Christine Mae T.

Cion Architecture and Organization

BSCS 3A Mr. Al Santiago

Define the following:

1. Organization and Architecture

 In general terms, the architecture of a computer system can

be considered as a catalogue of tools or attributes that
are visible to the user such as instruction sets, number of
bits used for data, addressing techniques, etc.

Whereas, Organization of a computer system defines the way

system is structured so that all those catalogued tools can
be used. The significant components of Computer
organization are ALU, CPU, memory and memory organization.

 An organization, such as a neighborhood association, a

charity, a union, or a company, is a group of individuals
who work together. The act of forming or establishing
anything is also known as organization (like an
organization). It can also refer to a system of arrangement
or order, as well as a classification framework. The art
and science of designing buildings and other physical
structures is known as architecture. The design of the
complete built environment, from the macro level of town
planning, urban design, and landscape architecture to the
micro level of construction details and, occasionally,
furnishings, is typically included in a broader term.
The organizational architecture is a description of the
organization's existing systems. Each organization has a
variety of procedures in place; some are quite formal,
while others are more informal and are not documented in
any official document. The systems that make the
organization a living organism are described by the
organizational architecture. The ability to create,
develop, integrate, and apply such organizational
structures is the foundation for a successful business.
The development of roles in the organization, processes to
handle inputs and outcomes, and formal reporting lines in
the organization for management purposes are all part of
the organizational architecture. Human Resources is
traditionally anticipated to play a large part in
organizational architecture, and the organizational
architecture is critical for the HR Business Partnering
concept since the HR Business Partner may provide
frequent consulting to business leaders and managers.
Christine Mae T. Cion Architecture and Organization
BSCS 3A Mr. Al Santiago

2. Structure and Function

 Structure is the way in which components relate to each other

Function is the operation of individual components as part of the
structure
 All computer functions are:
 Data processing: Computer must be able to
process data which may take a wide
variety of forms and the range of processing.
 Data storage: Computer stores data either
temporarily or permanently.
 Data movement: Computer must be able to move
data between itself and the
outside world.
 Control: There must be a control of the above
three functions.

Structure refers to something’s form, makeup or arrangement.

Function refers to something’s job, role, task, or
responsibility.

Structure determines function, which is also a key idea in

engineering. In this human realm, structure/function
relationships are often more obvious and easier to grasp than
they are in the biological realm. Let’s use a hammer as an
example:
Function: This tool has two functions. Pounding nails in and
pulling them out.

Structure to Function Relationship:

The handle allows the tool to be easily grasped. The length of
the handle allows for a swing that increases the speed of the
head of the hammer. The head is composed of hard metal. When the
head hits the nail, the metal transmits the force of the swinging
hammer into the nail, driving it into the wood. The claw
allows the user to grab a nail. The rounded head acts as the
fulcrum of a lever. The long handle allows for leverage to pull
the nail out of the wood.

3. A Brief History of the Computer

The computer was created to tackle a serious number-crunching

dilemma, not for pleasure or communication. The population of the
United States had become so large by 1880 that tabulating the
census findings took more than seven years. The government sought
Christine Mae T. Cion Architecture and Organization
BSCS 3A Mr. Al Santiago

a faster way to complete the task, which led to the development

of punch-card computers that took up entire rooms. We now have
more computer capability on our cellphones than we did with these
early devices.

Computers and electronics play an enormous role in today's

society, impacting everything from communication and medicine to
science. Although computers are typically viewed as a modern
invention involving electronics, computing predates the use of
electrical devices. The ancient abacus was perhaps the first
digital computing device. Analog computing dates back several
millennia as primitive computing devices were used as early as
the ancient Greeks and Romans, the most known complex of which
being the Antikythera mechanism. Later devices such as the castle
clock (1206), slide rule (c. 1624) and Babbage's Difference
Engine (1822) are other examples of early mechanical analog
computers.
The introduction of electric power in the 19th century led to the
rise of electrical and hybrid electro-mechanical devices to carry
out both digital (Hollerith punch-card machine) and analog
(Bush’s differential analyzer) calculation. Telephone switching
came to be based on this technology, which led to the development
of machines that we would recognize as early computers.
The presentation of the Edison Effect in 1885 provided the
theoretical background for electronic devices. Originally in the
form of vacuum tubes, electronic components were rapidly
integrated into electric devices, revolutionizing radio and later
television. It was in computers however, where the full impact of
electronics was felt. Analog computers used to calculate
ballistics were crucial to the outcome of World War II, and the
Colossus and the ENIAC, the two earliest electronic digital
computers, were developed during the war.
With the invention of solid-state electronics, the transistor and
ultimately the integrated circuit, computers would become much
smaller and eventually affordable for the average consumer. Today
“computers” are present in nearly every aspect of everyday life,
from watches to automobiles.

4. The Evolution of Intel x86 Architecture

 Intel x86 architecture has evolved over the years. From a 29, 000
transistors microprocessor 8086 that was the first introduced to
a quad core Intel core 2 which contains 820 million transistors,
the organization and technology has changed dramatically.

Some of the highlights of evolution of x86 architecture are:

Christine Mae T. Cion Architecture and Organization
BSCS 3A Mr. Al Santiago

 8080 – It was the world’s first general purpose microprocessor.

It was an 8-bit machine, with an 8-bit data path to memory. It
was used in the first personal computer.
 8086 – It was a 16-bit machine and was far more powerful than
previous one. It had a wider data path of 16-bits and larger
registers along with an instruction cache or queue that
prefetches a few instructions before they are executed. It is the
first appearance of 8086 architecture. It has a real mode and an
addressable memory of 1 MB.
 80286 – It has an addressable memory of 16 MB instead of just 1
MB and contains two modes-real mode and first generation 16-bit
protected mode. It has a data transfer width of 16-bits and
programming model of 16-bits (16-bits general purpose registers
and 16-bit addressing).

 80386 – It was Intel’s first 32-bit machine. Due to its 32-bit

architecture it was able to compete against the complexity and
power of microcomputers and mainframes introduced just a few
years earlier. It was the first processor to support multitasking
and contained the 32-bit protected mode. It also implemented the
concept of paging (permitted 32-bit virtual memory address to be
translated into 32-bit physical memory address). It has an
addressable physical memory of 4 GB and data transfer width of
32-bits.
 80486 – It introduced the concept of cache technology and
instruction pipelining. It contained write protect feature and
offered a built-in math co-processor that offloaded complex math
operations from the main CPU.
 Pentium – The use of superscalar techniques was introduced as
multiple instructions started executing in parallel. The page
size extension (PSE) feature was added as a minor enhancement in
paging.
 Pentium Pro – It used register renaming, branch prediction, data
flow analysis, speculative execution and more pipeline stages.
Advanced optimization techniques in microcode were also added
along with level 2 cache. It implemented the second-generation
address translation in which 32-bit virtual address is translated
into 36-bit physical memory address.
 Pentium II – It was able to process video, audio and graphics
data efficiently by incorporating Intel MMX technology
(multimedia data set).
 Pentium III – It contains SMD (streaming extensions) instructions
(SSE) and supports 3D graphics software. It has a maximum CPU
clock rate of 1.4 GHz and contained 70 new instructions.
Christine Mae T. Cion Architecture and Organization
BSCS 3A Mr. Al Santiago

 Pentium 4 – It implements third generation address translation

that translates 48-bit virtual memory address to 48-bit physical
memory address. It contains other floating-point enhancements for
multimedia.
 Core – It is the first Intel microprocessor with dual core that
is the implementation of 2 processors on a single chip. There is
an addition of Visualizing Technology.
 Core 2 – It extends the architecture to 64-bits and core 2 Quad
provides four processors on a single chip. The register set as
well as addressing modes are of 64-bits.

5. Embedded Systems

 An Embedded system is a computer system—a combination of a

computer processor, computer memory, and input/output peripheral
devices—that has a dedicated function within a larger mechanical
or electronic system. It is embedded as part of a complete device
often including electrical or electronic hardware and mechanical
parts. Because an embedded system typically controls physical
operations of the machine that it is embedded within, it often
has real-time computing constraints.

Embedded means something that is attached to another thing. An

embedded system can be thought of as a computer hardware system
having software embedded in it. An embedded system can be an
independent system or it can be a part of a large system. An
embedded system is a microcontroller or microprocessor-based
system which is designed to perform a specific task. For example,
a fire alarm is an embedded system; it will sense only smoke.

6. Cloud Computing

 Cloud Computing refers to manipulating, configuring, and

accessing the hardware and software resources remotely. It offers
online data storage, infrastructure, and application. Cloud
computing offers platform independency, as the software is not
required to be installed locally on the PC. Hence, the Cloud
Computing is making our business applications mobile and
collaborative.