX-4X1-2/013 UAX-3XA1-9/014 UAX3A15-5/015 UAX3A1/016 UAX3A-92/017 UAX2C2-4/018 UAX2C5-2/019 UAX2C2-3/020
Petrographic group UAX/C1 UAX/C1 UAX/C1 UAX/C2 UAX/C2 UAX/C1 UAX/VA1 UAX/C1 UAX/VA2 UAX/C2
Colour of matrix dark brown dark brown dark black dark brown light brown dark brown dark brown dark brown dark brown light brown
Optical character of matrix anisotropic isotropic isotropic anisotropic anisotropic isotropic isotropic isotropic isotropic anisotropic
Structure of matrix weakly orientated weakly orientated chaotic weakly orientated chaotic weakly orientated weakly orientated chaotic weakly orientated orientated
Granulometric composition coarse coarse coarse medium medium coarse coarse coarse medium medium
Quartz + + + + + + + – + +
Chalcedony + + – – – – – – + –
Plagioclase – – – – – – + – – –
Calcite + + + + + + – + + +
Hematite – – – – + – + – – –
Amphibole – – – – – – + – – –
Limestone + + + + + + – + – +
Volcanic rocks – – – – – – + – + –
Pedogenic nodules – – – – – – – – – –
Sample UAX1B3-3/021 UAX1B8-3/022 UAX1B3-3/023
Miloš Gregor, Milan Kováč, Branislav Kovár

Petrographic group UAX/VA2 UAX/VA2 UAX/C1

Colour of matrix dark brown dark brown dark brown
Optical character of matrix isotropic anisotr. - isotrop. isotropic
Structure of matrix orientated orientated orientated
Granulometric composition medium medium coarse
Quartz + + +
Plagioclase + – –
Calcite d.c. d.c. +
Hematite + + –
Amphibole + + +
Limestone – – +
Volcanic rocks + + –
Pedogenic nodules – – –
d.c. - decompossed calcite
p.d.c - partly decomposed calcite
*decomposed
thermally altered
partially thermally altered calcite
 Sample UAX/002 UAX/003 UAX/004 UAX/005 UAX/006 UAX/007 UAX/008 UAX/009 UAX/010 UAX/011
Petrographic group UAX/VA1 UAX/C1 UAX/C1 UAX/VA1 UAX/VA2 UAX/C1 UAX/C1 UAX/VA2 UAX/VA2 UAX/C1
Colour of matrix dark brown red-brown dark brown light brown light brown dark brown dark brown dark brown red dark brown
Optical character of matrix isotropic isotropic isotropic isotropic isotropic isotropic isotropic isotropic isotropic isotropic
Structure od matrix chaotic chaotic chaotic chaotic chaotic fluidal chaotic-fluidal zigzag fluidal chaotic
Granulometric composition coarse coarse coarse coarse medium coarse coarse medium medium coarse
Quartz + – – + + – – sporadically sporadically +
Chalcedony – – – + – – – – – –
Plagioclase + – – + + – – + + –
Calcite pdc. + + + dc. + + pdc. – +
Hematite – – – – + – – – – –
Biotite + – – sporadically + – – – + –
Amphibole + – – + + – – + +
Limestone – + + + – + + – – +
Volcanic rocks + – – + + – – + + +
Pedogenic nodules – – – – – – – – – –
Sample UAX/013 UAX/015 UAX/016 UAX/017 UAX/018 UAX/019 UAX/020
Petrographic group UAX/VA1 UAX/VA2 UAX/C1 UAX/VA1 UAX/C1 UAX/VA1 UAX/VA2
Colour of matrix dark brown light brown dark brown dark red light brown dar red dark brown
Optical character of matrix isotropic isotropic isotropic isotropic isotropic isotropic isotropic
Structure od matrix fluidal fluidal chaotic fluidal chaotic fluidal fluidal
Granulometric composition coarse medium coarse coarse coarse coarse medium
Quartz + – + + + + +
Chalcedony – – – – – – –
Plagioclase + + – + – + –
Calcite – dc. + pdc. + dc. –
Hematite + + – + – + +
Biotite + + – + – + +
Amphibole + + – + – + +
Limestone – – + – + – –
Volcanic rocks + + – + – + +
Pedogenic nodules – – – – – – –
of Maya ceramics from Uaxactún, Guatemala.

d.c. - decompossed calcite

p.d.c - partly decomposed calcite
*decomposed
thermally altered
partially thermally altered calcite

Tab. 5 Specification according to locality.

Volcanic Ash in Ancient Maya Ceramics. Mineralogical and petrographical characterization

165
 Miloš Gregor, Milan Kováč, Branislav Kovár
Classic was so high that it could not be dependent on
the chance fall of volcanic material onto the site or the
region. The original idea of the need to find evidence
for constant volcanic activity, which would have en-
compassed the Petén lowlands during the Late Classic
period (Ford and Rose 1995), to which period the cera-
mic analyses supposedly corresponded, should be also
abandoned because of the growing body of evidence of
practically the same intensity of use of volcanic ash in
the Early Classic.
Obando et al. (2011, 116) argue that in Chinikiha in
Chiapas, carbonates as temper were, from a chronologi-
cal point of view, gradually substituted with siliciclas-
tics including those with volcanic glass, reflecting chan-
ges in technology and mentality. Such development,
however, cannot be confirmed for Uaxactún. The pro-
portion of volcanic ash as temper in ceramics during the
Early Classic and the Late Classic period is, according
to the findings from Uaxactún, almost equal. This may
reflect a certain technological stability and, in contrast to
other regions, for example outstanding relationships be-
tween this area and other Early Classic settlements with
volcanic activity. That it might not have been such an
exceptional phenomenon is indicated by similar results
from the study from Calakmul (Dominguez et al. 1998).
Nevertheless, there probably can be no doubt that the
rapid increase in trade in raw materials, including ash,
was a general phenomenon of the Late Classic period
(Simmons and Brem 1979). This is also indicated by the
results of our analyses from the site of Tz‘ibatnah, 70
km distant, in Northern Petén.
Based on our analysis, we therefore have to consider
a relatively constant use of volcanic ash in Uaxactun’s
ceramics during the entire Classic period. An assumpti-
on that volcanic ash fallout was the source, however,
would rely on there having been constant volcanic acti-
vity within Uaxactun’s proximity during a period of
aproximatelly 700 years, which is geologically very un-
likely. Fluctuations in use exist, but they are not large,
and could be caused by a number of factors, including
the diversification of local workshops and local traditi-
ons. For example, Jones (1986) documented only limited
use of volcanic ash in Northern Belize, where tempering
of ceramics with carbonate material was more popular.
Unequal representation might be also caused by inter-
ruptions in long-distance trade during certain periods of
time, due to political and economic reasons. Important-
ly, our study rules out the use of deposits from specific
ash fallouts in the geological history of the area, as the
volcanic elements in analyzed samples do not show any
signs of erosion. Therefore, only the hypothesis of long
distance trade with ceramics or volcanic ash remains.
Sunahara, analyzing the situation in nearby Western
166
Belize, suggests the import of ceramics rather than that
of ash (Sunahara et al. 2006). The samples of analyzed
ceramics from Uaxactun, for example Aguila Naranja
in Tzakol, or Tinaja Rojo in the Tepeu period, do not
confirm this hypothesis because they represent local
types, suggesting that the ceramics were not imported.
We should therefore focus on the hypothesis of volcanic
ash import. It would seem that a material used as often
as volcanic ash had to be an essential trading commodi-
ty. However, the continuous supply of large quantities at
such long distances is not easily imaginable, especially
if the only means of transport were people themselves.
The facts, however, speak clearly; volcanic ash as a long
distance trade article had to far exceed all others, both in
terms of quantity and the frequency of deliveries.
RESUME
An attempt has been made in the present work to esti-
mate the mineralogical and petrographical composition
of Mayan pottery fragments excavated from the Ua-
xactun archaeological site in Guatemala. Firing conditi-
ons as well as the modeling techniques could be inferred
from the estimated mineralogical and petrographical
composition. The possible sources of raw materials have
been only proposed and further investigation is needed
in order to solve the problem of possible sources of tem-
per and clayish material.
Forty most representative samples were studied with
help of optical microscopy and X-ray diffraction analy-
ses using Bruker D-8 Advance operating at 40 kV and 40
mA using CuKα radiation at scan speed of 0.02°2θ/1s in
range of 4-84 °2θ. Besides the mineralogical and pet-
rographical composition also the granulometric compo-
sition was estimated by using the Eltinor IV counting
device with 1000 points per thin section. Two main pe-
trographic groups were distinguished according to es-
timated mineralogical and petrographical composition.
The first group UAX/C (Uaxactun/Carbonate) contains
only subangular to angular crystaloclasts of calcite and
lithoclasts of intrasparitic or micritic limestone (Fig. 1).
Occasionally also crystaloclasts of fast euhedral to an-
hedral quartz and silicites were identified (Fig. 3). The
matrix is isotropic and the PXRD analyses show only the
presence of calcite and quartz. The diffraction peaks of
clay minerals (e.g. illite, kaolinite) are completely missi-
ng. According to modified Wentworth`s granulometric
classification (Ionescu and Ghergari, 2002) the samples
from UAX/C can be divided in to two subgroups that di-
ffer in the matrix: temper ratio. The temper in subgroup
C1 is clearly prevailing over the matrix, whereas in the
subgroup C2 the temper occurs only sporadically. This
can be observed also in modified Wentworth`s granu-
lometric classification where the fragments from sub-
 Volcanic Ash in Ancient Maya Ceramics. Mineralogical and petrographical characterization
of Maya ceramics from Uaxactún, Guatemala.
group UAX/C1 belong to the field of coarse ceramics
and fragments from subgroup UAX/C2 belong to the
field of coarse to semi-fine ceramics (Fig. 2). Also the
structure of matrix is different in estimated subgroups.
Chaotic structure of matrix is characteristic for the C1
subgroup, whereas the matrix in subgroup C2 is mainly
fluidal. The second group UAX/VA (Uaxactan/Volca-
nic Ash) contains angular fragments of fresh, unaltered
volcanic glass, plagioclases and amphiboles (Fig. 4,
5). Occasionally also lithoclasts of glassy pumices and
partially thermally altered calcite were observed (Fig.
6). The matrix is clearly isotropic and its structure is
mainly chaotic. The PXRD analyses show presence of
plagioclases, amphiboles and broad hump situated at 20
- 30 °2θ refers to the presence of amorphous phase –
volcanic glass (Fig. 4). The diffraction peaks of any clay
minerals were not observed.
The firing conditions were inferred from the chan-
ges observed in mineralogical composition of matrix
and temper. Presence of thermally untouched calcite
in petrographic groups UAX/C refers to temperatures
not higher then 800 °C. The absence of any diffraction
peaks of clay minerals can possibly refers the original
composition of clayish material. If the clayish materials
consist from illite, the peaks of this mineral would be
observed in ceramics fragments fired over 900 °C. Ab-
sence of illite peaks could possible reflects the presence
of kaolinite in the original composition of clayish mate-
rial. At 500 – 600 °C the kaolinite is transformed to me-
takaolinite, what is easily observable as diminishing and
disappearance of kaolinite diffraction peaks. Also the
isotropic matrix can possibly refer to the presence of ka-
olinite in original clayish material. Therefore we suggest
that the ceramics from subgroup C were fired at 600 –
800 °C. The firing temperature for ceramics fragments
from petrographic group UAX/VA is markedly higher.
Presence of glassy isotropic matrix and thermally al-
tered or partially altered calcite refer to temperatures
ranging from 800 – 900 °C. All analyzed structures are
characteristic for modeling. High amount of temper and
chaotic structure of the matrix in subgroup UAX/C1 and
UAX/VA possibly refers to pressing the prepared ma-
terial on a form. The vessels are made from more than
two parts. Fluidal structure of matrix in subgroup UAX/
C2 could result from drawing or pinching technique or
paddle and anvil technique. For better identification of
modeling technique detailed study of the macroscopic
and microscopic features have to be performed.
The possible sources of temper and clayish material
were derived from the mineralogical and petrographical
composition of analyzed fragments. Carbonates (cal-
cite, intrasparitic and micritic limestones) and clayish
material rich on kaolinite present in distinguished group
UAX/C probably come from the vicinity of the site, as
the area is built up by Mesozoic carbonate rocks. Detai-
led mineralogical study of surrounding rocks and clays
can improve the data on potential raw material sources.
The presence of fresh unaltered volcanic ash in com-
position of petrographic group UAX/VA represents a
specific problem. According to the geological situation
of the nearest surrounding, the investigated area is com-
posed of mainly Mesozoic carbonate rocks. The nearest
volcanic formations can be found over 300 km away.
Therefore the ceramics tempered with volcanic ash can
represent either import from that region or specific type
of ware.
We believe that the idea that volcanic ash used in ce-
ramics came from natural deposits created by ash fallout
is not sustainable for several reasons. The frequency of
the use of volcanic ash during the Early and the Late
Classic was so high that it could not be dependent on
the chance fall of volcanic material onto the site or the
region. The original idea of the need to find evidence
for constant volcanic activity, which would have en-
compassed the Petén lowlands during the Late Classic
period (Ford and Rose 1995), to which period the cera-
mic analyses supposedly corresponded, should be also
abandoned because of the growing body of evidence of
practically the same intensity of use of volcanic ash in
the Early Classic.
Importantly, our study rules out the use of deposits from
specific ash fallouts in the geological history of the area,
as the volcanic elements do not show any signs of erosion.
Therefore, only the hypothesis of long distance trade with
ceramics or more probably with volcanic ash remains.
NOTES
1 Original version of these analyses was (together with the
co-author Silvia Alvarado) presented in Spanish at the XXI
Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemal,
2012 under the title „Nuevos hallazgos de mineralogia y pet-
rografia de la cerámica de Uaxactun”.
2 The research concerned was carried out within the pro-
ject reg.-no. 2/0189/12 and 2/0156/14 of the VEGA Grant
agency,
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 CONTENT

INTRODUCTION 5
DRAHOSLAV HULÍNEK

SECTION A. PROJECT TELL FEKHERIYE 9

1. TELL FEKHERIYE – AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRENT

STATE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH 13
DOMINIK BONATZ

2. THE NEOLITHIC AT TELL FEKHERIYE 31

ANNIKA HOTZAN-TCHABASHVILI

3. RESEARCH ON THE C-IV TRENCH IN A BROADER CONTEXT

OF THE EXCAVATIONS CONDUCTED AT TELL FEKHERIYE,
WITH AN EMPHASIS ON THE MIDDLE ASSYRIAN PERIOD 39
DRAHOSLAV HULÍNEK

4. GEODETIC SURVEYS AND TOPOGRAPHY

AT THE TELL FEKHERIYE LOCATION 59
TIBOR LIESKOVSKÝ, DRAHOSLAV HULÍNEK, DANIEL KENDRALA

SECTION B. PROJECT BUDMERICE 73

5. THE 2010 TRIAL EXCAVATIONS OF A FORTIFIED SETTLEMENT

AT BUDMERICE. PRELIMINARY REPORT 77
JÚLIUS VAVÁK

6. A NOTE ON SPIRITUAL LIFE OF THE MAĎAROVCE CULTURE 89

PAVOL JELÍNEK

7. ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY USE – ARCHAEOBOTANY 111

JANA HLAVATÁ

195
 SECTION C. ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN CENTRAL
NORTH-EASTERN PETÉN, GUATEMALA 121

8. NEW STUCCO MASKS FROM UAXACTUN:

INTERPRETATION, CONSERVATION AND DOCUMENTATION
OF EXTRAORDINARY PRECLASSIC MAYA ART 125
MILAN KOVÁCˇ , ALICE DESPRAT, CARLOS PALLÁN GAYOL

9. NEW MAYA OBSERVATORY IDENTIFIED IN UAXACTÚN, GUATEMALA 143

MILAN KOVÁCˇ , VLADIMÍR KARLOVSKÝ

10. VOLCANIC ASH IN ANCIENT MAYA CERAMICS. MINERALOGICAL

AND PETROGRAPHICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF MAYA CERAMICS
FROM UAXACTÚN, GUATEMALA. 157
MILOŠ GREGOR, MILAN KOVÁCˇ , BRANISLAV KOVÁR

11. EXCAVATIONS AT THE SQUARE PLAZA DE TAYRA,

TZ´IBATNAH –NORTHEASTERN PETÉN, GUATEMALA 171
DRAHOSLAV HULÍNEK, EVA HULÍNKOVÁ-Tˇ UCHOVÁ

LIST OF FIGURES 187

CONTENT 195

ABBREVIATIONS 199

INDEX 201

196