Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 696–706

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/petrol

Organic matter origin and accumulation in tuffaceous shale of the lower T

Permian Lucaogou Formation, Jimsar Sag
Xiujian Dinga,b,∗, Jiangxiu Qua, Ablimit Iminc, Ming Zhaa, Yang Sua, Zhongfa Jianga, Hang Jiangd
a
School of Geosciences in China University of Petroleum, Qingdao, 266580, China
b
Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Depositional Mineralization & Sedimentary Minerals, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, Shandong,
266590, China
c
Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, Xinjiang Petroleum Administration Bureau, Karamay, 841000, China
d
Strategic Research Center of Oil and Gas Resource, Ministry of Land and Resources, Beijing, 100034, PR China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Jimsar Sag is an important shale oil exploration target area in the Junggar Basin, northwestern China. The
Tuffaceous shale lower Permian Lucaogou Formation, with a thickness of 200–300 m, is composed of thin tuffite, tuffaceous
Volcanic ash dolomite, mudstone and siltstone, and is the primary exploration target. A comprehensive analysis is conducted
Organic matter origin on the bulk and molecular geochemical characteristics of the tuffaceous shale, to define the organic matter
Organic matter accumulation
origin, depositional environment and organic matter accumulation. The key features of the tuffaceous shale
Lucaogou formation
extracts are short-to long-chain n-alkanes, a range of Pr/Ph ratio values (0.80–1.42), a relatively high content of
C29 steranes and a moderate content of gammacerane, showing that the redox state ranged from oxic to anoxic
and that the water salinity conditions varied from fresh to brackish. And the high content of cyanobacteria is the
primary cause of the high abundance of β-carotane and C29 sterane. It appears that volcanic ash did not change
the redox condition of depositional environment. Considering that volcanic ash-bearing sediments usually have
relatively high β-carotane and C29 sterane content, and previous studies have pointed out that volcanic ash can
stimulate phytoplankton and promote productivity in modern sediments, we could speculated volcanic ash may
release mineral ions such as iron, and then stimulated cyanobacteria, which was the main cause of organic
matter accumulation in the tuffaceous shale of the Jimsar Sag.

1. Introduction
Organic matter origin and accumulation in lacustrine source rocks
are essential to petroleum resource exploration and assessment (Kelts,
1988; Katz, 1994; Hao et al., 2011), especially for shale oil and tight oil
resources. Lacustrine source rock usually show strong vertical and
horizontal heterogeneity (Keym et al., 2006), and are still one of the
major uncertainties in petroleum exploration (Katz, 1990, 1995).
Moreover, because of their sensitivity to climate changes, lacustrine
source rocks have important scientific significance (Meyers, 2003;
Adegoke et al., 2014).
Historically, productivity, organic matter preservation and dilution
have been the focus of studies on organic matter accumulation and
petroleum source rock deposition (Arthur and Dean, 1998; Bohacs
et al., 2005). With different tectonic settings and depositional processes,
there are many organic matter accumulation and source rock devel-
opment models of recent and ancient lake sediments (Katz, 2005; Hao
et al., 2011), such as the Green River model (Eugster and Surdam, 1973;
Burton et al., 2014), the anoxic lake model (Demaison and Moore,
1980; Liang et al., 2018), the moderately deep lake model (Katz, 1990;
Harris et al., 2004), and the small shallow lake model (Ding et al.,
2016). Tuffaceous shale components contain a certain amount of vol-
canic ash, which has an obvious influence on water chemistry, organic
matter productivity and degradation (Uematsu et al., 2004; Langmann
et al., 2010; Turgeon and Creaser, 2008; Morel, 2003). However, we
found that research on organic matter origin and especially organic
matter accumulation in tuffaceous shale was limited and unknown.
The Junggar Basin is a famous petroliferous basin in northwestern
China, and tight oil and shale oil reserves are mainly distributed in the
Jimsar Sag (Qiu et al., 2016; Zou et al., 2013). Commercial oil flow has
been obtained in the lower Permian Lucaogou Formation (LCG) from
nine exploration wells and the oil resource potential is mainly de-
termined by petroleum source rock (Kuang et al., 2013). Source rocks of
Jimsar Sag are a set of thin lamellate tuffite, tuffaceous dolomite,

∗
Corresponding author. No. 66, Changjiang West Road, Huangdao District, Qingdao, 266580 , China.
E-mail addresses: dingxj@upc.edu.cn, dingxj129@foxmail.com (X. Ding).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.05.004
Received 15 October 2018; Received in revised form 15 April 2019; Accepted 2 May 2019
Available online 06 May 2019
0920-4105/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
X. Ding, et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 696–706

mudstone and siltstone (Zhang et al., 2019). Although many studies

Fig. 1. Map of the Junggar Basin in northwestern China, showing the sample
well in the Jimsar Sag.
have analyzed tuffaceous sediments, the work has been focused on the
petrologic characteristics and reservoir properties, and not on the hy-
drocarbon source rock to study the organic matter origin and accu-
mulation (Grynberg et al., 1993; Ma et al., 2019). However, it has been
found that tuffaceous sediments have hydrocarbon-generating potential
in many areas of China. For example, studies on oil-source correlation
have demonstrated that crude oils distributed in the northwestern
Junggar Basin were mainly derived from organic-rich tuffaceous dolo-
mitic shales of the Fengcheng Formation (Zhou et al., 1989; Xiang et al.,
2015.). Tuffaceous shale of the Beisantai, Wucaiwan and Shanan areas
of the Eastern Junggar Basin, with average total organic carbon (TOC)
contents of 2.28%, 1.28% and 1.27%, respectively, were also proposed
as hydrocarbon source rocks (Wang et al., 2011). The present study
focuses on the organic matter origin and accumulation of tuffaceous
sediments.
Most source rock studies in the Jimsar Sag usually focused on pyr-
olysis methods and geochemical analysis (Kuang et al., 2012; Wei et al.,
2013; Peng et al., 2015; Cao et al., 2016), while organic matter origin
and accumulation of tuffaceous source rock were not a focus. A

Table 1
Total organic carbon and Rock-Eval pyrolysis data for tuffaceous sediments within the Lower Permian Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar Sag, Junggar Basin.
Depth(m) Lithology TOC S1 S2 S1+S2 HI Tmax
(%) (mg/g) (mg/g) (mg/g) (S2/TOC*100) (°C)
3110.88 Tuffite 3.55 0.66 8.35 9.01 235.21 448
3112.09 Tuffaceous dolomite 0.85 0.42 1.92 2.34 225.88 443
3113.30 Tuffaceous dolomite 2.89 1.96 10.11 12.07 349.83 441
3113.34 Tuffaceous dolomite 0.72 0.02 0.71 0.73 98.61 443
3114.73 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.42 0.28 3.87 4.15 272.54 451
3118.78 Tuffite 9.77 0.44 78.96 79.40 808.19 453
3119.23 Tuffite 0.65 0.02 1.39 1.41 213.85 442
3134.05 Tuffaceous dolomite 6.77 0.74 32.75 33.49 483.75 444
3134.21 Tuffaceous dolomite 6.05 0.88 22.19 23.07 366.78 448
3144.66 Tuffaceous dolomite 0.55 0.06 0.99 1.05 180.00 442
3145.44 Tuffaceous dolomite 3.73 0.47 24.99 25.46 669.97 452
3146.16 Tuffaceous dolomite 2.72 0.79 6.98 7.77 256.62 441
3146.19 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.88 0.25 3.11 3.36 165.43 445
3152.82 Tuffite 3.17 0.02 20.20 20.22 637.22 451
3161.75 Tuffite 1.85 0.02 10.85 10.87 586.49 448
3162.02 Tuffite 3.22 0.17 10.76 10.93 334.16 453
3162.62 Tuffite 1.08 0.15 0.81 0.96 75.00 448
3174.75 Tuffite 0.43 0.03 0.79 0.82 183.72 447
3177.55 Tuffite 3.90 0.26 21.37 21.63 547.95 448
3177.57 Tuffite 3.39 0.21 7.80 8.01 230.09 455
3183.36 Tuffite 1.53 1.79 5.75 7.54 375.82 450
3183.80 Tuffite 3.85 0.22 7.85 8.07 203.90 452
3190.57 Tuffite 0.57 0.04 1.63 1.67 285.96 443
3200.73 Tuffaceous dolomite 0.53 0.04 2.03 2.07 383.02 449
3208.33 Tuffite 2.22 0.51 5.19 5.70 233.78 447
3212.16 Tuffite 1.13 0.21 1.62 1.83 143.36 449
3227.14 Tuffite 3.23 1.09 6.98 8.07 216.10 447
3263.19 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.21 0.04 1.79 1.83 147.93 444
3264.16 Tuffite 8.35 1.40 35.64 37.04 426.83 450
3274.00 Tuffaceous dolomite 0.45 0.01 0.69 0.70 153.33 451
3276.99 Tuffite 0.82 0.01 1.81 1.82 220.73 443
3277.65 Tuffite 6.83 2.42 28.82 31.24 421.96 445
3279.11 Tuffaceous dolomite 7.09 0.91 31.88 32.79 449.65 447
3283.74 Tuffaceous dolomite 0.61 0.02 1.02 1.04 167.21 442
3285.81 Tuffaceous dolomite 0.61 0.01 1.06 1.07 173.77 444
3286.70 Tuffaceous dolomite 8.16 1.16 39.94 41.10 489.46 446
3305.33 Tuffite 0.65 0.03 1.42 1.45 218.46 449
3306.47 Tuffite 0.98 0.36 2.06 2.42 210.20 441
3306.97 Tuffite 0.65 0.09 0.87 0.96 133.85 441
3308.42 Tuffaceous dolomite 0.56 0.03 0.74 0.77 132.14 439
3309.40 Tuffaceous dolomite 3.76 0.39 16.24 16.63 431.91 453
3311.18 Tuffite 0.72 0.26 1.68 1.94 233.33 438
3312.59 Tuffite 0.76 0.50 0.36 0.86 47.37 441
3313.65 Tuffite 2.20 0.27 3.06 3.33 139.09 450
3319.96 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.62 0.05 4.55 4.60 280.86 448
3323.38 Tuffaceous dolomite 4.72 1.46 18.91 20.37 400.64 449

Note: TOC = Total organic carbon (wt. %); S1 (mg/g), the amount of hydrocarbon of free; S2 (mg/g), the amount of hydrocarbon produced by the cracking of organic
matter; Tmax (°C), the temperature which corresponds to the maximum generation rate from kerogen cracking.

697
 Table 2
Biomarker parameters for tuffaceous sediments within the Lower Permian Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar Sag, Junggar Basin.
X. Ding, et al.

Depth(m) Lithology Isoprenoid ratios Alkanes Steranes Terpanes

Pr/Ph Pr/nC17 Ph/nC18 CPI C21-/C22+ 27% 28% 29% C27/(C27+C29) C29/C27 20S(%) ββ(%) G/H C22T/C21T C24T/C23T C26T/C25T C24Te/C26T

3110.88 Tuffite 1.08 2.67 2.43 1.17 0.53 15 33 52 0.22 3.46 0.32 0.23 0.22 0.13 0.42 2.70 1.12
3112.09 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.17 1.17 1.11 1.21 0.85 21 31 48 0.30 2.34 0.39 0.26 0.22 0.13 0.44 2.46 1.07
3113.30 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.22 1.09 1.10 0.83 1.11 19 33 48 0.28 2.53 0.35 0.22 0.36 0.15 0.34 2.11 1.46
3113.34 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.12 0.94 0.85 1.19 0.69 16 35 49 0.24 3.16 0.46 0.36 0.16 0.16 0.45 2.21 1.14
3114.73 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.21 1.21 1.18 1.32 0.57 32 29 39 0.45 1.24 0.36 0.21 0.17 0.11 0.40 2.40 1.37
3118.78 Tuffite 1.51 0.63 0.58 0.96 2.02 18 34 48 0.27 2.73 0.41 0.26 0.22 0.13 0.38 2.26 2.15
3119.23 Tuffite 1.18 0.90 1.80 1.18 0.87 15 34 51 0.23 3.40 0.45 0.35 0.16 0.15 0.41 2.22 1.18
3134.05 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.42 1.89 1.73 0.66 0.59 23 32 45 0.34 1.98 0.32 0.19 0.18 0.11 0.39 2.67 1.38
3134.21 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.24 2.02 1.62 1.65 0.63 23 31 47 0.33 2.05 0.31 0.18 0.26 0.12 0.41 2.96 1.35
3144.66 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.15 1.31 1.34 1.20 0.87 13 35 52 0.21 3.85 0.43 0.29 0.18 0.14 0.42 2.43 1.11
3145.44 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.16 0.87 0.86 1.11 1.03 16 37 47 0.26 2.86 0.40 0.26 0.18 0.13 0.36 2.08 2.22
3146.16 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.2 0.54 0.38 1.12 1.70 19 41 40 0.32 2.16 0.30 0.18 0.07 0.15 0.33 2.17 1.65
3146.19 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.03 0.5 0.45 1.25 0.93 19 45 36 0.35 1.88 0.32 0.17 0.09 0.12 0.44 2.44 1.11
3152.82 Tuffite 1.26 0.88 0.71 1.27 0.58 15 54 31 0.32 2.10 0.41 0.26 0.13 0.14 0.42 2.16 2.00
3161.75 Tuffite 1.49 0.17 0.08 1.34 0.91 20 42 38 0.35 1.84 0.32 0.20 0.14 0.13 0.44 2.41 4.29
3162.02 Tuffite 1.46 0.15 0.08 1.25 0.99 19 42 40 0.32 2.12 0.32 0.18 0.15 0.28 0.52 2.06 7.27
3162.62 Tuffite 1.50 0.15 0.09 1.21 0.64 22 27 51 0.30 2.29 0.35 0.19 0.07 0.23 0.53 2.04 12.07
3174.75 Tuffite 1.26 0.36 0.23 1.36 0.68 14 45 41 0.26 2.87 0.36 0.19 0.16 0.13 0.40 2.31 1.92
3177.55 Tuffite 1.07 0.25 0.22 1.11 0.49 22 38 40 0.36 1.81 0.37 0.21 0.09 0.17 0.43 2.18 3.62
3177.57 Tuffite 1.05 0.26 0.22 1.24 0.51 22 37 41 0.35 1.90 0.37 0.21 0.09 0.17 0.43 2.06 3.67
3183.36 Tuffite 1.4 0.3 0.17 1.27 0.65 19 37 44 0.30 2.29 0.31 0.18 0.15 0.14 0.39 2.22 1.74
3183.80 Tuffite 1.35 0.35 0.22 1.15 0.79 20 39 41 0.33 2.01 0.30 0.16 0.18 0.13 0.36 2.10 2.59
3190.57 Tuffite 1.13 1.34 1.42 1.19 0.88 13 35 53 0.19 4.22 0.45 0.32 0.18 0.14 0.42 2.24 1.14

698
3200.73 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.42 1.58 1.26 1.25 0.86 18 34 48 0.27 2.67 0.40 0.24 0.19 0.13 0.39 2.68 1.05
3208.33 Tuffite 1.42 1.63 1.27 0.98 0.66 18 36 46 0.29 2.47 0.35 0.19 0.25 0.16 0.35 1.96 2.17
3212.16 Tuffite 0.94 0.92 1.18 1.47 0.39 17 37 46 0.27 2.72 0.42 0.26 0.13 0.20 0.75 3.62 10.22
3227.14 Tuffite 1.13 1.55 1.86 1.21 0.83 15 37 48 0.24 3.25 0.38 0.21 0.19 0.11 0.39 2.72 1.55
3263.19 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.06 1.75 2.40 1.15 1.08 12 35 53 0.18 4.44 0.43 0.27 0.19 0.14 0.43 2.50 1.13
3264.16 Tuffite 1.19 1.27 1.68 1.03 2.01 14 33 53 0.21 3.68 0.44 0.25 0.21 0.12 0.38 2.11 1.91
3274.00 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.05 1.77 2.35 1.16 0.95 12 33 55 0.18 4.62 0.44 0.28 0.19 0.13 0.42 2.50 1.11
3276.99 Tuffite 1.10 1.75 2.26 1.14 1.07 11 34 55 0.17 4.75 0.44 0.29 0.20 0.14 0.40 2.54 1.11
3277.65 Tuffite 1.11 1.53 2.04 1.40 1.33 12 34 54 0.19 4.30 0.42 0.25 0.20 0.13 0.41 2.40 1.35
3279.11 Tuffaceous dolomite 0.99 1.78 2.55 1.41 0.93 11 34 55 0.17 4.85 0.41 0.24 0.19 0.12 0.42 2.41 1.03
3283.74 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.03 1.82 2.59 1.13 1.10 11 33 56 0.17 4.97 0.43 0.25 0.19 0.13 0.44 2.54 0.99
3285.81 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.03 1.81 2.48 1.10 1.23 11 32 57 0.16 5.10 0.42 0.25 0.18 0.13 0.42 2.66 0.97
3286.70 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.01 1.49 2.17 1.21 1.44 14 32 54 0.21 3.71 0.43 0.25 0.20 0.10 0.41 2.18 1.52
3305.33 Tuffite 0.80 1.65 2.73 1.24 0.61 15 33 52 0.22 3.47 0.42 0.24 0.15 0.12 0.45 2.85 0.57
3306.47 Tuffite 0.85 1.51 2.62 1.22 1.14 15 34 51 0.22 3.48 0.40 0.23 0.15 0.13 0.44 2.97 0.56
3306.97 Tuffite 0.87 1.53 2.58 1.23 1.13 15 33 52 0.22 3.53 0.41 0.24 0.15 0.13 0.42 2.70 0.57
3308.42 Tuffaceous dolomite 0.88 1.48 2.22 1.31 0.56 13 41 47 0.21 3.68 0.41 0.24 0.14 0.14 0.42 2.78 0.66
3309.40 Tuffaceous dolomite 0.84 1.52 2.66 1.50 0.85 12 35 53 0.19 4.39 0.41 0.22 0.13 0.14 0.41 2.70 0.72
3311.18 Tuffite 1.03 1.69 2.36 1.42 1.06 17 37 46 0.28 2.62 0.43 0.25 0.16 0.13 0.45 3.09 0.72
3312.59 Tuffite 0.96 1.63 2.30 1.18 0.85 17 35 48 0.26 2.80 0.42 0.25 0.14 0.11 0.45 3.17 0.76
3313.65 Tuffite 0.99 1.88 2.50 1.36 0.74 9 30 61 0.13 7.00 0.39 0.34 0.21 0.19 0.41 2.73 1.62
3319.96 Tuffaceous dolomite 1.01 1.24 1.74 1.46 1.80 18 33 49 0.27 2.64 0.42 0.26 0.19 0.14 0.41 2.69 0.64
3323.38 Tuffaceous dolomite 0.95 1.38 1.73 1.34 0.88 18 34 48 0.27 2.65 0.42 0.29 0.20 0.15 0.42 2.70 0.65

Note: Pr/Ph = Pristane/Phytane; Pr/C17 = Pristane/C17 n-alkane; Ph/C18 = Phytane/C18 n-alkane; CPI = 2(C23+C25+C27+C29)/[C22+2(C24+C26+C28)+C30]; %27 = C27 steranes/(C27 steranes + C28 steranes + C29
steranes); %28 = C28 steranes/(C27 steranes + C28 steranes + C29 steranes); %29 = C29 steranes/(C27 steranes + C28 steranes + C29 steranes); C27/(C27+C29) = C27 steranes/(C27 steranes + C29 steranes); C29/
C27 = C29 steranes/C27 steranes; 20S(%) = C29 sterane ααα20S/(20S + 20R); ββ(%) = C29 sterane αββ/(αββ+ααα); G/H = Gammacerane/C30 hopane; C22T/C21T = C22 tricyclic terpane/C21 tricyclic terpane; C24T/
C23T = C24 tricyclic terpane/C23 tricyclic terpane; C26T/C25T = C26 tricyclic terpane/C25 tricyclic terpane; C24Te/C26T = C24 tetracyclic terpane/C25 tricyclic terpane.
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 696–706
X. Ding, et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 696–706

Fig. 2. Vertical variations in TOC, S1, HI and Tmax data for tuffaceous sediments within the Lower Permian Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar Sag of the Junggar
Basin. TOC = Total organic carbon (wt. %); S1 (mg/g), the amount of hydrocarbon of free; HI = S2/TOC*100, S2 (mg/g), the amount of generated hydrocarbons;
Tmax (°C), the temperature of the maximum generation rate of kerogen cracking.

comprehensive study of geochemical characteristics has been con-
ducted on the tuffaceous shale of the LCG in the Jimsar Sag, to (1)
reveal geochemical characteristics and hydrocarbon generation poten-
tial; (2) investigate depositional environment and organic matter
origin; and (3) define controlling factors on organic matter accumula-
tion and present a tuffaceous source rock development model.
2. Geological setting
The Junggar Basin is a famous petroliferous basin in northwestern
China, and the Jimsar Sag is an important sag with proven tight oil and
shale oil resources, located in the eastern basin (Fig. 1) (Ding et al.,
2017; Li et al., 2019). The Jimsar Sag is a small half-graben sag with
boundary faulting in the west, and has been a main exploration target
of unconventional oil exploration in China (Wang et al., 2015; Jiang
et al., 2015; Cao et al., 2017).
With a Carboniferous basement, the sediments were deposited from
the Permian to Quaternary. Tight oil is mainly contained in the LCG
(Cao et al., 2017). During deposition of the LCG, volcanic material,
terrigenous detrital materials and carbonate were mixed and caused
typical mixed sediments (Shao et al., 2015). Comprehensive application
of core and thin section observations show that the LCG, with a
thickness of 200–300 m, is composed of tuffite, tuffaceous dolomite,
mudstone and siltstone and could be further subdivided into the lower
(P2l1) and upper Lucaogou Member (P2l2) (Jiang et al., 2015). The
single tuffite and tuffaceous dolomite layers are generally 2.0–3.0 m

699
X. Ding, et al.
Fig. 3. Total organic carbon (TOC) contents versus Rock-Eval S2 peaks (mg
hydrocarbons [HC]/g rock) for tuffaceous sediment samples from the Lucaogou
Formation (P2l) of the Jimsar Sag.
Fig. 4. Plot of hydrogen index versus Tmax outlining the kerogen type of
Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar Sag of the Junggar Basin.
thick and strongly heterogeneous. The LCG consist of mainly shallow
and semi deep lake facies, with minor deep lake facies (Cao et al.,
2017).
3. Samples and methods
A total of 46 core samples were collected from the LCG tuffaceous
shale cores in the Jimsar Sag. The sampling well is located in the central
part of the sag and is shown in Fig. 1B. The 46 core samples were used
for TOC content measurements, pyrolysis analysis and gas chromato-
graphy-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis.
To obtain the TOC and pyrolysis parameters (Tmax, S1 and S2), a
Rock-Eval VI instrument was used and the procedure was described by
Behar et al. (2001). The data are shown in Table 1. It should be men-
tioned that occurrence of hydrocarbons in samples will always affect
the shape of the S2 peak in the FID and reading of the Tmax value may
700
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 696–706
be affected. And the Tmax data may be uncertain ( ± 10 °C).
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis was per-
formed by an HP680GC/5973MSD instrument equipped with an HP-
5MS fused silica column (30 m × 0.25 mm i.d., film thickness 0.25 μm).
First, the organic matter was conducted by chloroform/methanol
(87:13, v/v) and separated into several parts: saturated hydrocarbon,
aromatic hydrocarbon, and asphaltine. Second, the saturated hydro-
carbon was dissolved in hexane and analyzed by an HP-5MS column.
The analysis results are listed in Table 2.
Polished whole-rock blocks were prepared for organic matter clas-
sification via a Zeiss Axio Imager fluorescence microscope.
Characteristics of the macerals were analyzed under reflected white
light and incident blue light. According to the well-established ICCP
liptinite classification (Pickel et al., 2017a,b), the visual analysis reveals
mainly liptinite, but areas of vitrinite and inertinite were also present.
4. Results
4.1. Source rock quality
TOC, S2, and HI (hydrogen indices, S2/TOC) are usually used to
evaluate organic matter abundance, and kerogen types (Tissot and
Welte, 1984). The TOC of the LCG tuffaceous source rocks ranges from
0.43% to 9.77%, with a mean value of 2.66% (Table 1, Fig. 2). The
hydrocarbon generation index (S1+S2) ranges between 0.70 and
41.10 mg HC/g·TOC, with mean value of 11.17 mg HC/g·TOC (Table 1,
Fig. 2). Generally, HI values higher than 6.0 mg HC/g represent higher
hydrocarbon potential (Tissot and Welte, 1984). Cross plots of S2 and
TOC for the LCG tuffaceous samples are shown in Fig. 3. Most of the
LCG samples had TOC higher than 1.0% and S2 higher than 2 mg HC/g
rock, which suggested fair, good and excellent source rocks were de-
veloped in the sag, based on the guidelines from Peters and Cassa
(1994).
Rock-Eval pyrolysis parameters are also usually used to classify
organic matter type (Peters, 1986). LCG source rock samples show wide
variations in kerogen types, according to the wide range of HI
(47.37–808.19 mg/g TOC) (Fig. 4). According to the organic matter
types standard (Peters, 1986; Huang et al., 1984), the kerogen com-
position of the LCG tuffaceous samples is mainly distributed from type I
to type II, with a small portion of type III (Fig. 4). And type II may be
just a mixing of type I and type III.
The Tmax values of LCG tuffaceous samples range from 438 to
455 °C, implying that the thermal evolution is between the immature
and mature stages (Table 1, Fig. 2), which is consistent with the Ro
values (0.7–1.0) in Pang (2019).
4.2. Organic matter visual analysis
The Liptinite group includes bituminite, alginate, cutinite, sporinite,
suberinite, resinite, exsudatinite and liptodetrinite (Pickel et al.,
2017a,b). In tuffaceous shale of the Lucaogou Formation studied here,
alginite was observed in relatively high abundances. Alginite was ob-
served as locally agglomerated (Fig. 5a), stripe-like and parallel to
bedding (Fig. 5b and c). Cutinite usually showed yellow fluorescence
(Fig. 5d) and vitrinite did not have any fluorescence in the samples of
tuffaceous shale (Fig. 5e). Inertinite showed a higher reflection than
vitrinite under reflected white light, and no fluorescence under incident
blue light illumination (Fig. 5f).
4.3. Molecular analysis
Biomarkers are often used to assess organic matter origin, deposi-
tional environment (e.g. redox condition and salinity) and thermal
maturity stage, and have drawn increasing attention in recent years
(Peters et al., 2005; Arfaoui et al., 2007). The biomarker distributions of
selected LCG tuffaceous shale samples are shown in Fig. 6.
X. Ding, et al.
Fig. 5. Photomicrographs of organic matter in the polished blocks: a-c, alginite under incident blue light; d, cutinite under incident blue light; e, vitrinite under
incident blue light; f, inertinite under reflected white light. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web
version of this article.)
4.3.1. N-alkanes and isoprenoids
The tuffaceous shale extracts contain a full range of n-alkanes and
isoprenoids. The patterns of n-alkane are dominated by short-to long-
chain n-alkanes (Fig. 6). The values of carbon preference index (CPI)
range from 0.65 to 1.65, and the C21-/C22+ values range from 0.39 to
2.02, as shown in Table 2. The Pr/Ph values of the upper LCG are higher
than those of the lower LCG, ranging from 1.03 to 1.51 and 0.80 to
1.42, respectively (Table 2). The extracts also display a high content of
β-carotane. The height of β-carotane is as high as the major n-alkane
peak, or even higher (Fig. 6).
4.3.2. Terpanes
The tricyclic and pentacyclic terpane distribution pattern obtained
from m/z 191 ion chromatograms is shown in Fig. 6. Gam/C30H (G/H)
values range from 0.07 to 0.36 (Table 2). Both Tm and Ts are present in
all samples, and Tm is significantly higher than Ts, as shown in Fig. 2
and Table 2. Tricyclic terpane abundances are relatively lower (Fig. 6),
and C21T is generally greater than C19T and C23T (Table 2).
4.3.3. Steranes
The sterane distribution patterns are characterized by a dominant
regular steranes, and relatively low abundances of diacholestanes
(Fig. 6). Stigmastane (C29) is generally greater than ergostane (C28) and
cholestane (C27) among the regular steranes in the LCG (Fig. 6). Values
701
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 696–706
of the C27/(C27 + C29) sterane ratio are high in the upper LCG
(0.21–0.47), whereas lower values are observed in the lower LCG
(0.12–0.28) (Table 2).
5. Discussion
5.1. Origin of organic matter
N-alkane distribution patterns are also usually used to define or-
ganic matter origin, e.g. Peters et al. (2005) reported that source rocks
with CPI∼1 may show that the organic matter origin was phyto-
plankton, zooplankton and benthic bacteria. The mean CPI value of all
the samples is approximately 1.22, reflecting a major contribution of
phytoplankton and aquatic algal-bacterial organisms. Long-chain n-al-
kanes (C22–C35) chiefly come from terrestrial higher plants and short-
chain n-alkanes (C12–C21) are typical of algae and plankton (Tissot and
Welte, 1984; Eglinton and Hamilton, 1967; Cranwell et al., 1987;
Meyers, 1997). The values of NC21-/NC22+ mainly range from 0.5 to 1.5
(Fig. 7), indicating that the organic matter of LCG was probably mainly
derived from an algal or planktonic source with terrestrial plant input
(see Fig. 8).
Proportional sterane abundances are usually used as useful in-
dicators for defining organic matter biological sources (Seifert and
Moldowan, 1978; Huang and Meinschein, 1979). The ternary diagram
X. Ding, et al.
Fig. 6. Biomarker distribution of selected tuffaceous samples of Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar Sag of the Junggar Basin. Show in the sequence of TIC, sterane (m/
z 217) and terpane (m/z 191) distribution. Pr = pristane; Ph = phytane; C19T = C19 tricyclic terpane; C21T = C21 tricyclic terpane; C23T = C23 tricyclic terpane;
C24Te = C24 tetracyclic terpane; Ts = 18α (H)-22, 29, 30-trisnorneohopane; Tm = 17α (H)-22, 29, 30-trisnorhopane; C30H = C30 hopane; C27 = C27 sterane 20R;
C28 = C28 sterane 20R; C29 = C29 sterane 20R.
of C27–C28–C29 steranes of the LCG tuffaceous sediment samples is
shown in Fig. 7. The abundant steranes in the LCG tuffaceous sediment
samples are C29 (27%–60%, average 47%), followed by C28 (31%–59%,
average 37%) with minimal C27 steranes (8%–33%, average 17%),
which is shown in Table 2 and Fig. 7.
It is usually considered that C27 steranes are derived mainly from
phytoplankton (e.g., Volkman, 1983) and that C28 steranes are derived
from specific phytoplankton types, such as diatoms containing chlor-
ophyll-c (Knoll et al., 2007), whereas C29 steranes mainly originate
from terrigenous higher plants (e.g., Hao et al., 2011; Volkman, 2003).
In general, the steranes of the tuffaceous shale of P2l may reflect a low
contribution of phytoplankton and aquatic algal-bacterial organisms
and a major contribution of terrestrial higher plants. However, it should
be noted that bituminitel and alginite were observed with relatively
high contents in the samples, the δ13C of the kerogen ranges from
−28.33‰ to −24.28‰ (average −26.69‰) (Wu et al., 2017), and
cyanobacteria are also an important source of C29 steranes (Volkman,
1983; Volkman et al., 1998). Thus, it appears that a high portion of the
C29 steranes are associated with cyanobacteria, as the main source of
organic matter. Considering that volcanic ash can fertilize surface wa-
ters and stimulate phytoplankton (Duggen et al., 2007; Kurenkov,
1966). Cyanobacteria is rich in carotenoids, and is also the expected
precursor of β-carotane (Philp et al., 1992). Therefore, we concluded
that the high content of cyanobacteria is also the primary cause of the
high abundance of β-carotane in the LCG tuffaceous sediment samples.
5.2. Depositional environment
Redox conditions in the depositional environment are the essential
controlling factors for organic matter degradation and preservation
(Burdige, 2007). Previous studies have indicated that volcanic ash has
contributed to forming an anoxic environment in modern and ancient
sediments (Jones and Gislason, 2008; Turgeon and Creaser, 2008). A
very strong line of scientific evidence is that the temporal and spatial
distribution of the Cretaceous oceanic anoxic event is consistent with a
volcano eruption (Turgeon and Creaser, 2008), and mainly formed
702
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 696–706
because of water column stratification caused by volcanic ash (Meyer
and Kump, 2008; Sinton and Duncan, 1997).
The Pr/Ph (pristane/phytane) ratio is an indicator redox condition
in a depositional environment. It is usually considered that a ratio less
than 1 may imply a suboxic or anoxic environment, while a ratio
greater than 1 may indicate oxidizing depositional conditions (Didyk
et al., 1978). It should be mentioned that some researchers believe the
ratio may be influenced by thermal maturity, and cannot be used as an
indicator of depositional redox conditions (Connan, 1973; Albrecht
et al., 1976). In our study area, the ratios of tuffaceous shale decrease
with increasing burial depth (Fig. 6). Therefore, it could be concluded
that the ratio is not controlled by thermal maturity. The Pr/Ph ratios
range from to 0.8 to 1.5, with a mean value of 1.1, implying a relatively
mildly oxic to mildly anoxic depositional environment.
Plots of the Pr/NC17 ratio versus Ph/NC18 ratio shown in Fig. 9
could also be used to indicate redox conditions of the organic matter
depositional environment (Peters et al., 1999), indicating a mildly
oxidizing to mildly reducing depositional environment. The tuffaceous
sediment depositional environment of the lower LCG is more reducing
than that of the upper LCG (Fig. 9). It appears that volcanic ash did not
change the redox conditions in the P2l tuffaceous sediment in the
Jimsar Sag.
Gammacerane is derived from the reduction of tetrahymanol
(Venkatesan, 1989), and the principal source of tetrahymanol appears
to be bacterivorous ciliates, which usually stay at the interface between
oxic and anoxic zones of stratified water columns (Sinninghe et al.,
1995). Therefore, gammacerane could be used to imply a stratified
water column. Although a stratified water column can also be attrib-
uted to either hypersalinity or temperature gradient (e.g., Bohacs et al.,
2000), a high content of gammacerane is mostly found in evaporite or
high-salinity depositional environments (Holba et al., 2003; Summons
et al., 2008). The gammacerane index (gammacerane/C30hopane)
ranges from 0.07 to 0.36 (average 0.17) and indicates a fresh to
brackish water depositional environment (Hao et al., 2011), which is
shown in Table 2 and Fig. 7. It should be mentioned that the brackish
water depositional environment may also be caused by volcanic ash
X. Ding, et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 696–706

Fig. 7. Vertical variations in TOC, Pr/Ph, C21-/C22+, G/H, 27%, 28% and 29% data for tuffaceous sediments within the Lower Permian Lucaogou Formation in the
Jimsar Sag of the Junggar Basin. Abbreviations for biomarker parameters are defined in Table 2.

(Censi et al., 2010), as the gammacerane index is relatively higher in

the condensed tuffaceous shale.

5.3. Organic matter accumulation

Organic matter accumulation is a very complex process that is

controlled by many factors, such as climate, water chemistry, weath-
ering, and tectonic setting. Historically, organic matter productivity,
preservation, and sedimentation rate have been considered as the three
main controlling factors of organic matter accumulation (Bohacs et al.,
2005; Calvert, 1990; Arthur and Dean, 1998; Katz, 2005). In the Jimsar
Sag, tectonic movement was very weak during deposition of the Per-
mian LCG, and the sedimentation rate of the LCG was relatively steady,
as proven by the less variable strata thickness (Kuang et al., 2013). The
volcanic ash was transported to the lake mainly by wind and had the
little effect on sedimentation rate (Yang et al., 2018). Therefore, we
conclude that the sedimentation rate is not the key controlling factor of
organic matter accumulation.
Volcanic ash can fertilize surface water and enhance primary pro-
ductivity by releasing mineral ions such as iron in modern lakes and
oceans (Kurenkov, 1966; Uematsu et al., 2004; Langmann et al., 2010).
Fig. 8. Ternary diagram of C27–C28–C29 steranes for tuffaceous sediments
Duggen et al. (2007) recognized that volcanic ash could stimulate
within the Lower Permian Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar Sag of the Junggar
phytoplankton and promote productivity-based biogeochemical ex-
Basin (Modified after Adegoke et al., 2014). Abbreviations for biomarker
periments. Biomarkers, especially sterane parameters have the poten-
parameters are defined in Table 2.
tial to indicate primary producers (e.g., Volkman et al., 1998; Hao et al.,

703
X. Ding, et al.
Fig. 9. Relationship between Ph/nC18 and Pr/nC17 ratio values for tuffaceous
sediments within the Lower Permian Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar Sag of
the Junggar Basin (Modified after Peter et al., 1999). Abbreviations for bio-
marker parameters are defined in Table 2.
2011).
To define whether productivity had a controlling effect on organic
matter accumulation, we comprehensively analyzed the relationship
between TOC and sterane content in the P2l tuffaceous sediment sam-
ples. The TOC of the LCG tuffaceous shale is characterized by high
values and strong lateral heterogeneity, with a range of 0.43%–9.77%
(Fig. 7). The C27 and C28 sterane content tendency are obviously dif-
ferent from the TOC content tendency, while the C29 sterane content
displays the same trend as the TOC content, which increasing and de-
creasing in the lower and upper LCG, separately. Therefore, we can
conclude that organic matter accumulation is controlled by the abun-
dance of cyanobacteria (the major source of C29 steranes) during LCG
deposition. Moreover, it should also be mentioned that the gamma-
cerane index (gammacerane/αβ C30 hopane) has the same change trend
as TOC and C29 steranes, indicating that water salinity had an apparent
influence on organic matter accumulation.
In addition, redox conditions are commonly considered to be the
key factor for organic matter degradation and preservation (Hedges and
Keil, 1995; Demaison and Moore, 1980). The Pr/Ph displays no re-
lationship to the TOC. Although the redox conditions of the lower and
upper LCG are obviously different, the TOC content values are similar.
Thus, the implied redox conditions did not have evident controlling on
organic matter accumulation.
Based on a comprehensive analysis of organic productivity, organic
matter preservation and accumulation, we concluded productivity is
the main controlling factor of organic matter accumulation. Previous
studies had proved that volcanic ash can stimulate phytoplankton and
promote productivity in modern sediments (Duggen et al., 2007;
Uematsu et al., 2004; Langmann et al., 2010). Therefore, we could
conclude volcanic ash was the crucial ingredient on causing high pro-
ductivity in LCG tuffaceous sediments, which is supported by that ash-
bearing sediments usually have relatively high β-carotane and C29
sterane content. We speculated volcanic ash may release mineral ions
such as iron, and then stimulated cyanobacteria, which was the main
cause of organic matter accumulation in the tuffaceous shale of the
Jimsar Sag.
6. Conclusions
Based on our bulk geochemical study and molecular geochemical
observations of 47 tuffaceous shale samples, we inferred the organic
matter origin, depositional environment and organic matter accumu-
lation of the tuffaceous shale, and the following conclusions could be
704
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 696–706
drawn:
(1) The tuffaceous shale is a good source rocks with high hydrocarbon
generation potential, as indicated by high TOC (total organic
carbon, 0.43%–9.77%) and S1+S2 (hydrocarbon potential index
0.70–41.10 mg HC/g).
(2) The molecular composition of the Lucaogou tuffaceous sample ex-
tracts reflects fresh to brackish water conditions and a relatively
mildly oxidizing to mildly reducing depositional environment. It
appears that volcanic ash did not change the redox condition but
caused the brackish water depositional environment.
(3) Volcanic ash may have released mineral ions and then stimulated
cyanobacteria blooming, which was associated with the high por-
tion of C29 steranes and the main reason for organic matter accu-
mulation in the tuffaceous sediment of the Jimsar Sag.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by a grant from the National Science
Foundation for Young Scientists of China (Grant No. 41702143), the
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities
(17CX02006A), and the Foundation of Shandong Provincial Key
Laboratory of Depositional Mineralization & Sedimentary Mineral
(DMSM2017063). We would like to thank the Xinjiang Petroleum
Administration Bureau of CNPC for providing the core samples. Special
thanks to Executive Editor Tahar Aifa, reviewer Vincent Crombez and
another anonymous reviewer for their constructive comments and
corrections, which have substantially improved the quality of this
manuscript.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.05.004.
References
Adegoke, A.K., Abdullah, W.H., Hakimi, M.H., et al., 2014. Geochemical characterisation
of Fika Formation in the Chad (Bornu) Basin, northeastern Nigeria: implications for
depositional environment and tectonic setting. Appl. Geochem. 43, 1–12.
Albrecht, P., Vandenbroucke, M., Mandengue, M., 1976. Geochemical studies on the
organic matter from the Douala Basin (Cameroon)-I. Evolution of the extractable
organic matter and the formation of petroleum. Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 40,
791–799.
Arfaoui, A., Montacer, M., Kamoun, F., et al., 2007. Comparative study between Rock-
Eval pyrolysis and biomarker parameters: a case study of Ypresian source rocks in
central-northern Tunisia. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 24, 566–578.
Arthur, M.A., Dean, W.E., 1998. Organic matter production and preservation and evo-
lution of anoxia in the Holocene Black Sea. Paleoceanography 13, 395–411.
Behar, F., Beaumont, V., Penteado, H.D.B., 2001. Rock-Eval 6 technology: performances
and developments. Oil Gas Sci. Technol. 56 (2), 111–134.
Bohacs, K.M., Carroll, A.R., Neal, J.E., et al., 2000. Lake-basin type, source potential, and
hydrocarbon character. An integrated sequence-stratigraphic geochemical frame-
work. In: Gierlowski-Kordesch, E.H., Kelts, K.R. (Eds.), Lake Basins through Space
and Time. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Studies in Geology. vol. 46.
pp. 3–34.
Bohacs, K.M., Grabowski Jr., G.J., Carroll, A.R., et al., 2005. Productivity, destruction,
and dilution-the many paths to source-rock development. In: Harris, N.B. (Ed.), The
Deposition of Organic-Carbon-Rich Sediments: Models, Mechanisms, and
Consequences. vol. 82. Society for Sedimentary Geology Special Publication, pp.
61–101.
Burdige, D.J., 2007. Preservation of organic matter in marine sediments: controls, me-
chanisms, and an imbalance in sediment organic carbon budgets? Chem. Rev. 107
(2), 467–485.
Burton, D., Woolf, K., Sullivan, B., 2014. Lacustrine depositional environments in the
Green River formation, uinta basin: expression in outcrop and wireline logs. AAPG
(Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.) Bull. 98, 1699–1715.
Calvert, T.F., 1990. Anoxia vs. productivity: what controls the formation of organic
carbon rich sediments and sedimentary rocks? AAPG (Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.) Bull. 4,
454–466.
Cao, Z., liu, G., Kong, Y., et al., 2016. Lacustrine tight oil accumulation characteristics:
permian Lucaogou Formation in jimusaer sag, Junggar Basin. Int. J. Coal Geol. 153,
37–51.
Cao, Z., Liu, G., Xiang, B., et al., 2017. Geochemical characteristics of crude oil from a
X. Ding, et al.
tight oil reservoir in the Lucaogou Formation, Jimusar sag, Junggar Basin. AAPG
(Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.) Bull. 101, 39–72.
Censi, P., Randazzo, L.A., Zuddas, P., et al., 2010. Trace element behaviour in seawater
during Etna's pyroclastic activity in 2001: concurrent effects of nutrients and for-
mation of alteration minerals. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 193, 106–116.
Connan, J., 1973. Diagenese naturelle et diagenese artificielle de la matiere organique a
element vegetaux predominant. In: Tissot, B.P., Bienner, F. (Eds.), Advances in
Organic Geochemistry. Editions Technip, Paris, pp. 73–95.
Cranwell, P.A., Eglinton, G., Robinson, N., 1987. Lipids of aquatic organisms as potential
contributors to lacustrine sediments-II. Org. Geochem. 11, 513–527.
Demaison, G.J., Moore, G.T., 1980. Anoxic environments and oil source bed genesis. Org.
Geochem. 2, 9–31.
Didyk, B.M., Simoneit, B.R.T., Brassell, S.C., et al., 1978. Organic geochemical indicators
of palaeoenvironmental conditions of sedimentation. Nature 272, 216–222.
Ding, X., Liu, G., Zha, M., et al., 2016. Geochemical characterization and depositional
environment of source rocks of small fault basin in Erlian Basin, northern China. Mar.
Petrol. Geol. 69, 231–240.
Ding, X., Gao, C., Zha, M., et al., 2017. Depositional environment and factors controlling
β-carotane accumulation A case study from the jimsar sag, Junggar Basin, north-
western China, palaeogeography, palaeoclimatology. Palaeoecology 485, 833–842.
Duggen, S., Croot, P., Schacht, U., et al., 2007. Subduction zone volcanic ash can fertilize
the surface ocean and stimulate phytoplankton growth: evidence from biogeochem-
ical experiments and satellite data. Geophys. Res. Lett. 34, 95–119.
Eglinton, G., Hamilton, R.J., 1967. Leaf epicuticular waxes. Science 156, 1322–1335.
Eugster, H.P., Surdam, R.C., 1973. Depositional environment of the Green River forma-
tion: a preliminary report. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 86, 319–334.
Grynberg, M.E., Papava, D., Shengelia, M., Takaishvili, A., A, et al., 1993. Petrophysical
characteristics of the middle ecoene laumontite tuff reservoir, Samgori field, Republic
of Georgia. J. Pet. Geol. 16, 313–322.
Hao, F., Zhou, X., Zhu, Y., Yang, Y., 2011. Lacustrine source rock deposition in response
to coevolution of environments and organisms controlled by tectonic subsidence and
climate, Bohai Bay basin, China. Org. Geochem. 42, 323–339.
Harris, N.B., Freeman, K.H., Pancost, R.D., et al., 2004. The character and origin of la-
custrine source rocks in the Lower Cretaceous synrift section, Congo Basin, west
Africa. AAPG (Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.) Bull. 88, 1163–1184.
Hedges, J.I., Keil, R.G., 1995. Sedimentary organic matter preservation: an assessment
and speculative synthesis. Mar. Chem. 49, 81–115.
Holba, A.G., Dzou, L.I., Wood, G.D., et al., 2003. Application of tetracyclic polyprenoids
as indicators of input from fresh-brackish water environments. Org. Geochem. 34,
441–469.
Huang, W.Y., Meinschein, W.G., 1979. Sterols as ecological indicators. Geochem.
Cosmochim. Acta 43, 739–745.
Huang, D., Li, J., Zhou, X., et al., 1984. Evolution and Hydrocarbon Generation
Mechanism of Terrestrial Organic Matter. Petroleum industry press, Beijing, pp.
25–29 (in Chinese).
Jiang, Y., Liu, Y., Yang, Z., et al., 2015. Characteristics and origin of tuff-type tight oil in
jimusar depression, Junggar Basin, NW China. Petrol. Explor. Dev. 42, 741–749.
Jones, M.T., Gislason, S.R., 2008. Rapid releases of metal salts and nutrients following the
deposition of volcanic ash into aqueous environments. Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta
72 (15), 3661–3680.
Katz, B.J., 1990. Controls on distribution of lacustrine source rocks through time and
space. In: Katz, B.J. (Ed.), Lacustrine Basin Exploration: Case Studies and Modern
Analogs. vol. 50. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir, pp. 61–76.
Katz, B.,J., 1994. Petroleum source rocks-an introduction overview. In: Katz, B.J. (Ed.),
Petroleum Source Rock, pp. 1–8.
Katz, B.J., 1995. A survey of rift basin source rocks. In: Lambiase, J.J. (Ed.), Hydrocarbon
Habitat of Rift Basins. vol. 80. Geological Society (London) Special Publication, pp.
213–242.
Katz, B.J., 2005. Controlling factors on source rock development-a review of productivity,
preservation, and sedimentation rate. In: Harris, N.B. (Ed.), The Deposition of
Organic Carbon Rich Sediments: Models, Mechanisms, and Consequences. Society of
Sedimentary Geology, pp. 7–16.
Kelts, K., 1988. Environments of deposition of lacustrine petroleum source rocks: an in-
troduction. In: Fleet, A.J., Kelts, K., Talbot, M.R. (Eds.), Lacustrine Petroleum Source
Rocks. vol. 40. Geological Society Special Publication, pp. 3–26.
Keym, M., Dieckmann, V., Horsfield, B., Erdmann, M., Galimberti, R., Kua, L.C., Leith, L.,
Podlaha, O., 2006. Source rock heterogeneity of the upper Jurassic Draupne
Formation, north Viking Graben, and its relevance to petroleum generation studies.
Org. Geochem. 37, 220–243.
Knoll, A.H., Summons, R.E., Waldbauer, J.R., Zumberge, J.E., 2007. The geological suc-
cession of primary producers in the oceans. In: Falkowski, P., Knoll, A.H. (Eds.),
Evolution of Primary Producers in the Sea. Academic Press, Boston, pp. 133–163.
Kuang, L., Tang, Y., Lei, D., Chang, et al., 2012. Formation conditions and exploration
potential of tight oil in the Permian saline lacustrine dolomitic rock, Junggar Basin,
NW China. Petrol. Explor. Dev. 39, 700–711.
Kuang, L., Hu, W., Wang, X., et al., 2013. Research of the Tight Oil Reservoir in the
Lucaogou Formation in Jimusar Sag: Analysis of Lithology and Porosity
Characteristics. vol. 19. pp. 529–535 (in Chinese).
Kurenkov, I.I., 1966. The influence of volcanic ash fall on biological processes in a lake.
Limnol. Oceanogr. 11, 426–429.
Langmann, B., Zakšek, K., Hort, M., et al., 2010. Volcanic ash as fertiliser for the surface
ocean. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 10, 3891–3899.
Li, F., Wang, M., Liu, S., et al., 2019. Pore characteristics and influencing factors of dif-
ferent types of shales. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 102, 391–401.
Liang, C., Jiang, Z., Cao, Y., et al., 2018. Sedimentary characteristics and origin of la-
custrine organic-rich shales in the salinized Eocene Dongying Depression. 130 (1–2),
705
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 696–706
154.
Ma, J., Huang, Z., Li, T., 2019. Mechanism of hydrocarbon accumulation and enrichment
of tuffaceous tight oil with separate reservoir and source rock: a case study of tuff
reservoir form the Permian Tiaohu Formation in the Santanghu Basin, northwest
China. AAPG (Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.) Bull. 103, 345–367.
Meyer, K.M., Kump, L.R., 2008. Oceanic euxinia in earth history: causes and con-
sequences. Annu.rev.earth Palnet Sci 36, 251–288.
Meyers, P.A., 1997. Organic geochemical proxies of paleoceanographic, paleolimnologic,
and paleoclimatic processes. Org. Geochem. 27, 213–250.
Meyers, P.A., 2003. Applications of organic geochemistry to paleolimnological re-
constructions: a summary of examples from the Laurentian Great Lakes. Org.
Geochem. 34, 261–289.
Morel, F.M.M., Price, N.M., 2003. The biogeochemical cycles of trace metals in the
oceans. Science 300 (5621), 944.
Pang, H., Ding, X., Pang, X., et al., 2019. Lower limits of petrophysical parameters al-
lowing tight oil accumulation in the Lucaogou Formation, jimusaer depression,
Junggar Basin, western China. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 101, 428–439.
Peng, Y., Li, Y., Ma, H., et al., 2015. Influencing factors of crude oil properties in
Lucaogou tight reservoir in jimsar sag, eastern Junggar Basin. Xinjing Pet. Geol. 36,
656–659 (in Chinese).
Peters, K.E., 1986. Guidelines for evaluating petroleum source rock using programmed
pyrolysis. AAPG Bull. 70, 318–329.
Peters, K.E., Cassa, M.R., 1994. Applied source rock geochemistry: chapter 5: Part II.
Essential elements. In: Magoon, L.B., Dow, W.G. (Eds.), The Petroleum System-From
Source to Trap. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, pp. 93–120.
Peters, K.E., Fraser, T.H., Amris, W., et al., 1999. Geochemistry of crude oils from eastern
Indonesia. AAPG (Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.) Bull. 83, 1927–1942.
Peters, K.E., Walters, C.C., Moldowan, J.M., 2005. second ed. The Biomarker Guide:
Biomarkers and Isotopes in Petroleum Exploration and Earth History, vol. 2
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Philp, R.P., Chen, J.H., Fu, J.M., 1992. A geochemical investigation of crude oils and
source rocks from Biyang Basin, China. Org. Geochem. 18, 933–945.
Pickel, W., Kus, J., Flores, D., et al., 2017a. Classification of liptinite-ICCP system 1994.
Int. J. Coal Geol. 169, 40–61.
Pickel, W., Kus, J., Flores, D., 2017b. Classification of liptinite - ICCP system 1994. Int. J.
Coal Geol. 169, 40–61.
Qiu, Z., Shi, Z., Dong, D., et al., 2016. Geological characteristics of source rock and re-
servoir of tight oil and its accumulation mechanism: a case study of Permian
Lucaogou Formation in Jimusar sag, Junggar Basin. Petrol. Explor. Dev. 43 (6),
1013–1024.
Seifert, W.K., Moldowan, J.M., 1978. Applications of steranes, terpanes and monoaro-
matics to the maturation, migration and source of crude oils. Geochem. Cosmochim.
Acta 42, 77–95.
Shao, Y., Yang, Y., Wan, M., et al., 2015. Sedimentary characteristic and facies evolution
of permian Lucaogou Formation in jimsar sag, Junggar Basin. Xinjing Pet. Geol. 36,
635–641 (in Chineses).
Sinninghe, Damste, J.S., Kenig, F., Koopmans, M.P., et al., 1995. Evidence for gamma-
cerane as an indicator of water column stratification. Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 59,
1895–1900.
Sinton, C.W., Duncan, R.A., 1997. Potential links between ocean plateau volcanism and
global ocean anoxia at the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary. Econ. Geol. Bull. Soc.
Econ. Geol. 92, 836–842.
Summons, R.E., Hope, J.M., Swart, R., Walter, M.R., 2008. Origin of Nama basin bitumen
seeps: petroleum derived from a Permian lacustrine source rock traversing south-
western Gondwana. Org. Geochem. 39, 589–607.
Tissot, B.P., Welte, D.H., 1984. Petroleum Formation and Occurrence, second ed. Springer
Verlag, Berlin.
Turgeon, S.C., Creaser, R.A., 2008. Cretaceous oceanic anoxic event 2 triggered by a
massive magmatic episode. Nature 454 (7202), 323–326.
Uematsu, M., Toratani, M., Kajino, M., et al., 2004. Enhancement of primary productivity
in the western North Pacific caused by the eruption of the Miyake-jima Volcano.
Geophys. Res. Lett. 31 (6), 177–182.
Venkatesan, M.I., 1989. Tetrahymanol: its widespread occurrence and geochemical sig-
nificance. Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 53, 3095–3101.
Volkman, J.K., 1983. A review of sterol markers for marine and terrigenous organic-
matter. Org. Geochem. 9, 83–99.
Volkman, J.K., 2003. Sterols in microorganisms. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 60,
495–506.
Volkman, J.K., Barrett, S.M., Blackburn, S.I., et al., 1998. Microalgal biomarkers: a review
of recent research developments. Org. Geochem. 29, 1163–1179.
Wang, P., Pan, J., Wei, D., et al., 2011. A new type of hydrocarbon source rock-sedi-
mentary tuff. J. Xi'an Shiyou Univ. 26, 19–22 (in Chinese).
Wang, X., Sun, L., Zhu, R., et al., 2015. Application of charging effects in evaluating
storage space of tight reservoirs: a case study from Permian Lucaogou Formation in
Jimusar sag, Junggar Basin, NW China. Petrol. Explor. Dev. 42, 516–524.
Wei, C., Wei, D., Huang, L., et al., 2013. Geochemical characteristics of Permian heavy oil
and its origin in Jimsar sag, Xinjiang Province. Nat. Gas Geosci. 23, 135–140 (in
Chinese).
Wu, H., Hu, W., Tang, Y., 2017. The impact of organic fluids on the carbon isotopic
compositions of carbonate-rich reservoirs: case study of the Lucaogou Formation in
the Jimusaer Sag, Junggar Basin, NW China. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 85, 136–150.
Xiang, Baoli, Zhang, Ni, Ma, Wanyun, et al., 2015. Multiple-stage migration and accu-
mulation of Permian lacustrine mixed oils in the central Junggar Basin (NW China).
Mar. Petrol. Geol. 59, 187–201.
Yang, Y., Qiu, L., Wan, M., et al., 2018. Depositional model for a salinized lacustrine
basin: the permian Lucaogou Formation, jimsar sag, Junggar Basin, NW China. J.
X. Ding, et al.
Asian Earth Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2018.08.021.
Zhang, S., Cao, Y., Liu, K., et al., 2019. Characterization of lacustrine mixed fine-grained
sedimentary rocks using coupled chemostratigraphic-petrographic analysis: a case
study from a tight oil reservoir in the Jimusar Sag, Junggar Basin. Mar. Petrol. Geol.
99, 453–472.
706
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 696–706
Zhou, Z., Sheng, G., Min, Y., et al., 1989. A primary study of tuffaceous source rock by
organic geochemistry. Acta Sedimentol. Sin. 7, 3–9 (in Chinese).
Zou, C., Tao, S., Hou, L., et al., 2013. Unconventional Petroleum Geology, second ed.
Geological Publishing House, Beijing.