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Depositional paleoenvironment and source rock characterization

across the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event from the eastern
Tethys, Tibet, SW China

Guoqing Xia, Ahmed Mansour, Thomas Gentzis, Gaojie Li,

Humberto Carvajal-Ortiz, Seare Ocubalidet, Fan Yi, Chen Yun,
Haisheng Yi

PII: S0166-5162(21)00107-5
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2021.103780
Reference: COGEL 103780

To appear in: International Journal of Coal Geology

Received date: 12 November 2020

Revised date: 11 May 2021
Accepted date: 15 May 2021

Please cite this article as: G. Xia, A. Mansour, T. Gentzis, et al., Depositional
paleoenvironment and source rock characterization across the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic
Event from the eastern Tethys, Tibet, SW China, International Journal of Coal Geology
(2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2021.103780

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Depositional paleoenvironment and source rock characterization across the

Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event from the eastern Tethys, Tibet, SW China
Guoqing Xiaa, Ahmed Mansourb, Thomas Gentzisc, Gaojie Lid, Humberto Carvajal-
Ortizc, Seare Ocubalidetc, Fan Yie, Chen Yune, Haisheng Yia
a
State Key Laboratory of Oil and Gas Reservoir Geology and Exploitation, Chengdu
University of Technology, Chengdu, 610059 China
b
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Minia University, Minia 61519 Egypt
c
Core Laboratories, 6316 Windfern Road, Houston, TX 77040, USA

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d
College of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Mianyang Normal University, Mianyang

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621006, China

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College of Earth Sciences, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059 China
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*
Author Correspondence: AHMEDMANS48@mu.edu.eg and :xiaguoqing2012@cdut.cn
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Abstract
An integrated approach based on organic petrographic and geochemical proxies along
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with palynological and palynofacies analysis were employed using 24 rock samples
representing the upper part of the Quse and Sewa formations in the southern Qiangtang
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Basin, Tibetan Plateau, SW China. This interval was deposited during the Early Jurassic
Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event (T-OAE) and is investigated to assess the
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biostratigraphic age control based on palynomorphs composition. The current approach

allows for the interpretation of the local paleoenvironmental response to T-OAE climate
variability that still unraveled based on palynofacies analysis of the Bilong co succession.
Visual palynofacies analysis, vitrinite reflectance (VRo), and total organic carbon
(TOC)/Rock-Eval pyrolysis parameters enables a detailed assessment of probable source
rock characterization.
The palynomorph content comprises mainly terrestrially-derived land-plants, mostly
sphaeromorphs pollen grains, with minor content of marine dinoflagellate cysts
(dinocysts). Marker dinocysts and pollen taxa allow the subdivision of the studied
succession into two age-distinctive units of early Toarcian and late Bajocian-Bathonian.
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Additionally, carbon isotope profile of the studied succession observed a large negative
carbon isotope excursion (CIE) within the lower Toarcian oil shale interval, which is
compatible with regional δ13Corg records from adjacent basins at this time. The regional
TOC contents of lower Toarcian reached up to 21 wt% in areas of the eastern Tethys
compared to lower values in the western Tethys and Boreal (ca. 3 wt%). Two
palynofacies assemblages revealed deposition of these deposits in distal inner neritic to
fluvio-deltaic environment and to some extent in brackish marginal marine setting.
Geochemical screening indicated that most samples were dominated by very good to
excellent organic matter richness of kerogen Type II and mixed Type II/III with very

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good to excellent hydrocarbon generation. The calculated VRo-eq from Rock-Eval Tmax

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and measured VRo values are in good agreement and showed that the organic matter of
the studied interval is in the early to middle stages of the oil window.

Keywords
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Palynofacies analysis; Sphaeromorphs pollen grains; Thermal maturity; Organic
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petrography; Qiangtang Basin; early Toarcian

1. Introduction
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It is generally accepted that global sedimentary patterns span the early Toarcian of the
Early Jurassic (ca. 183 Ma) observed intense environmental (Suan et al., 2010; Ruebsam
et al., 2020), climatic (Slater et al., 2019), and intense oceanographic perturbations
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(Jenkyns, 1985, 1988, 2010; Them II et al., 2018). These perturbations were closely
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associated with sulfur and carbon emissions along with significant increase of organic
carbon burial rates at marginal marine settings and shelf seas around the globe with a
genesis of a Toarcian oceanic anoxic event (e.g., Jenkyns, 1985, 1988, 2010; Fu et al.,
2016, 2017; Them II et al., 2018; Jin et al., 2020). The Qiangtang Basin in the northern
and central Tibet is one of the giant sedimentary archives that strongly influenced by the
global environmental change during the T-OAE. The Qiangtang Basin was dominated by
deposition of organic carbon-rich oil shales at the top of the succession (Fig. 1, e.g., Yi et
al., 2003; Fu et al., 2014, 2016, 2017), providing a valuable record for better
understanding of organic matter accumulation and their deriving mechanisms in the
ubiquitous Tethyan Realm.
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The evolution of the Alpine Himalaya has much influenced the Tethys tectonic
domain, which promote changes of regional geology in Asia (Zhu et al., 2013; Wang et
al., 2014). It has a significant impact, not only the regional to global structure, but also
the development of giant oil and gas resources. One of the largest Mesozoic petroliferous
sedimentary basins in China is the Qiangtang Basin and age-equivalent Jurassic
sediments, which are well-known for their organic carbon-rich content (Zhao et al., 2000;
Wang et al., 2004). Several studies have focused on the Toarcian sediments of the
Qiangtang Basin from the eastern Tethys based on biostratigraphic assessment of oil
shales using index ammonite taxa (e.g., Yi et al., 2003; Yin, 2021), bivalves (Yin et al.,

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2005), and coccoliths (Chen et al., 2018), investigating their organic matter

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characteristics using organic biomarker molecules (e.g., Chen et al., 2005; Ji et al., 2014;
Yi et al., 2013; Xia et al., 2017), and interpreting prevalent redox and weathering

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conditions that controlled organic matter-rich accumulation (Fu et al., 2014, 2016, 2017).
However, detailed previous studies related to palynofacies analysis and palynomorphs
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composition, environment of deposition and source rock investigations on the Toarcian
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oil shale in the southern Qiangtang Basin, are lacking. Even an accurate chronological
evidence for the existence of a Lower Jurassic (Toarcian) succession in the Qiangtang
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Basin still unraveled. Therefore, this study provides the first palynological and
biostratigraphical contribution on the upper part of the Quse and Sewa formations to
ensure whether the Bilong co oil shale was deposited during the Toarcian.
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Palynofacies analysis has an advantage of discriminating between the three common

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palynological components contained within sediments, including phytoclasts, amorphous

organic matter (AOM), and palynomorphs, which infers reliable inferences about the
environment of deposition and kerogen types (Tyson, 1993, 1995; Pittet and Gorin, 1997;
Batten, 1999; Götz et al., 2008; Tahoun et al., 2017; Mansour et al., 2020a-b). Several
studies have been focused on palynofacies analysis of organic matter-rich sediments
deposited during the lower Toarcian and their relationship to the T-OAE from the
western Tethys (e.g., Gómez et al., 2008; Baranyi et al., 2016; Fonseca et al., 2018;
Rodrigues et al., 2020a-b;), eastern Tethys (Jin et al., 2020), and southwest Japan (Kemp
et al., 2019). However, palynofacies analysis cannot discriminate between hydrogen-rich
versus hydrogen-poor organic matter, therefore, geochemical screening protocols are
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rather significant in this respect. Geochemical analyses of total organic carbon (TOC) and
Rock-Eval® pyrolysis provide reliable information on kerogen quantity and quality of
organic matter, hydrocarbon generation potential, and level of thermal maturity (e.g.,
Espitalié et al., 1985; Peters et al., 1994; Behar et al., 2001; Carvajal-Ortiz and Gentzis,
2015).
The current study is part of a major project of the relatively understudied Toarcian
succession that is represented by the upper part of the Quse and Sewa formations in the
southern Qiangtang Basin of the eastern Tethys. The study is carried out for the first time
by amalgamating between various proxy data from palynological approach to organic

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petrography and Rock-Eval pyrolysis analyses. Therefore, the objective of this work is to

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(1) present a reliable biostratigraphic reconstruction based on marker palynomorphs taxa
of preserved dinoflagellate cysts (dinocysts) and pollen grains, (2) interpret the

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environment of deposition during the T-OAE in this part of the Tibet Plateau, and (3)
assess kerogen quality, quantity, and organic matter thermal maturity.
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2. Geologic and stratigraphic settings
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2.1. Regional tectonic settings

The Qiangtang Basin is one of the giant basins that extends over the central and
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northern Tibet (Fig. 1). It has been subjected for a consequent tectonic jigsaw, which
sandwiched between the Bangong-Nujiang suture from the southern margin and the
Jinsha suture from the northern margin separating the Qiangtang block from the Hoh Xil-
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Songpan and Lhasa blocks, respectively (Fig. 1, Kapp et al., 2003, 2007; Wang et al.,
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2014). Recent structural investigations showed that the Qiangtang Basin is divided into
the North and South Qiangtang blocks separated from the central basin by a NWW-
striking Longmu Co-Shuanghu Suture Zone (LSSZ, Fang et al., 2016). Various
approaches from paleomagnetism and paleontology revealed that the former suture zones
were formed due to successive opening and closure of the Tethys (e.g., Wang et al., 1997;
Ding et al., 2013; Ma et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019).
During the Early Permian, the Qiangtang Basin had fragmented from the eastern
margin of the Gondwana (Zhu et al., 2013) and submerged as an epicontinental shelf
seaway (Wang et al., 2004). Consequently, it observed a fast-northward drift and collided
with the Hoh Xil-Songpan Block during the Late Triassic, creating a thrust-fold system
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and a syn-tectonic foreland basin through the northern margin of the Qiangtang Basin and
the southern margin of the Hoh Xil-Songpan suture zone (Li et al., 2002). During the
Early Jurassic, the Qiangtang Block was located in the northeastern part of the Tethys
Ocean at mid-paleolatitudes, where a hemipelagic open-ocean setting was prevalent
(Wang et al., 2004). From the Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous, a westward obliquely
collision occurred between the Lhasa Block and the Qiangtang Basin, forming another
syn-tectonic foreland basin and thrust-fold belt system through the Bangong-Nujiang
suture zone. These settings resulted in a westward retreat and closing of the Meso-Tethys
Sea that led to the end of the Jurassic epicontinental seaway of the Qiangtang Basin along

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with enhanced uplifting and erosion of the provenance region (Sengör, 1987; Li et al.,

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2002). Despite successive subduction of the Neo-Tethys oceanic plate and collisions of
its arcs and India with the Lhasa Block have not changed the Qiangtang tectonic

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configuration, some small intrablocks (intermontane) basins have been formed. These
intrablocks filled with continental red beds at fault zones and significantly deformed and
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uplifted the Qiangtang Basin into the current height (Fang et al., 2016).
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2.2. Stratigraphic setting

The southern Qiangtang Basin comprises widespread and thick sedimentary
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successions of the Jurassic marine sediments with upward stratigraphic changes from the
Quse Formation (J1q, Lower Jurassic), the Sewa (J2s), Buqu (J2b), and Xiali formations
(J2x, Middle Jurassic), and the Suowa Formation (J3s, Upper Jurassic), respectively (Fig.
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2, Wang et al., 1997, 2001; Chen et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020). In the
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southern Qiangtang Basin, the Bilong co section is subdivided into three units; lower,
middle, and upper units, respectively. The current study focuses on the Quse Formation
of the lower unit and the Sewa Formation in the lower part of the middle unit in the
Bilong co section (Figs. 2-3), which overlies the Triassic sediment and is composed
mainly of shales and limestones.
The Quse Formation in the southern Tibetan Plateau contains typical Early Jurassic
ammonites spanning from the Hettangian to Toarcian (Yi et al., 2003; Chen et al., 2007;
Su et al., 2015) and possibly extends into the Aalenian based on new ammonite data of
Ma et al. (2017). It should be noted that diagnostic fossils of chronostratigraphic
significance have been reported from the Quse Formation in the surrounding regions and
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adjacent areas of the Bilong co section. In early studies, twenty two well-preserved
ammonites from 1-km-distant region from the Bilong co north section were first
recognized by Yi et al. (2003), which belong to the marker species Harpoceras sp. that is
consistent with an early Toarcian age. Additionally, ammonites Cleviceras cf. elegans were
found in oil shale beds near Yi’s ammonites (Wang and Zheng, 2008, Yin et al., 2006),
which correspond to the Harpoceras falcifer Zone reported in the Paris Basin, the
Posidonian Shale of southwest Germany, and the lower Toarcian black shales that occur
widely in Europe (Chen et al., 2005). Additionally, some ammonites such as
Dactylioceras sp. and Dactylioceras cf. directum occurred through the oil shale and

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limestone of the lower unit in the Bilong co section (Wang et al., 2012). However, a

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study of recently made collections of Jurassic ammonites from the Biluoco area enables a
revision of previous identifications and span the upper unit of the section to the Callovian

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period (Yin, 2021). Meanwhile, Chen et al. (2016) presented some age-significant
coccoliths for the middle-upper part of the section suggesting an age from the Early
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Bajocian to Bathonian or possibly to Early Callovian. Abundant specimens of the
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bivalve Bositra, buchi, Cuspidaria sp., Protocardia sp. were also found in the lower oil shale
and limestone unit (Wang and Zheng, 2008; Yin et al., 2006). These bivalves roughly
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correspond to the Dactylioceras tenuicostatum zone in western Panthalassa of early

Toarcian age (Hesselbo et al., 2007). Together, these above age-diagnostic ammonites
and calcareous nannofossils are completely absent in the studied Bilong co oil shale
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section except for a single outcrop located ca. 1 km westward of the studied section.
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On the other hand, an accurate youngest statistical age peak at ca. 184.4 ± 0.61 Ma
has been identified from the detrital zircons obtained from the base of the oil shale layer
in the lower unit of the Bilong co north section (Fu et al., 2016), indicating an age of
early Toarcian for this unit. Furthermore, this oil shale interval from the lower unit in the
Bilong co north section exhibited a remarkable negative carbon isotope excursion (CIE)
related to the T-OAE (Fu et al., 2016).
The Quse Formation is overlain by the Bajocian Sewa Formation that is composed of
gray marls, limestone, and mudstone facies (Yin and Chandler, 2016, Fig. 3). U-Pb
dating of detrital zircons by laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry
methods suggests the youngest grains of the Sewa Formation are between 176 and 172
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Ma, implying a maximum deposition age of this formation during upper Toarcian-lower
Aalenian (Ma et al., 2017). The Buqu Formation contains carbonate platforms along with
brachiopods Burmirhynchia-Holcothyris typically of a Bathonian age (Yao et al., 2011).
The Suowa Formation mainly consists of shallow marine limestone containing bivalves
and ammonites, suggesting a Callovian-Oxfordian age (Yao et al., 2011; Yin, 2016; Ma
et al., 2017). In contrast, the coeval Amdo Formation is composed mostly of deeper
marine sediments such as gray to black calcareous mudstone and marlstone interbedded
with black shale, which are exposed only in the Amdo region of the eastern part of the
southern Qiangtang basin (e.g., Yi et al., 2005; Chen et al., 2007, 2018). The formation

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contains typical Late Jurassic ammonites such as Virgatosphyinctes sp.,

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Aulacosphintoides sp., the bivalves Gryphaea sp. (Yi et al., 2005), and the coccoliths
Ansulasphaera bownii (Chen et al., 2018) that constrain its age from late Bathonian-early

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Callovian to latest Tithonian. The distinctive difference in lithology and fossil assembly
manifests that the Amdo Formation is completely different from the Suowa Formation,
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which is commonly developed in the Qiangtang Basin and consists predominantly of
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shallow platform limestones (Fig. 2, Li et al., 2020).

3. Material and methods
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3.1. Study section

Our study section is located in the Jiasaisaosha Hill (32°49′38″N and 88°
55′16″E) in southeast of Lake Biluocuo, about 45 km from the Shuanghu special district,
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Tibet, SW China (Figs. 1, 3). Here, we focus on the Quse Formation of the lower unit,
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which is characterized by the absence of any ammonites and calcareous nannofossils

except for the pervasive bivalves of Bositra buchii (Wang and Zheng, 2008; Yin et al.,
2006). The upper part of the study section is represented by the Sewa Formation in the
middle unit. We hope to be able to determine the age of this set of oil shale strata through
sporopollen and dinocyst chronology analysis.
In the lower part of Bilong co section, a thick stratigraphic succession of ~ 120 m
consists of four units (Fig. 3A-B). The base of the section consists of about 16 m of
dark gray shales and limestone interbedded with lighter colored mudstone and basalt
(Fig. 3C-D). The lower part (16-37.4m) is characterized by organic-rich oil shales that
typically occur as 0.2–2.0 m thick millimeter-laminated beds (Fig. 3E-G). The middle
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part is about 27.5 m thick and consists of light gray calcareous mudstone intercalated
with thin yellow gray marl and black oil shale (Fig. 3G-H). In the upper part of the
section, more than 55 m of the succession are composed of interbedded gray calcareous
mudstone and yellow marl of the Sewa Formation (Fig. 3I).
3.2. Palynological preparation of samples
A total of 24 rock samples represent the Quse and Sewa formations were collected
from the lower unit of the surface outcrop Bilong co oil shale section in the southern
Qiangtang Basin. More specifically, two samples came from the BX section and the other
twenty-two samples represents the BX1 section (Fig. 3A). Most lithologies of these

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samples are oil shale and dark to black calcareous mudstone with minor marl

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intercalations (Fig. 3B-I). For palynological and palynofacies investigations, the standard
palynological preparation techniques of Wood et al. (1996) was followed. This includes

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chemical treatment of the crushed rock samples using concentrated HCl (34%) and HF
(70%) acids. The organic residue is then sieved using a nylon mesh of a 15 µm size and
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mounted on slides using Canada Balsam. For reliable palynofacies investigations,
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oxidative agents such as nitric acid and hydroxides were avoided. Two microscopic slides
were prepared as representative for each sample and examined using a transmitted light
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OMAX ToupView microscope and a digital camera (SCMOS05000KPA). All samples

and slides were prepared at the Micropaleontology and Stratigraphy Lab at the Geology
Department, Faculty of Science, Minia University, Egypt.
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Several statistical approaches were followed by different palynologists to define the

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proper representative count that can be reliable indicator for environment of deposition
and species richness. It was suggested that at least 20 palynomorph individual should be
counted per single sample (Gotelli and Colwell, 2011). Tyson (1993) proposed that a
total of 200 to 300 palynomorph individuals is practically sufficient to be used in
paleoenvironmental investigations. Herein, an average of 300 palynomorphs grains were
identified and counted due to the common richness of the palynomorphs composition in
the studied samples (Appendix 1). This palynomorphs investigation is very significant to
unravel the stratigraphic age of the studied succession that lack well-documented
biostratigraphic control and reliable assessment of the depositional paleoenvironment.
Additionally, a total of 500 particles of AOM, phytoclasts and palynomorphs (Table 1)
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were identified and counted, representing the particulate organic matter (POM)
components of each samples. Significant variation in POM composition throughout the
studied samples presented a positive opportunity to differentiate between palynofacies
assemblages using cluster analysis based on the Ward's method of the PAST program
(Hammer et al., 2001). The ternary plot AOM-Phytoclasts-Palynomorphs of Tyson
(1993) was also used to indicate kerogen types, redox state, and proximal-distal trends
and magnitudes of terrestrial influx. Additionally, the terrestrial:marine (T:M) ratio was
calculated by dividing the sum of terrestrial palynomorphs, like pollen grains, freshwater
algae, and spores, to the total marine palynomorphs, including dinocysts, FTLs, and

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prasinophytes (e.g., Steffen and Gorin, 1993; Pittet and Gorin, 1997; Götz et al., 2008).

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3.3. TOC/Rock-Eval pyrolysis
TOC and Rock-Eval pyrolysis analyses have been carried out on the same group of

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samples that were used for palynological and palynofacies analysis. The twenty-four
samples were crushed and pulverized into fine powder, whereby an aliquot of ca. 60 mg
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of powdered fractions was analyzed through a Rock-Eval 6® Turbo pyrolysis and
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oxidation instrument at the Advanced Technology Center in Core Laboratories facilities

(Houston-Texas, USA). The samples were analyzed using the Basic/Bulk-Rock method
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to measure the group of parameters, including TOC, S1 (free hydrocarbons), S2

(thermally-cracked hydrocarbons), S3 (CO and CO2), S4 (CO and CO2), and S5 (mineral
carbon), Tmax, along with other calculated parameters of hydrogen index (HI), oxygen
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index (OI), production index (PI), and oil saturation index (OSI). Quantitative
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measurements of the oil-in-place are based on the Rock-Eval S1 multiplied by a factor of

21.89 (Downey et al., 2011). Combustion of samples occurred in a nitrogen atmosphere,
whereby the released hydrocarbons measured by a flame ionization detector. Besides, the
evolved CO and CO2 detected via an infrared cell. Pyrolysis analysis starts with 300°C
isothermal stage for 3 min that followed directly by a gradual temperature rise up to
650°C by 25°C/min. Once combustion is completed, consequent oxidation occurs in a
separate oven (Espitalié et al., 1985; Peters et al., 1994; Behar et al., 2001; Carvajal-Ortiz
and Gentzis, 2015).
3.4. Organic petrography and vitrinite reflectance
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About 10 g of all samples were crushed to ca. 840 µm (- 20 mesh) and well-mixed
with an epoxy resin and hardener. The polished pellets were then grinded by a
combination of 320 µm and 600 µm cloths. This was followed by a polishing of surfaces
by alumina powder and water with two stages of 0.3 µm and 0.05 µm, respectively. A
Zeiss Axio Imager® A2m reflected light microscope was used to investigate the pellets,
which equipped with a UV light source and a digital camera. Oil immersion objective of
50 × (noil = 1.514 at 23°C) provided a magnification of 500×, was used for reflectance
measurements. Random reflectance values on primary vitrinite and bitumen were
measured using a set of glass standard (0.91%). All samples were analyzed on a whole-

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rock basis. The organic petrographic preparation and measurements were carried out at

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the Advanced Technology Center in Core Laboratories facilities, Houston-Texas, USA.
For further details of samples preparation techniques, the reader can refer to ISO

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standards (ISO 7404-2, 2009; ISO 7404-5, 2009) and ASTM D7708-14 (2014).
3.5. Carbon isotope measurement
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A total of 83 rock samples from the Bilong co section were analyzed for their δ13Corg
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values (Appendix 2) using a Thermo Finnigan MAT 253 mass spectrometer following the
standard preparation techniques of Coplen et al. (1996). These measurements were
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conducted at the PetroChina Huabei Oilfield Company, China. Prior to analysis, an

aliquot of 5 g of bulk-rock sediments of each sample was powdered in a cast iron mortar
and pestle. This was followed by acidifying the powder with HCl (10%) at 60 ºC for 2 h
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using an electric hot plate to remove carbonate fractions. Afterwards, each sample
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washed by distilled water vapor till the pH of the sample became neutral and then dried at
oven temperature of 50 ºC. The δ13Corg values were recorded in standard δ-notation
relative to the VPDB (Coplen et al., 1996). The analytical precision after triplication was
better than ±0.1‰.
4. Results
4.1. Palynofacies composition
Of note, consequent stratigraphic variation of the reported palynofacies and
palynomorphs composition reveals significant inferences of depositional
paleoenvironment (Figs. 4-5, Table 1). Several palynofacies parameters, encompassing
lath-shaped and equidimensional opaque phytoclasts, translucent wood particles,
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opaque:translucent (Opq:Trs) ratio, AOM, and selected palynomorphs groups like pollen
grains and dinocysts were identified. Total phytoclasts (92.6-7, avg. 25.2%), AOM
(89.2-3.4, avg. 64.3%), and palynomorphs contents (53.6-0, avg. 10.5% of total POM
content) varied significantly and AOM represented a major constituent. This was
supported by the T:M ratio that was used to assess the relative input of terrestrial versus
autochthonous marine constituents. This ratio was significantly high throughout the
studied samples except for intervals BX-11 and BX1-0-4 (Figs. 4-5, Table 1). The
Opq:Trs ratio was greater than 1 through the studied section and was extremely high in
samples BX-11, BX1-0-4, and BX1-21. As a consequence, a vertical change between the

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POM categories was noted through the studied succession (Figs. 4-5, Table 1). Based on

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cluster analysis (Fig. 4A) and the ternary plot of Tyson (1993, Fig. 4B), the studied
samples were divided into two palynofacies assemblages (PFA) according to the relative

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fluctuation of the AOM, phytoclasts, and palynomorphs contents.
4.1.1. Palynofacies assemblage 1 (PFA-1)
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The PFA-1 is assigned to five intervals, from BX-22 to BX1-0-3 (Figs. 4-5). It is
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characterized by moderate abundance of phytoclasts (60.6-39.8, avg. 52.2%) and AOM

(59.6-34.8, avg. 45%) compared to very low palynomorphs content (7-0.6, avg. 2.9% of
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total POM, Fig. 6A, Table 1). The content of equidimensional opaque phytoclasts (40.2-
27, avg. 32.8%) is generally higher than the lath-shaped (22.2-8, avg. 15.1%) and
translucent wood particles (9-0.8, avg. 4.2% of total POM, Table 1). The T:M ratio was
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very high (53-36, avg. 41.2, Fig. 5, Table 1). Organic matter composition infers, similar
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to the palynofacies investigation, that the number of pollen grains are less abundant in
PFA-1.
Sample BX-11 exhibits different palynological and palynofacies characteristics than
the rest of the succession. It is composed mainly of opaque phytoclasts (92.2% of total
POM content) compared to very low AOM (7.4%) and negligible translucent phytoclast
content (0.4%, Figs. 4-5, Fig. 6C, Table 1). The opaque phytoclasts are dominated by
lath-shaped woody particles (71.8% of total POM content) versus low equidimensional
phytoclasts (20.4%). This sample does not contain any palynomorphs and plots in the
palynofacies field II of kerogen Type III (Fig. 4B, Tyson, 1993). The field II in Tyson
(1993) defines a marginal dysoxic to anoxic basin, whereby the AOM is highly diluted.
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In this case, the TOC content is dependent on the basin redox conditions (Tyson, 1995),
along with other environmental processes including sedimentation rate and sediment
supply, organic carbon-controlled regimes and water column settings, and marine
primary productivity (Mansour et al., 2020a).
Sample BX1-21 is characterized by a moderate abundance of palynomorphs (53.6%
of total POM) and phytoclast (43%) contents versus low AOM content (3.4%, Figs. 4-5,
Fig. 6D, Table 1). The phytoclast content is dominated by lath-shape particles (31% of
total POM) that are three times more abundant than equidimensional wood (10%).
Sample BX1-21 plots in the palynofacies field V of the APP ternary plot of Tyson (1993,

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Fig. 4B).

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4.1.2. PFA-2
This palynofacies assemblage was recovered through most intervals of the studied

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section and is represented by 17 samples. The PFA-2 is characterized by the dominance
of the AOM (89.2-63.4, avg. 77%) and a moderate to low phytoclasts (20.8-7, avg.
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12.3%) and palynomorphs (19.2-2.2, avg. 10.8% of total POM, Figs. 4-5, Table 1)
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contents. The translucent phytoclasts (9-1.6, avg. 3.7%) have similar average values
compared to the lath-shaped (10-2.2, avg. 5.3%) and equidimensional opaque phytoclasts
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(6.8-0.6, avg. 3.2% of total POM, Fig. 6B, Table 1). Additionally, the T:M ratio is
relatively high (10.2-2.4, avg. 6.2) with sample BX1-0-2 having a high value of ca. 25.5
(Fig. 5, Table 1).
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Although sample BX1-06 has high HI value, it exhibits weak fluorescence because of
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the presence of large concentrations of terrestrial pollen grains and, to some extent,
amorphous organic matter. Terrestrial kerogen Type IIB (or particulate liptinite B; e.g.,
spores, pollen, cuticles, suberin) has a partial loss of fluorescence intensity compared to
kerogen Type IIA (or particulate liptinite A; e.g., marine alginite, dinoflagellates)
(Mukhopadhyay, 1990). Transportation of terrestrial kerogen to a marine environment,
mainly by rivers, tends to oxidize and biodegrade the kerogen, which reduces its
fluorescence intensity.
4.2. Stratigraphic palynology
The investigated samples in the lower intervals (from BX-22 to BX1-0-3) yielded a
moderate palynomorph recovery of low preservation and high corrosion compared to
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high recovery of well-preserved palynomorphs in the rest of the succession (Figs. 7-8,
Table 1). Only sample BX-11 was barren. The recovered palynomorph assemblage is
dominated by terrestrially derived pollen grains. Pteridophyte spores and freshwater algae
were reported sporadically and constitute only minor part, except in sample BX1-21
which exhibited an acme of freshwater algae (Fig. 5, Table 1). Marine palynomorphs are
represented by a low to moderate abundance of dinoflagellate cysts (dinocysts) and
foraminiferal test linings (FTLs) as opposed to rare to no occurrences of acritarchs and
prasinophytes (Table 1). An assemblage of 48 species belonging to 31 genera was
defined throughout the studied samples (Appendix 1). The recorded palynomorphs from

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the Bilong co section encompass the pollen grains Spheripollenites psilatus, Classopollis

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sp., Corollina torosa, Monosulcites sp., Araucariacites australis, Callialasporites
microvelatus, C. turbatus, C. dampieri, Cycadopites sp., C. nitidus, C. ovatus, C.

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follicularis, Chasmatosporites hians, Chasmatosporites sp., Quadraeculina enigmata,
and Alisporites robustus. The recorded sphaeromorphs pollen grains occur in clusters, in
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chains, or as single grains (Fig. 8A-O). They were the most abundant pollen compared to
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bisaccate, monosulcate, and inaperturate pollen grains that are not well represented
within the studied section. The pteridophyte spores consist of Biretisporites sp.,
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Cyathidites australis, Dictyophyllidites harrisii, Ichyosporites sp., and Osmundacidites

sp., whereas the freshwater algae represented by the Schizosporis reticulatus. The
dinocysts include Nannoceratopsis gracilis, N. ambonis, N. pellucida, N. spiculata,
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Nannoceratopsis sp., Mancodinium semitabulatum, Kallosphaeridium sp., Scriniocassis

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weberi, S. priscus, Wanaea acollaris, Escharisphaeridia pocockii, Pareodinia sp., and

Tubotuberella dangeardii. Age diagnostic marker pollen grains and dinocysts of Toarcian
were recorded within the former palynomorphs assemblage and will be discussed later.
4.3. Carbon isotopes
Carbon isotope values of bulk organic matter (δ13Corg) of the Bilong co are presented
in Fig. 9. They showed cyclic variation patterns that ranged from -23.24‰ to -28.7‰. A
negative excursion event, from -23.47‰ to -28.70‰ (ca. 5.23‰) occurred during the
early Toarcian and is consistent with the onset of the oil shale deposition. This was
followed directly by a gradual upward increase to more positive δ13Corg values that
reached up to -25.81‰ (Fig. 9). Additionally, the δ13Corg values of the Bilong co section
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are in good agreement with the δ13Corg profiles and showed a comparable pattern with
sections from the Qiangtang (Fu et al., 2016) and Ordos basins (Jin et al., 2020) in China
and the Table Basin in southwest Japan (Kemp et al., 2019, Fig. 9).

4.4. TOC/Rock-Eval pyrolysis

This part of the Quse and Sewa formations displays variable source rock qualities in
the Bilong co sections (Fig. 5, Table 2). TOC content ranges from 1.48 wt% to 19.06
wt%, with the average being 6.73 wt%. The highest TOC samples are found in the Quse
Formation at the lower part of the studied interval. S2 values range from 2.38 to 68.53

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(avg. 26.92 mg HC/g rock) and HI values range from 161 to 561 (avg. 365 mg HC/g

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TOC, Table 2). The OI values are low (17-52, avg. 35 mg CO2/g TOC, Table 2). The
Tmax values range from 430 °C to 439 °C (Table 2) with an average of 433°C. The only

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exception is sample BX-11, which has Tmax of 528 °C as a result of being located
between two basaltic sills (Fig. 2C). The pyrograms of all samples (not shown) display a
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Gaussian-shaped S2 peak, except for sample BX-11, which shows a high temperature
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‘shoulder’. The MinC (or TIC - Total Inorganic Carbon) and the Carbonate (wt%) of the
samples have been measured (Table 2). A plot between Carbonate (wt%) versus TOC
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(wt%) showing regions of different redox conditions and exact lithologies was also
constructed based on Ricken (1993) (Fig. 10).
4.5. Maceral composition and vitrinite reflectance
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Organic petrographic analysis shows that most samples contain primary vitrinite and
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solid bitumen along with low-reflecting bitumen (Figs. 11-14). Organic petrography of
the PFA-1 shows non-fluorescing hebamorphinite (Fig. 11A), primary vitrinite (Fig.
11C), solid bitumen (Fig. 11D), and low-reflecting bitumen (Fig. 11E). In sample BX-22,
solid bitumen has migrated into the void space of uncompressed highly matured faunal
inertinite (Fig. 11B). Oil-prone marine lamalginite having golden-yellow fluorescence
(Fig. 11F), fluoramorphinite with dull-yellow fluorescence (Fig. 11G), and dull-yellow
fluorescing spherical pollen grains are also present (Fig. 11H).
Sample BX-11 contains high maturity faunal inertinite (Fig. 12A) and low-reflecting
solid bitumen having grainy texture (Fig. 12D). Yet, primary vitrinite and microspores
(Fig. 12B) along with inertinized unicellular Tasmanites-like telalginite (Fig. 12C) are
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also reported. Sample BX1-21 contains small particles of reworked vitrinite (Fig. 12E),
solid bitumen (Fig. 12F), and faunal inertinite (Fig. 12G-H).Maceral composition in the
PFA-2 samples is rich in palynomorphs and pollen grains (Fig. 13A-C). Palynomorphs
are comprised of highly oil-prone Type II unicellular marine dinoflagellates (Fig. 13D)
and lamalginite (kerogen Type II, Fig. 13E) exhibiting golden-yellow fluorescence color,
in agreement with an early stage of oil-window maturation. Phytoclasts are comprised of
low-reflecting vitrinite (Fig. 14A), primary vitrinite (Fig. 14D), huminite (Fig, 14C),
inertinite (Type IV kerogen, Fig. 14B, E-F), and hebamorphinite (Fig. 14G). Solid
angular bitumen resembling reservoir bitumen is also present (Fig. 14H). Other oil-prone

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liptinites include sporinite (Fig.13G-H), sometimes showing surface punctation and

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having fluorescence colors that vary from golden-yellow to dull-yellow. Amorphous
liptinitic organic matter (Fig. 13F) is also present and having yellow fluorescence color.

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Measured random vitrinite reflectance in oil (%Ro,r) data (0.65-0.74, avg. 0.7%) are
shown in Table 2. The data show a narrow variation from top to bottom of the studied
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interval. VRo,r ranges from 0.65% to 0.74%, except for sample BX1-21 that has a higher
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VRo,r of 0.94% (calculated from solid bitumen Ro). Sample BX-11 did not contain any
reliable vitrinite or solid bitumen, whereas samples BX1-0-6, BX1-0-7 and BX-22
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contained solid bitumen only. For the latter three samples and for sample BX1-21, the
VRo-eq was calculated using the Jacob (1989) equation (Rvit=Rbit * 0.618+0.4).
Table 2 also shows the VRo values calculated from pyrolysis Tmax using the Furmann et
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al. (2015) equation of Rvit = Tmax * 0.017-6.67, which is applicable to Mesozoic rock that
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contain true vitrinite, the VRo-eq values range from 0.64% to 0.79%. The difference
between measured VRo and calculated VRo-eq from Tmax is within 0.05% for most
samples and the greatest difference is 0.10% for sample BX1-0-1. The only exception is
sample BX1-21 where the difference is 0.15%. For sample BX-11 located near the
basaltic sills, VRo-eq based on the Tmax of 528 oC is 2.31%, indicating that the organic
matter in this sample has been affected by the heat generated from the intrusives.
5. Discussion
5.1. Biostratigraphic features
Within the Bilong co section, monospecific dinocyst taxa observe considerable
biostratigraphic significance for the Quse and Sewa formations. This includes the
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Nannoceratopsis spp., Mancodinium semitabulatum, Scriniocassis weberi, Tubotuberella

dangeardii, Nannoceratopsis pellucida, Wanaea acollaris, and Pareodinia sp. These taxa
appear to be cosmopolitan as they widely reported in the northern hemisphere generally
and in the Tethyan Realm particularly (Wall, 1965; Davies, 1985; Riding, 1984; Riding et
al., 1991; Baldanza et al., 1995; Bucefalo-Palliani and Riding, 1997; Gedl, 2007; Baranyi
et al., 2016; Correia et al., 2017, 2018; Mansour et al., 2020b). Nannoceratopsis is the
commonest dinocyst genus observed in the studied samples. This genus is commonly
known to have first appearance exclusively within the Jurassic and ranges from early
Pliensbachian to Tithonian. It becomes a very frequent element of dinocysts communities

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mainly from the late Pliensbachian to Bajocian (Riding, 1984; Gedl, 2007). The

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Nannoceratopsis genus is represented by N. gracilis, N. ambonis, N. pellucida, N.
spiculata, and N. cf. magnicornis (Fig. 7, Appendix 1). The N. gracilis was reported in

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the Tethyan Realm from the ammonite-dated uppermost Pliensbachian-lower Toarcian
sediments of Hungary (Baldanza et al., 1995), from the Lusitanian Basin in western
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Portugal (Correia et al., 2017, 2018), and from the ammonite-dated Toarcian-Aalenian
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sediments of southwest France (Bucefalo-Palliani and Riding, 1997). Davies (1985)

assigned an age of latest Pliensbachian to early Toarcian for the N. gracilis based on the
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ammonite dated Spinatum and Tenuicostatum zones. The occurrence of N. gracilis was
consistent with an age of a latest early Toarcian in the Raasay Ironstone Formation of
Northwest Scotland (Riding et al., 1991).
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The marker species Mancodinium semitabulatum was recorded within the Tethyan
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Realm with first appearance from the late Pliensbachian and a last appearance during the
Bajocian (Riding et al., 1991; Bucefallo-Palliani and Riding, 1997, 2003). It was
documented from the palynologically dated early Toarcian-Aalenian sediments from the
offshore Eastern Canada (Williams et al., 1990). Additionally, this marker species was
common in the Tethyan Realm, which reported from the ammonite-dated early
Pliensbachian-Toarcian sediments in Portugal (Davies, 1985; Correia et al., 2017, 2018).
The M. semitabulatum was recorded from the early Toarcian Dactylioceras
tenuicostatum ammonite zone in central Italy (Bucefallo-Palliani and Mattioli, 1998). The
lowest record of M. semitabulatum in the southern Qiangtang Basin occurred in sample
BX1-0-1 that was dominated by an organic matter-rich oil shale. The above ammonite
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species gradually increased upward within the upper Bajocian-Bathonian sediments in the
Biluoco area (Yin, 2021).
The index dinocyst Scriniocassis weberi has its first appearance in the early Toarcian
strata of the Northwest Scotland (Riding et al., 1991). It was recorded through latest
Pliensbachian-Aalenian strata in England (Riding, 1984) and western Portugal (Correia et
al., 2017, 2018). Scriniocassis priscus was identified form the early Toarcian with a last
appearance during the Bajocian (Riding et al., 1991). This species was also recorded in
many intervals of the Bilong co succession (Appendix 1). The occurrence of taxa such as
Scriniocassis weberi, M. semitabulatum, together with abundant N. gracilis is

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characteristic of the Early-Middle Jurassic boundary in Europe (Riding, 1984; Riding et

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al., 1991). The common occurrence of Mancodinium semitabulatum, Scriniocassis
weberi, Scriniocassis priscus along with N. gracilis reinforces an age not younger than

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early Toarcian for the studied interval from BX-11 to BX1-10 (Fig. 7).
The index taxon Nannoceratopsis pellucida recorded within the Sewa Formation with
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the inception in samples BX1-14 and BX1-26 (Fig. 7). The first appearance of the N.
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pellucida was in the upper Bajocian English sediments (Woollam and Riding, 1983).
Additionally, the occurrence of N. pellucida in sediments of the Cullaidh Shale
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Formation indicates an age no older than the late Bajocian (Riding et a., 1991). The
marker dinocyst taxon Wanaea acollaris was reported within the Sewa Formation from
sample BX1-14 (Fig. 7). This species was first identified as an index species from the
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lower Bathonian sediments of northeastern Bulgaria (Dodekova, 1975). Additionally, it

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has a stratigraphic significance through the late Bajocian-Bathonian sediments of the

Tethyan Realm in Egypt (Aboul Ela and Tahoun, 2010; Mansour et al., 2020b), and in
Portugal and northeast Spain (Smelror et al., 1991). Escharisphaeridia pocockii and
Pareodinia sp. are common species in the Tethyan Realm during the Bajocian-Bathonian
(Smelror et al., 1991; Mansour et al., 2020b). Their presence within the Sewa Formation
along with N. pellucida and W. acollaris reveals deposition of this interval (from BX1-14
to BX1-46) during the late Bajocian-Bathonian. Our results are in good agreement with
the latest ammonite chronology by Yin (2021), including the Oxycerites aspidoides,
Clydoniceras sp., and Delecticeres sp. These marker ammonite fossils defined an age of
late Bajocian to Bathonian of the Sewa Formation to the north in the Biluoco area.
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On the other hand, specific age diagnostic pollen grains, including Callialasporites
trilobatus, C. microvelatus, C. dampieri spur further confirmation of the maximum age of
the studied interval. These taxa were first appeared in the Toarcian age in sediments from
northwest Europe (Batten and Koppelhus, 1996). Callialasporites turbatus has a first
appearance datum in the late Pliensbachian age in sediments from Portugal (Davies,
1985), and East Greenland (Koppelhus and Dam, 2003). Besides, C. turbatus was
reported from the early Toarcian strata of the Iberian Range in Spain (Barrón et al.,
2010), the Leontiev Graben in southwest Kazakhstan (Schnyder et al., 2016), and the
Nanjing area, China (Santos et al., 2018). It has commonly been recorded in many

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intervals of the Quse and Sewa formations and reached up to 12 and 20 grains in samples

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BX1-0-2 and BX1-14, respectively. In this study, C. turbatus confirms an age not
younger than early Toarcian. Callialasporites microvelatus was common along the lower

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intervals below BX1-21 followed by a lower abundance upward (Fig. 7), suggesting that
it has its inception during the early Toarcian. It was recorded in the Toarcian Dun Caan
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Shale Member of Northwest Scotland (Riding et al., 1991).
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Additionally, the long-ranging pollen grains Spheripollenites psilatsu, Classopollis

sp., and Corolina torosa are the most abundant palynomorph categories within the
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studied succession (Fig. 7). Such pollen groups are defined from the latest Pliensbachian-
Toarcian sediments in the Lincolnshire and Yorkshire of England (Wall, 1965), Portugal
(Davies, 1985), the Anholt Island in Norway (Seidenkrantz et al., 1993), East Greenland
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(Koppelhus and Dam, 2003), Spain (Barrón et al., 2010), the Réka Valley section in
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Hungary (Baranyi et al., 2016), the Lusitanian Basin in western Portugal (Correia et al.,
2017, 2018), North Yorkshire coast in England (Slater et al., 2019), southwest
Kazakhstan (Schnyder et al., 2016), the Nanjing area (Santos et al., 2018), and the Ordos
Basin in north China (Jin et al., 2020). A general consensus between the former studies is
that the Spheripollenites psilatsu, Classopollis sp., and Corolina torosa experienced an
acme in the early Toarcian (e.g., Gómez et al., 2008; Barrón et al., 2010; Baranyi et al.,
2016; Schnyder et al., 2016; Correia et al., 2017, 2018; Jin et al., 2020), principally
related to the Toarcian anoxic event and vegetation turnover of enhanced sphaeromorphs
versus a significant decrease to a minimum of marine dinocysts (Slater et al., 2019). The
absence of Leptolepidites and Neoraistrickia genera from the Leontiev Graben in
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southwest Kazakhstan, as is the case for the Bilong co samples, suggested an early
Toarcian age for the studied sediments (Schnyder et al., 2016); however, the former
region observed low contents of Spheripollenites. The pteridophyte spores are
occasionally recorded and comprise relatively long-ranging taxa, including Cyathidites,
Dictyophyllidites harrisii, Biretisporites sp., Ichyosporites sp., and Osmundacidites sp.
(Appendix 1).
Overall, the reported pollen grains from Callialasporites turbatus, C. microvelatus, C.
dampieri along with other long-ranging sphaeromorphs are in agreement with the index
dinocyst taxa of Nannoceratopsis gracilis, Mancodinium semitabulatum, Scriniocassis

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weberi, S. priscus, providing a reliable age reconstruction of an early Toarcian, whereas

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the presence of Nannoceratopsis pellucida, and Wanaea acollaris defined an age not
older than late Bajocian-Bathonian for the Sewa Formation (Fig. 7).

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5.2. Organic matter preservation across the T-OAE in the southern Qiangtang
Basin and comparison with other basins
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In this study, the TOC content within the lower Toarcian oil shale of the Bilong co
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section was generally high and ranged between 19.1 and 3.5 wt% (avg. 9.4 wt%, Fig. 5,
Table 2). TOC showed an abrupt increase of ca. 15 wt% with the onset of the T-OAE. Fu
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et al. (2016) recorded similar contents in TOC for the studied interval and for the same
section in an adjoining locality. The TOC values from the latest Pliensbachian-early
Toarcian showed an abrupt increase from ca. 1 wt% to as high as 13.6% during the T-
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OAE. From another neighboring area in the southern Qiangtang Basin, Fu et al. (2014)
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reported slightly lower TOC contents (2.6-10.2 wt%) with an average of 7 wt% for the
lower Toarcian oil shale sediments. Additionally, Fu et al. (2017) studied the Bilong co
north section in the same basin and showed that calcareous shale and oil shale intervals
contain high concentrations of TOC (4.1-14.1 wt%) that average 8.4 wt%. They also
indicated that a prominent abrupt rise estimated by ca. 5.5 wt% occurred at the onset of
the T-OAE. In the north China, where the Ordos Basin is located, Jin et al. (2020)
investigated the lower Toarcian calcareous shale and oil shale sediments from the Anya
section. They showed that organic matter content was high and abruptly increased from a
low of 0.8 wt% during the latest Pliensbachian to a high of 20 wt% in the earliest
Toarcian. Organic matter-rich strata are commonly distributed across northern and central
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parts of the Tibet Plateau, likely associated with a long-lived anoxic to euxinic settings
(e.g., Fu et al., 2014, 2016, 2017; Jin et al., 2020). After the T-OAE, the TOC contents in
the Qiangtang Basin considerably decreased to minima with an average of 1.5 wt% (Fig.
5, Table 2). In southwest Japan, organic matter content was considerably lower than in
the Chinese basins at this time, where TOC reached up to 2 wt% during the CIE of the T-
OAE (Kemp et al., 2019).
On the other hand, the western Tethys witnessed deposition of significantly lower
organic matter contents compared to the eastern Tethys basins during the latest
Pliensbachian-early Toarcian. An average TOC content of 0.8 wt% is concordant with the

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uppermost Pliensbachian sediments, which abruptly increased to an average of 2.9 wt%

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at the onset of the T-OAE in the Rodiles section of the Asturian Basin, northern Spain
(Gómez et al., 2008; Rodrigues et al., 2020a). Similar TOC contents, typically between 1

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and 3 wt% were reported from the Pliensbachian-lower Toarcian successions of the
Monte Mangart and the Rizapol in Italy (Jenkyns, 1988), the North Yorkshire sediments
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in England (Slater et al., 2019), the Lusitanian Basin in Portugal (Rodrigues et al.,
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2020b), the Polish Basin in Poland (Ruebsam et al., 2020). However, Fonseca et al.
(2018) reported higher average TOC contents from the Grands Causses and Quercy
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basins in northern Iberia. They observed a significant increase in organic matter content
from the Pliensbachian marls (0.7 wt%) toward the lower Toarcian black shales (5.7
wt%).
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5.3. Paleoenvironmental reconstruction

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5.3.1. PFA-1 and T-OAE

The lower Toarcian positive δ13Corg trend is disrupted by an abrupt negative CIE with
an amplitude of 5.23‰ (Fig. 9), revealing the early Toarcian perturbation of the carbon
cycle associated with the T-OAE. The PFA-1 that was deposited during this unstable
setting of carbon cycle perturbation was identified through the lower Toarcian oil shale. It
is characterized by a dominance of phytoclast particles, although a vertical upward
increase in AOM and the presence of terrestrial and marine palynomorphs are noted (Fig.
5). The overwhelming abundance of phytoclasts is comparable to several basins from
eastern (Jin et al., 2020) and western Tethys (Rodrigues et al., 2020a-b) and southwest
Japan (Kemp et al., 2019).
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Within the studied succession, several palynofacies parameters were counted and
considered to discriminate the palynofacies assemblages, including AOM, opaque and
translucent phytoclasts, palynomorphs composition and other ratios of T:M and Opq:Trs
ratios. Such parameters were used herein as reliable proxies to interpret the
environmental changes during deposition in terms of transgressive-regressive trends of
sea level (e.g., Tyson, 1993; Pittet and Gorin, 1997; Batten, 1999; Götz et al., 2008;
Tahoun et al., 2017; Rodrigues et al., 2020a-b; Mansour et al., 2020a-b). The samples of
the PFA-1 plot in the palynofacies field VI (Fig. 4B), indicating a kerogen Type II of oil-
prone hydrocarbons. This field infers deposition of the PFA-1 in a more proximal shelf

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with enhanced oxygen depleted settings (Tyson, 1993).

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The PFA-1 is identical in the BX and BX-1 intervals of the Bilong co section having
different facies (Fig. 5). This could be the result of either changes in redox conditions or

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carbonate dilution. According to the Carbonate versus TOC plot (Fig. 10), the
depositional environment in the studied section was dominated by dysaerobic and
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anaerobic conditions.
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The Opq:Trs ratio is relatively high within the PFA-1 and ranges between ca. 49 to
5.7 (avg. 18.9, Fig. 5), suggesting one of the three options that would occur during
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deposition including accumulation after a long distance of transport in distal marine

environment, or post-depositional alteration, or reworking (Tyson, 1995). The post-
depositional alteration is the most reasonable factor compared to the first and third
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options that are strongly excluded because the opaque phytoclasts are dominated by the
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equidimensional woody particles that refers to the proximity to fluvio-deltaic sources and
short-distance of transport (Tyson, 1995; Götz et al., 2008; Tahoun et al., 2017).
Additionally, Tyson (1995) suggested that such settings would result in high
accumulation of organic matter shale and consequently, moderate to high TOC contents,
which is consistent with a high TOC content of the PFA-1 that ranges from 19.1 to 7.9
wt% (avg. 13 wt%, Fig. 5, Table 2). Furthermore, the AOM investigation through the
PFA-1 infers a terrestrial origin based on its granular dark- to light-brown morphology
and the gelified aspect that can be clearly seen on the outer edges of wood and cutinite
particles, reinforcing our hypothesis of post-depositional alteration as it resulted from
phytoclast transformation by biodegradation (Pacton et al., 2011). The occurrence of
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small pyrite crystals through the AOM particles at several intervals of the PFA-1
confirms the influence of microbial mats and enhanced biodegradation under oxygen
depleted, well-stratified conditions (Mansour et al., 2020b).
The T:M ratio was very high, which would indicate a strong terrestrial input and
proximity from fluvio-deltaic source areas (Steffen and Gorin, 1993; Götz et al., 2008;
Tahoun et al., 2017). The sphaeromorphs pollen (93.6-74.3, avg. 83.7% of total
palynomorphs content) is the most abundant palynomorphs constituent in the PFA-1
versus absent to negligible dinocysts (0.8-0, avg. 0.2%), revealing deposition beside
coastal forest belts of Coniferophyta/Bennetitales and Cheirolepidiaceae producing plants

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in areas of fluvio-deltaic sources where enhanced stratification conditions of the water

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column was dominated (Mohr, 1989; Tyson, 1995; Barrón et al., 2010). Most
sphaeromophs pollen grains represented by the Spheripollenites psilatsu (63.6-39.1, avg.

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51.8%), Classopollis sp. (23-13.8, avg. 19.2%), and Corolina torosa (20.7-6.5, avg.
12.8% of total palynomorphs content). However, it is noteworthy that the PFA-1 is
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dominated by lower average counts of the palynomorphs grains (avg. 123 individual)
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than the PFA-2 (avg. 332 individual), reflecting a lower palynomorphs richness in the
PFA-1 than the PFA-2, probably related to deposition in more proximal settings than the
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PFA-2. Another possible clue for lower palynomorphs richness in the PFA-1 is the forest
belts that are considered as a biodiversity hotspot for various marine fungi and can result
in significant deterioration of preserved pollen grains (Bryant et al., 1994). Within the
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PFA-1, many pollen grains exhibit the proportion of corroded exines and perforation,
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unlike the PFA-2, which probably related to post-depositional alteration and biological
degradation by zoosporic fungi especially in organic matter rich sediments (Phuphumirat
et al., 2011). Although anoxic conditions represent a perfect environment for pollen
preservation, a strong possibility of pollen loss was observed (Bryant et al., 1994), as is
the case of the current sediments formed during the T-OAE. Therefore, the previous
physical factors are much compatible as the major processes affecting pollen preservation
in the PFA-1.
Overall, the PFA-1 has likely been deposited in a fluvio-deltaic environment that
designated a well-stratified water column led to enhanced preservation of organic matter
and accumulation of organic carbon-rich sediments. Our results are compatible with the
 Journal Pre-proof

recent environmental investigation of Fu et al. (2016), who indicated that enhanced Sr

concentrations in the Bilong co north sediments were triggered by enhanced freshwater
input. This is further reinforced by their results that showed a significant decrease in
Sr/Al ratios, which is consistent with the onset of the T-OAE in the Bilong co north
section.
5.3.2. PFA-2
The samples of this palynofacies are dominated by a plethora of AOM content and
cluster in the fields IX and VIII (Fig. 4B), which exhibit kerogen Type II>I of high oil
prone and Type II>>I of oil prone hydrocarbons (Tyson, 1993, Fig. 4B). These fields

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indicate deposition under stratified water column shelf settings typical of organic-rich

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shales as is the case of the Bilong co section (Tyson, 1993). Additionally, these two fields
imply a trend towards enhanced oxygen depleted dysoxic to anoxic distal shelf

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conditions. The opaque woody particles were likely derived from consequent oxidation of
translucent phytoclasts during transport from source area to marine basins, post-
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depositional alteration through sandy subaerial sediments, and local reworking (Tyson,
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1993; Batten, 1999; Götz et al., 2008; Tahoun et al., 2017). High proportions of opaque
phytoclasts can be used to infer high energy, well-mixed water column settings that lack
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stratification conditions and thus, deposition of organic carbon-poor facies (Tyson, 1993).
Here, the total opaque phytoclasts represent approximately twice the amount of
translucent wood particles. Since the studied section is dominated by OC-rich sediments,
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we excluded the hypothesis of high-energy water column. Instead, their enhanced content
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is consistent with a long-distance of transport and therefore, deposition in a fairly distal

marine environment in a well-stratified water column that might be subjected to post-
depositional alteration and oxidation (Tyson, 1993; Pittet and Gorin, 1997; Rodrigues et
al., 2020). Our interpretation is in a good agreement with the deduced suggestions of the
palynofacies fields in the ternary plot of Tyson (1993). Additionally, the Opq:Trs ratio
was moderate to high (5.5-1.1, avg. 2.8, Fig. 5, Table 1), which is consistent with the
proposition of Tyson (1993) that opaque wood particles are high-low-high in a proximal
to distal trend of sea level, respectively. This suggests the designation of this palynofacies
in a fairly distal marine depositional environment that might be removed from fluvio-
deltaic sources of fresh phytoclasts, most likely the distal inner neritic shelf settings
 Journal Pre-proof

(Steffen and Gorin, 1993; Tyson, 1993; Götz et al., 2008). Further clues come from
geochemical characterization of the lower Toarcian sediments in the southern Qiangtang
Basin (Fu et al., 2017). Our interpretation is in agreement with Fu et al. (2017), where a
significant increase in Sr/Al and Sr/Ba ratios after the T-OAE revealed deposition in a
prevalent marine ecosystem considerably deeper than the PAF-1.
The recorded high values of the T:M ratio would indicate enhanced terrestrial/riverine
influx consistent with the impoverished phytoplankton communities versus large contents
of wind-transported pollen grains. The recorded pollen assemblage belong to xerophilous
gymnosperm plants, which produce giant numbers of pollen grains that support the

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calculated high T:M ratios. In the Bilong co section, the PFA-2 was dominated by the

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sphaeromophs pollen (93.6-56, avg. 72%) that represented the most abundant
palynomorph category. They exhibit a spherical to oval-shaped with dull-yellow

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fluorescence (Fig. 13B-C) and a light to dark brown color under white light (Fig. 13A).
The sphaeromophs pollen grains include the Spheripollenites psilatsu (48.6-21.1, avg.
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36.2%), Classopollis sp. (25.1-11.4, avg. 18.1%), Corolina torosa (18.3-4.9, avg. 12.7%),
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and Araucariacites australis (5.8-0, avg. 3.5% of total palynomorphs content). The
Spheripollenites psilatsu and Classopollis sp. were the most common components in
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many Toarcian ecosystems as inferred from their abundance in a large number of

palynological associations in both hemispheres (e.g., Bucefalo-Palliani and Riding, 1998;
Martínez et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2005; Gómez et al., 2008; Barrón et al., 2010; Baranyi
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et al., 2016; Schnyder et al., 2016; Correia et al., 2017, 2018; Jin et al., 2020). Their
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highest occurrence reveals a strongly developed annual dry-arid climates (Alvin, 1982;
Mohr, 1989; Slater et al., 2019), allowing the formation of coastal forest belts of the
Coniferophyta/Bennetitales that produce Spheripollenites psilatsu and Cheirolepidiaceae
of Classopollis, which might have grown during the deposition of this palynofacies
assemblage. Additionally, the overwhelming abundance of sphaeromorphs pollen
commonly occurs in a basinward direction and significantly decrease in more proximal
beach and more distal outer neritic shelf settings (Tyson, 1993), suggesting that the PFA-
2 was deposited in a low-energy, relatively distal inner neritic shelf conditions. The very
low to absent occurrences of vascular cryptogamma and pteridophytic psilate spores in
the current succession can be due to their need of humid environments to reproduce
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(Abbink, 1998). Another possibility is that pteridophyte spores favour deposition in

fluvio-deltaic to coastal settings and in areas close to active terrestrial input (Tyson, 1993;
Götz et al., 2008), supporting the deposition of the PFA-2 far offshore in distal inner
neritic shelf. Aquatic palynomorphs, mainly dinocysts, are represented in low numbers
(19-0.8, avg. 10% of total palynomorphs content) compared to those of the
sphaeromorphs pollen grains. Only one sample BX1-26 has a moderate dinocyst value of
28% of the total palynomorphs content (Figs. 4-5, Table 1). The marine-inhabited
palynomorphs are dominated by the Nannoceratopsis (15.6-0.3%) and Scriniocassis
groups (5.2-0.3% of total palynomorphs content) along with sporadic occurrences of the

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Mancodinium semitabulatum, Batiacasphaera sp., and Kallosphaeridium sp. It was

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indicated that the genus Nannoceratopsis is adapted and thrived as an opportunistic,
euryhaline genus, which favour high nutrient supply and lower salinity conditions of

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surface water due to elevated terrestrial/riverine input (e.g., Riding et al., 1991; Bucefalo-
Palliani and Riding, 1997; Baranyi et al., 2016). Therefore, the low to moderate
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abundance of the former dinocysts along with common sphaeromorphs pollen and
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opaque phytoclasts confirms a shallow marine distal inner neritic shelf environment for
the PFA-2 typically of reduced to normal salinity of the surface water during arid-dry
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climate. Only sample BX1-21 shows a significantly high content of freshwater algae
(Schizosporis reticulatus), revealing enhanced freshwater/riverine supply that would
result in distinct salinity fall during deposition of this interval (Batten, 1999; Baranyi et
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al., 2016; Mansour et al., 2020a). The study of Fu et al. (2017) on the neighboring Bilong
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co north section indicated, based on low chemical index of alteration values versus high
compositional variability index values, that weak continental weathering and arid climate
settings were prevalent during deposition.
The counted AOM in sample BX-11 indicate a terrestrial origin that resulted from
phytoclast transformation due to biological degradation (Mansour et al., 2020b). This
sample plots in the palynofacies field II that shows a kerogen Type III (Fig. 4B, Tyson,
1993). The field II in Tyson (1993) defines a marginal dysoxic to anoxic basin, whereby
the AOM is highly diluted. In this case, the TOC content is dependent on the basin redox
conditions (Tyson, 1995), along with other environmental processes including
sedimentation rate and sediment supply, organic carbon-controlled regimes and water
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column settings, and marine primary productivity (Mansour et al., 2020a). For sample
BX-11, the TOC content is modest (ca. 4.2 wt%, Fig. 5, Table 2) that in agreement with
the proposition of Tyson (1995). The Opq:Trs ratio of the BX-11 is the highest and
reached a value of 230.5 which, along with high content of lath-shaped phytoclasts than
equidimensional, reflect a long distance of transport and deposition in distal environment
away from inner neritic shelf settings (Tyson, 1995; Pittet and Gorin, 1997; Batten, 1999;
Götz et al., 2008; Tahoun et al., 2017).
Sample BX1-21 is dominated by freshwater algae and phytoclasts and plots in the
palynofacies field V in the ternary diagram of Tyson (1993), indicating deposition

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typically of a light-colored bioturbated calcareous mudstone at oxic water column shelf

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settings. The kerogen type of this sample is III>IV of gas prone hydrocarbon (Tyson,
1995). The Opq:Trs ratio is significantly high and reached a value of 20.5, reflecting

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enhanced local reworking event and/or a localized potential of charcoal flux (Tyson,
1995), which were triggered by enhanced riverine discharge. This is consistent with the
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lowest TOC content (1.5 wt%) obtained throughout the Bilong co section (Fig. 5). This
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interpretation is underpinned by the organic petrographic characteristic of this sample,

whereby enhanced inertinite of faunal origin is a common constituent (Fig. 14G-H). The
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high Opq:Trs ratio infers a long distance of transport and deposition in distal shelf
settings (Tyson, 1995; Batten, 1999; Götz et al., 2008; Tahoun et al., 2017). However, the
overwhelming abundance of freshwater algae (86.1% of total palynomorphs content) and
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dinocysts (13.9%), compared to the absence of the pollen grains and spores unlike the
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whole succession of the Bilong co, would exclude the deposition in a far offshore
environment. Instead, a brackish marginal marine environment is the most likely
possibility. Our interpretation is reinforced by the euryhaline genus Nannoceratopsis
(5.6%) and shallow marine Scriniocassis groups (2.4% of total palynomorphs content).
5.4. Source rock assessment
The organic matter richness of the studied succession varies from very good to
excellent (19.1-2.0 wt%), except for sample BX1-21 that shows a good organic richness
with TOC content of 1.5 wt% (Fig. 5, Table 2). The highest TOC values are encountered
within PFA-1 (samples BX-22 to BX1-0-3) and PFA-2 (BX1-0-1, BX1-01, and BX1-06).
The hydrocarbon potential (S2) of the studied interval varies considerably from poor to
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fair potential at samples BX-11 (0.33 mg HC/g rock) and BX1-21 (2.38 mg HC/g rock,
Table 2), respectively, to very good and excellent generation potential at the rest of the
succession (68.53-5.23, avg. 28.04 mg HC/g rock, Peters et al., 1994; Carvajal-Ortiz and
Gentzis, 2015).
The HI values varied from 561 to 161 mg HC/g TOC. These values infer various
kerogen types, from mainly Type II to mixed II/III, III (Peters et al., 1994; Carvajal-Ortiz
and Gentzis, 2015). This interpretation is further observed by the relationship between the
TOC and S2 (Fig. 15, Espitalié et al., 1985), whereby the BX1-21 plots in the Type III
field of gas-prone hydrocarbons. The rest of samples plot in the fields of mixed Type

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II/III of oil to gas prone hydrocarbons and Type II of oil prone hydrocarbon usually of

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marine organic matter (Fig. 15). These interpretations are supported by the low OI values,
which commonly decrease with increasing organic carbon content (Katz, 1983).

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To assess the thermal maturity of organic matter, we used the Tmax versus HI plot
(Fig. 16). The studied samples exhibited low to moderate Tmax values that range between
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430 and 439°C. The vitrinite reflectance fluctuates between 0.64 and 0.79% (avg. 0.69%,
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Table 2). The Tmax values are in a good agreement with the VRo for most intervals and
reveal that the Bilong co samples are in the early to middle stages of the oil window.
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Sample BX-11, which is present near basalt layers, has the highest Tmax (528 °C) and
VRo (2.3%) throughout the studied succession. The above Ro value indicates that the
organic matter is in the dry gas window. The extremely low S2 (0.33 mg HC/g rock) and
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highest production (PI = 0.15) suggest that the organic matter has exhausted its
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hydrocarbon generation potential. For optimal hydrocarbon exploration, the volumes of

the oil-in-place (OIP) of the potential source rock layers encountered within the Bilong
co section in the southern Qiangtang Basin were calculated (Table 2). Although the
measurement of the OIP is commonly carried out for optimal hydrocarbon exploration, it
provides the total amount of oil in rock not the amount of oil that can be extracted even
after fracture stimulation (e.g., Downey et al. 2011). For the studied interval, the highest
yield of the OIP reached up to ca. 85 bbl oil/ac-ft and comes from the interval of sample
BX1-06 compared to the lowest yield that reached to 1.3 bbl oil/ac-ft in sample BX-11.
The average OIP for the studied succession is ca. 26 bbl oil/ac-ft. Despite the studied
intervals encompass high yield of OIP along with excellent hydrocarbon generation
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potential, they cannot flow oil naturally (without hydraulic fracturing). This interpretation
is based on the low OSI values, where the OSI must exceeds 100 mg HC/g TOC to flow
oil. Similar results are indicated based on the plot between TOC and S1 (Fig. 17), where
samples contain free hydrocarbons (S1) but plot below the dash line of Oil Shows, thus
confirming the absence of any expelled hydrocarbons. Besides, the PI (S1/S1 + S2) versus
Tmax plot (Fig. 18) that is used to indicate the probability of hydrocarbon flow of the
studied succession. It shows that all samples of the Bilong co section plot in the field of
low level of conversion, suggesting that further maturation is required for hydrocarbon
conversion and expulsion of the preserved organic matter (Fig. 18).

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6. Conclusions
Based on integrated palynological and palynofacies analysis along with organic

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petrographic and geochemical screening of the Early Jurassic T-OAE sediments from the
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upper part of the Quse and Sewa formations in the southern Qiangtang Basin, Tibet,
highly significant results were obtained. Moderately diverse palynomorph assemblages of
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terrestrially-derived pollen grains and marine dinocysts led to divide the studied section
into two intervals. An early Toarcian age was assigned to the lower interval based on the
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first appearance of the marker dinocysts taxa of Nannoceratopsis gracilis, Mancodinium

semitabulatum, Scriniocassis weberi, and Scriniocassis priscus along with index pollen
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grains taxa of Callialasporites turbatus and C. microvelatus. A late Bajocian-Bathonian

age was proposed for the upper interval from the BX1-14 based on the co-occurrence of
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dinocysts taxa of Nannoceratopsis pellucida, and Wanaea acollaris along with

Escharisphaeridia pocockii and Pareodinia sp.
Palynofacies analysis led to define two assemblages based on their POM composition
and T:M ratio, revealing deposition of the studied succession in distal inner neritic shelf
settings alternating with minor intervals that were deposited in fluvio-deltaic environment
and to some extent in brackish marginal marine environment. A well-stratified water
column was prevalent most likely during deposition of the PFA-1 and PFA-2, which
resulted in enhanced preservation of organic matter. Geochemical investigation revealed
that most of the studied succession was dominated by very good to excellent organic
matter content of very good to excellent hydrocarbon generation potential. The type of
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kerogen of most samples were mixed Type II/III of oil/gas prone hydrocarbons and Type
II of oil prone hydrocarbon usually of marine organic matter. Only samples BX-11 and
BX1-21 showed poor to fair hydrocarbon potential of kerogen Type IV and III,
respectively. The Rock-Eval Tmax indicated that the studied interval is in the early to
middle stages of the oil window (%VRo-eq=0.64-0.78), whereas the measured VRo
values had a similar range (%VRo=0.65-0.74), with very few exceptions. The difference
between the measured and calculated Ro for most samples was 0.05% and never
exceeded 0.10%.

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Acknowledgement

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We are grateful to Dr. Ji Changjun, Tian Kangzhi, Yang Jiabao, Wu Jinxuan, and Xu
Weipeng for their assistance in the field work sampling. The current study was funded by
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the National Natural Science Foundation, China, with grants No. 41772105 and No.
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41972115. The authors thank the journal editor-in-chief Dr. C. Özgen Karacan and two
anonymous reviewers for their way of handling our manuscript and the helpful comments
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that substantially improved this study.

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Figures caption
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Figure 1. (A) Tectonic map of the Tibetan Plateau showing the southern Qiangtang Basin
and adjacent regions, ATF = Altyn Tagh Fault, AKS = Anemaqen-Kunlun Suture, JSZ =
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Jinsha Suture, LSS = Longmu Co-Shuanghu Suture, BNS = Bangong-Nujiang Suture,

IYS = Indus-Yarlung Suture, MFT = Main Front Thrust, MBT = Main Boundary Thrust.
(B) Geological map of the southern Qiangtang basin (modified after Wang et al., 2012)
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showing the Bilong co area. (C) Paleogeogrpahic map of the Early Jurassic (ca. 180 Ma)
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showing the location of the Bilong co study area in the eastern part of the Tethys Ocean
(after Blakey, 2019).
Figure 2. Lithostratigraphic chart of the Qiangtang Basin in the Tibet Plateau according
to the current study field work observations and previous studies (Sun et al., 1997; Wang
et al., 2004; Ding et al., 2013; Fang et al., 2016). The current time scale is referred to Ogg
et al. (2016). M. = Middle; Lt. = Late.
Figure 3. Lithostratigraphy and Field photographs of the Bilong co section, southern
Qiangtang Basin. (A) Stratigraphic column of the Bilong co section with samples
locations, showing lithofacies assemblage units. (B) Google Earth image shows the
location of the Bilong co section with simplified geological interpretation. (C-D) Field
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photograph of surface outcrop strata of the BX succession at the Bilong co section,

including the oil shales, marl, basalt intrusion, and limestones. (E-I) Field photograph of
outcrop strata of the BX1 succession at the Bilong co section in the southern Qiangtang
Basin of the oil shales, calcareous mudstone, and marl.
Figure 4. A) Cluster analysis of the POM composition (AOM, phytoclasts, and
palynomorphs) of the Quse and Sewa formations from the Bilong co section using Ward's
method (Hammer et al., 2001). B) AOM-Phytoclasts-Palynomorphs ternary plot of Tyson
(1993) and the obtained palynofacies assemblages from cluster analysis. Cluster 1 defines
the samples of the PFA-1, while cluster 2 denote to samples of the PFA-2.

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Figure 5. Stratigraphic distribution of the POM composition, relative sea level change,

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and depositional environment for lower Toarcian and upper Bajocian-Bathonian samples
from the Bilong co section, southern Qiangtang Basin.

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Figure 6. A) PFA-1 comprises moderate contents of Phytoclasts and AOM and taken
from the oil shale sample BX-22. B) PFA-2 that composed of AOM and palynomorphs
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with low phytoclast content recovered from the sample BX1-14. C) Sample BX-11 that
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composed principally of opaque phytoclast content. D) Sample BX1-21 that consists of

palynomorphs and opaque phytoclasts.
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Figure 7. Stratigraphic distribution chart of age-diagnostic index palynomorphs taxa

recovered from the Quse and Sewa formations in the Bilong co section.
Figure 8. Transmitted white-light photomicrographs of recorded palynomorphs from the
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upper part of the Quse and Sewa formations, southern Qiangtang Basin. All
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magnifications are 250 × unless otherwise reported. The scale bar for all photos is 40 µm.
A) Nannoceratopsis gracilis Alberti, 1961, emend. Evitt, 1962, BX1-14, Slide A. B)
Nannoceratopsis pellucida Deflandre, 1938, emend. Evitt, 1961, BX1-14, Slide A. C)
Wanaea acollaris Dodekova (1975), BX1-14, Slide A. D) Tubotuberella dangeardii
(Sarjeant, 1968) Stover and Evitt, 1978, emend. Sarjeant, 1982, BX1-34, Slide A. E-F)
Mancodinium semitabulatum Morgenroth, 1970, emend. Below, 1987, BX1-34, Slide A,
BX1-17, Slide A. G) Scriniocassis priscus (Gocht, 1979) Prauss, 1989, BX1-07, Slide A.
H, L) Foraminiferal test lining (FTL) recovered from sample BX1-14, Slide A. I)
Callialasporites turbatus Schulz 1967, BX1-14, Slide A. J) Chasmatosporites hians
Nilsson 1958, BX1-07, Slide A. K) Callialasporites dampieri (Balme, 1957) Sukh Dev,
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1961, BX1-10, Slide A. M) Callialasporites microvelatus Schulz 1966, BX1-14, Slide A.

N) Cluster of sphaeromorphs pollen grains, BX1-05, Slide A. O) Alisporites robustus
Nilsson, 1958, BX1-01, Slide A.
Figure 9. Regional correlation of the upper Pliensbachian-lower Toarcian δ13Corg records
from the Bilong co section in central Tibet (1-2, this study, Fu et al., 2016, respectively),
the Anya section in north China (Jin et al., 2020), and the Sakuraguchi-dani section in
southwest Japan (Kemp et al., 2019). The highlighted interval shows the early Toarcian
negative CIE related to the T-OAE, exhibiting a comparable pattern between this study
and sections from geographically distant basins.

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Figure 10. Plot of the TOC versus carbonate content, indicating the different redox

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conditions during deposition of the studied samples of the Bilong co section (after
Ricken, 1993).

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Figure 15. Plot of the TOC versus S2, indicating the kerogen quality (modified after
Espitalié et al., 1985).
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Figure 16. Plot of the HI versus Tmax delineating the thermal maturity levels and kerogen
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types of the studied source rock intervals in the Quse Formation, Bilong co succession
(after Espitalié et al., 1985).
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Figure 17. Plot between the TOC content and the free hydrocarbons (S1) to indicate the
probability of oil production.
Figure 18. Relationship between the PI and Tmax, delineating the rate of kerogen
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conversion and maturity levels.

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Table 1. Distribution of particulate organic matter and palynomorphs composition

throughout the studied succession of the Quse Formation from the southern
Qiangtang Basin. Abbreviations; Transl=translucent; Equidi=equidimensional;
Prasin=prasinophytes; T:M=terrestrial:marine; Opq:Trs= opaque:translucent;
PFA=palynofacies assemblage.
Total particulate organic matter Total palynomorphs composition
Visu
(POM, 100%) (100%)
Inter Op al
Phytoclasts T: PF
Sa prete q:Tr ker
Opaque Pol M A/
mpl d A Palyno F Sp Pr s oge
Tr s len Dino FT ra Fie
e lithol O morph To W ore asi rati n
an Eq gra cysts Ls tio ld
ogy M s tal La A s n o typ
sl uid ins
th es
i
Calca 1/ II>>
BX

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reous 1 1. 0. VII I
1- 5. 3. 2. 87 5 6 0.3 7.
muds I
46
tone 70 14.8 2 8 9 4 .6 9.87 9 4 2 0 72 3

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Calca 1/ II>>
BX 2 1. 0.
reous VII I
1- 63 0. 1 1. 81 8 3 0.3 0. 4.
muds I
34

BX
tone
Calca
reous
.4 15.8 8 9 0 8 .4
-p
16.1 6

0.
1

0.
1 93 34 1.3
1/
VII
II>>
I
re
1- 7. 1. 3. 83 6 3 0. 5.
muds I
30
tone 81 11.8 2 8 4 2 .8 15.2 6 3 0 33 18 3
Calca 1/ II>>
BX
lP

reous 1 1. VII I
1- 0. 1. 6. 2. 5 0.6 0. 2.
muds I
26
tone 77 12.6 4 6 4 4 70 27.8 3 0 1 61 36 5.5
Calca 4/ III>I
BX
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reous 8 V V
1- 3. 4 3 6. 6. 20.
muds
21
tone 4 53.6 3 2 1 10 0 13.9 0 1 0 0 2 5
Calca 1/ II>>
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BX 1
reous VII I
1- 0. 4. 2. 86 6.
muds I
19
tone 73 16.8 2 4 8 3 .9 13.1 0 0 0 0 62 1.3
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Calca 1/ II>>
BX 1 0. 0.
reous VII I
1- 74 1. 2. 2. 6. 82 5 8 5.
muds I
18
tone .6 14.2 2 2 2 8 .7 15.9 7 5 0 0 07 4.1
Calca 1/ II>>
BX 0.
reous VII I
1- 79 9. 1. 87 7 1. 0. 8.
muds I
17
tone .4 10.8 8 8 3 5 .9 9.54 7 8 0 77 09 4.4
BX 1 3. 1/I II>I
Oil
1- 80 2. 5. 3. 89 6 2. 7. X
shale
15 .2 7.6 2 3 4 8 .9 6.42 7 0 0 45 17 3.1
Calca 1/ II>>
BX 0.
reous VII I
1- 73 2. 2. 80 4. 1 1.8 0. 4.
muds I
14
tone .8 19.2 7 2 8 2 .4 13.4 1 9 7 75 51 2.5
BX Calca 1 2. 0. 1/ II>>
1- reous 72 7. 5. 6. 5. 77 6 8 0.2 0. 3. VII I
10 muds .6 10 4 6 6 2 .2 19 3 8 9 88 48 2.1 I
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tone
BX 2. 1/I II>I
Oil
1- 74 1 6. 5. 4. 83 1 0. 5. X
shale
07 .2 8.8 7 4 8 8 .9 14 7 0 0 31 09 1.7
BX 2. 1/I II>I
Oil
1- 89 8. 4. 3. 1. 87 8 1. 6. X
shale
06 .2 2.2 6 2 2 2 .6 9.5 9 0 0 24 42 1.1
Calca 1/I II>I
BX 1 3.
reous X
1- 2. 2. 7. 2. 90 1 9.
muds
05
tone 78 9.4 6 2 8 6 .4 6.38 9 0 0 0 45 4.7
Calca 1/I II>I
BX 3. 1.
reous X
1- 83 7. 1. 5. 0. 89 6 2 10
muds
04
tone .2 9.2 6 8 2 6 .9 5.21 8 3 0 0 .2 3.2
4. 1/I II>I

of
BX
Oil
1- 1 3. 6. 2. 88 6 0.3 7. X
shale
01 85 3 2 2 4 4 .1 6.83 8 0 6 0 69 2.8

ro
BX 1 0. 1/I II>I
Oil
1- 4. 5. 3. 96 4 25 X
shale
0-1 78 7.2 8 6 4 4 .2 3.3 7 0 0 0 .5 1.5
BX
1-
0-2
Oil
shale
75
.6 10
1
4.
4
4.
2
5.
2 5
82
.1
-p
7.44
8.
2
6
2.
2 0
0.
83
5.
1 2.4
1/
VII
I
II>I
re
BX 4 1. 8. 2/ II
Oil
1- 56 2. 3. 89 8 3 12. VI
shale
lP

0-3 .2 1.6 2 2 8 31 .8 0 5 3 0 0 53 2
BX 3 3. 2/ II
Oil
1- 59 9. 0. 1 96 4 ## 48. VI
shale
0-4 .6 0.6 8 8 2 27 .6 0 0 5 0 0 ## 8
na

BX 6 1 2/ II
Oil
1- 37 0. 1. 40 2. VI
shale
0-6 .4 2 6 9 4 .2 95 0 5 0 2.5 0 39 5.7
ur

BX 2 8. 2/ II
Oil
1- 36 6 3. 1. 34 89 2. 1 16. VI
shale
0-7 .8 3.2 0 4 8 .8 .2 0 7 1 0 0 36 7
Jo

5 2 1. 1. 2/ II
BX- Oil
34 8. 4. 2. 31 95 8 8 0.3 36 11. VI
22 shale
.8 7 2 8 2 .2 .1 0.76 9 9 8 0 .7 1
9 7 3/I III
Bx-
Marl 7. 2. 0. 1. 20 0 0 230 I
11
4 0 6 4 8 .4 0 0 0 0 0 .5

Table 2. Geochemical data of TOC, TIC, carbonate, Rock-Eval Pyrolysis, and vitrinite reflectance
of the studied samples from the Quse and Sewa formations in the southern Qiangtang Basin.

Ca Me Oil
Samp TO Carbo Tm lc as VR in
TIC S1 S2 S3 HI OI PI OSI
le C nate ax V VR o Ro
Ro o ck
 Journal Pre-proof

me
an
(m (m (m
(mg (mg (mg
g g g bbl
HC/ HC/ ran HC/
(wt (wt HC HC CO2 oil/
(wt%) g g (°C) (%) (%) ge g
%) %) /g /g /g ac-
Roc Roc (%) TOC
CO TO TO ft
k) k) )
2) C) C)
0.6
BX1- 2.4 4.5 0.3 6.9 0. 43 0. 0.7 2- 27 0. 13. 7.4
37.83 43
46 9 4 4 1 89 2 67 0 0.7 8 05 65 4
8
0.6
BX1- 2.0 4.3 0.3 5.2 0. 43 0. 0.7 4- 25 0. 17. 7.6
36.50 46

of
34 2 8 5 3 78 0 64 4 0.8 9 06 33 6
0

ro
0.6
BX1- 2.7 4.6 0.5 8.9 0. 43 0. 0.7 5- 32 0. 20. 12.
39.08 35
30 9 9 8 6 8 0 64 4 0.7 1 06 79 7

-p 9
0.6
re
BX1- 2.5 4.1 0.3 6.7 1. 43 0. 0.7 3- 26 0. 15. 8.5
34.33 52
26 1 2 9 1 07 2 67 2 0.7 7 05 54 4
7
lP

0.8 0.8
BX1- 1.4 8.4 0.2 2.3 0. 43 0. 7* 2- 16 0. 14. 4.8
70.75 44
21 8 9 2 8 61 9 79 (0. 0.9 1 08 86 2
na

94) 2*
0.6
BX1- 3.4 5.6 0.8 13. 0. 43 0. 0.7 6- 38 0. 26. 19.
46.75 34
ur

19 2 1 9 26 95 2 67 1 0.7 8 06 02 48
6
0.6
Jo

BX1- 3.0 5.0 0.7 10. 0. 43 0. 0.6 1- 35 0. 25. 17.

42.17 34
18 2 6 8 69 83 0 64 9 0.7 4 07 83 07
7
0.6
BX1- 3.1 5.0 0.7 11. 0. 43 0. 0.7 2- 35 0. 24. 16.
41.92 31
17 9 3 7 33 81 0 64 0 0.7 5 06 14 86
9
0.6
BX1- 5.1 1.5 28. 1. 43 0. 0.6 0- 47 0. 25. 33.
6.0 42.75 28
15 3 5 57 28 1 66 7 0.7 6 05 83 93
9
0.6
BX1- 2.9 3.7 0.6 8.6 1. 43 0. 0.7 2- 29 0. 22. 14.
31.50 39
14 6 8 6 6 01 3 69 3 0.7 3 07 3 45
9
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0.6
BX1- 3.5 4.7 0.9 11. 1. 43 0. 0.7 2- 32 0. 25. 19.
39.83 32
10 3 8 1 62 0 0 64 2 0.7 9 07 78 92
8
0.6
BX1- 6.7 2.9 1.4 28. 1. 43 0. 0.6 1- 41 0. 21. 31.
24.75 34
07 2 7 5 12 78 0 64 7 0.7 8 05 58 74
5
0.5
BX1- 12. 3.8 68. 1. 43 0. 0.7 5- 56 0. 31. 84.
4.3 35.83 17
06 21 8 53 52 2 67 0 0.7 1 05 78 93
9
0.6

of
BX1- 5.1 3.2 1.1 20. 1. 43 0. 0.6 0- 38 0. 22. 25.
27.17 26
05 9 6 5 02 19 2 67 7 0.7 6 05 16 17
8

ro
0.5
BX1- 7.7 3.5 2.0 36. 1. 43 0. 0.6 5- 47 0. 26. 44.
29.25 22
04 8 1 4 68 32
-p
2 67 5 0.7
8
0.5
1 05 22 66
re
BX1- 9.0 2.1 1.9 42. 2. 43 0. 0.6 2- 47 0. 21. 41.
17.83 32
01 1 4 1 49 2 0 64 7 0.7 2 04 2 81
lP

8
0.6
BX1- 13. 3.0 3.0 64. 2. 43 0. 0.6 2- 48 0. 22. 66.
25.75 21
na

0-1 48 9 6 9 23 8 78 8 0.7 1 05 7 98
3
0.6
ur

BX1- 4.7 3.3 0.6 12. 1. 43 0. 0.7 8- 27 0. 13. 13.

28.00 45
0-2 5 6 3 93 93 4 71 2 0.7 2 05 26 79
7
Jo

0.6
BX1- 13. 3.3 1.1 46. 4. 43 0. 0.7 2- 33 0. 8.1 24.
27.92 45
0-3 81 5 3 1 87 7 76 1 0.7 4 02 8 74
8
BX1- 7.8 3.5 2.0 37. 1. 43 0. 48 0. 25. 44.
29.25 ND ND 18
0-4 7 1 4 83 29 4 71 1 05 92 66
0.5 0.5
BX1- 13. 4.9 1.3 47. 4. 43 0. 3* 0- 35 0. 9.7 28.
41.08 39
0-6 48 3 2 73 05 8 78 (0. 0.5 4 03 9 89
73) 6
0.5 0.4
BX1- 10. 8.8 1.3 38. 2. 43 0. 0* 8- 36 0. 12. 29.
73.92 34
0-7 54 7 5 04 67 5 73 (0. 0.5 1 03 81 55
71) 1
BX-22 19. 1.9 15.10 1.0 61. 6. 43 0. 0.5 0.5 32 42 0. 5.3 22.
 Journal Pre-proof

06 1 1 55 17 7 76 3* 0- 3 02 11
(0. 0.5
73) 6
4.2 0.0 0.3 3. 52 N 0. 1.4 1.3
BX-11 5.6 46.67 ND ND 8 85
3 6 3 52 8 D 15 2 1
0.7
4
*Bitu
men (xx) VRo-eq based on 0.6
Ro Jacob (1989) 5
0.7
0

of
ro
Highlights
 Palynology and palynofacies are conducted for the first time in the Qiangtang


Basin
-p
re
An assemblage of pollen grains and dinocysts defined a lower Toarcian age for
the upper part of the Quse Fm
lP

 Three environmental settings were prevalent during deposition of the study

section
na

 The studied section has very good to excellent source rock layers of Type II and
II/III kerogen
ur

 Organic matter is in the early to middle stage of the oil window

Jo
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Author statement

To the editor in chief, Prof. C. Özgen Karacan,

I would like to indicate that all author have significant contribution to produce the final version
of this manuscript, from the first step to introduce a suitable idea with important contribution
to science to sampling, application procedures and analytical techniques, lab measurements,
constructing observatory figures and charts, data analysis, interpreting and writing scientific
parts, to submission and revision of the manuscript.

On behalf of the authors,

of
Ahmed Mansour

ro
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo
 Journal Pre-proof

Declaration of interests

☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal
relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be
considered as potential competing interests:

of
ro
-p
re
lP
na
ur
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