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Sets, Notations
and Inductions
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Defining sets and set operations

 what is set?

A set is a well-defined collection of distinct mathematical objects. The

objects are called members or elements of the set.

 Determination of a set by extension

A set is determined by extension when all its elements are written one by
one.
Ex:
Example:

OK

The numbers less than 5:

A={1,2,3,4}.
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 Determination by compression

 A set is determined by compression when only a feature common to all

the elements is mentioned

Ex:
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 Set notation is used to help define the elements of a set.

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Set Operations

 Set Operations include Set Union, Set Intersection, Set Difference,

Complement of Set, and Cartesian Product.

 Set Union

The union of sets A and B (denoted by A ∪ B) is the set of elements that

are in A, in B, or in both A and B. Hence, A ∪ B = { x | x ∈ A OR x ∈ B }.

If A = { 10, 11, 12, 13 } and B = { 13, 14, 15 }, then A ∪ B = { 10, 11, 12,
13, 14, 15 }. (The common element occurs only once)
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 Set Difference/ Relative Complement

The set difference of sets A and B (denoted by A – B) is the set of elements

that are only in A but not in B. Hence, A - B = { x | x ∈ A AND x ∉ B }.

If A = { 10, 11, 12, 13 } and B = { 13, 14, 15 }, then (A - B) = { 10,

11, 12 } and (B - A) = { 14, 15 }. Here, we can see (A - B) ≠ (B –
A)}
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 Complement of a Set

The complement of a set A (denoted by A’) is the set of elements which are
not in set A. Hence, A' = { x | x ∉ A }.

 More specifically, A'= (U - A) where U is a universal set that contains all

objects

If A = { x | x belongs to set of odd integers } then A' = { y | y

does not belong to set of odd integers }
 Cartesian Product / Cross Product

The Cartesian product of n number of sets A1, A2, ... An denoted as A1 ×

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A2 ... × An can be defined as all possible ordered pairs (x1, x2, ... xn) where
x1 ∈ A1, x2 ∈ A2, ... xn ∈ A_n

 If we take two sets A = { a, b } and B = { 1, 2 },

• The Cartesian product of A and B is written as − A × B = { (a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1),
(b, 2)}

• The Cartesian product of B and A is written as − B × A = { (1, a), (1, b), (2, a),
(2, b)}
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More Sets

 We have several types of sets in Maths. They are empty set, finite and infinite
sets, proper set, equal sets, etc. Let us go through the classification of sets
here.
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 Empty Set

 A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set or void set or
null set. It is denoted by { } or Ø.

 Example .A set of apples in the basket of grapes is an example of an empty set.

Because in grapes basket there are no apples present.

 Let A = {x : 9 < x < 10, x is a natural number} will be a null set because there
is NO natural number between numbers 9 and 10. Therefore, A = {} or φ

 Let W = {d: d > 8, d is the number of days in a week} will also be a void set
because there are only 7 days in a week.
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 Singleton Set

 A set which contains a single element is called a singleton set.

 Example: There is only one apple in a basket of grapes.

 E = {x : x ϵ N and x3 = 27} is a singleton set with a single element {3}

 W = {v: v is a vowel letter and v is the first alphabet of English} is also a

singleton set with just one element {a}.
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 Finite set

 A set which consists of a definite number of elements is called a finite set.

 Example: A set of natural numbers up to 10.

 A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}

 Ex. A = {a, e, i, o, u} is a finite set because it represents the vowel letters in the
English alphabetical series.

 Ex. B = {x : x is a number appearing on a dice roll} is also a finite set because it

contains – {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} elements.
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 Infinite set

 A set which is not finite is called an infinite set.

 Example: A set of all natural numbers.

 Ex. A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9……}

 Ex. A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, …}

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 Equivalent set

 If the number of elements is the same for two different sets

 n(A) = n(B)

 Example .A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {Red, Blue, Green, Black}

 Ex. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {x : x is a vowel letter} are equivalent sets

because both these sets have 5 elements each.

 Ex. S = {12, 22, 32, 42, …} and T = {y : y2 ϵ Natural number} are also equal
sets.
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 Equal sets

 The two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same
elements

 Example: A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {4,3,2,1}

 A=B

 Ex.If A = {b, o, y} and B = {b, o, b, y, y} then also A = B because both contain

same elements.
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 Disjoint Sets

 The two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if the set does not contain
any common element.

 Example: Set A = {1,2,3,4} and set B = {5,6,7,8} are disjoint sets,

because there is no common element between them.
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 Subsets

 A set ‘A’ is said to be a subset of B if every element of A is also an element of

B, denoted as A ⊆ B.

 Example: A = {1,2,3}

 Then {1,2} ⊆ A.

 Similarly, other subsets of set A are: {1},{2},{3},{1,2},{2,3},{1,3},{1,2,3},{}.

 Note: The set is also a subset of itself.

 If A is not a subset of B, then it is denoted as A⊄B.

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 Proper Subset

 If A ⊆ B and A ≠ B, then A is called the proper subset of B and it can be

written as A⊂B.

 Example: If A = {2,5,7} is a subset of B = {2,5,7} then it is not a proper

subset of B = {2,5,7}

 But, A = {2,5} is a subset of B = {2,5,7} and is a proper subset also.

 Superset

 If set A is a subset of set B and all the elements of set B are the elements of set
A, then A is a superset of set B. It is denoted by A⊃B.

 Example: If Set A = {1,2,3,4} is a subset of B = {1,2,3,4}. Then A is superset

of B.
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 Universal Set

 A set which contains all the sets relevant to a certain condition is called the
universal set. It is the set of all possible values.

 Example: If A = {1,2,3} and B {2,3,4,5}, then universal set here will be: U =
{1,2,3,4,5}

 The set of Real Numbers is a universal set for ALL natural, whole, odd, even,
rational and irrational numbers.

 Operations on Sets

 In set theory, the operations of the sets are carried when two or more sets
combined to form a single set under some of the given conditions.
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 Union of Sets

 If set A and set B are two sets, then A union B is the set that contains all the elements
of set A and set B. It is denoted as A ∪ B.

 Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A union B is:

 A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5,6}

 Intersection of Sets

 If set A and set B are two sets, then A intersection B is the set that contains only the
common elements between set A and set B. It is denoted as A ∩ B.

 Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A intersection B is:

 A ∩ B = { } or Ø
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 Cartesian Product of sets

 If set A and set B are two sets then the cartesian product of set A and set B is a
set of all ordered pairs (a,b), such that a is an element of A and b is an element
of B. It is denoted by A × B.

 We can represent it in set-builder form, such as:

 A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}

 Example: set A = {1,2,3} and set B = {Bat, Ball}, then;

 A × B = {(1,Bat),(1,Ball),(2,Bat),(2,Ball),(3,Bat),(3,Ball)}
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 Complement of Sets

 The complement of any set, say P, is the set of all elements in the universal set that
are not in set P. It is denoted by P’.

 Properties of Complement sets

 P ∪ P′ = U

 P ∩ P′ = Φ

 Difference of Sets

 If set A and set B are two sets, then set A difference set B is a set which has elements
of A but no elements of B. It is denoted as A – B.

 Example: A = {1,2,3} and B = {2,3,4} A – B = {1}

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Introducing Induction
 is a mathematical technique which is used to prove a statement, a formula or a theorem is true for
every natural number.

Base case: n = 1 is true

Induction Hypothesis: proves that if the statement holds for any given case n = k, then
it must also hold for the next case n = k + 1.

 Assume  n = k is True

 Show n = k + 1 is True
  Prove z
1+2+3+.....n
1 = 1
Basis: n=1

  1 (1  + 1
1  )(
¿ 2)2
¿1 ¿
2 2 2
 
1+2+3+.....k
Induction Hypothesis: Assume True n = k
Show True n = k+1

 1+2+3+.....k


  𝑘 +(𝑘 +1 ) 2 (𝑘 +1 ) 𝑘 2 +𝑘 +2 𝑘 +2 =𝑘
(𝑘 +1 )(𝑘
  +2 ) 2 +2 𝑘 +𝑘 + 2
+ =
2 2 2

𝑘 + 1 ) + 2 ( 𝑘 +(k+1)(k+2)
1 ) =¿
  Prove z
4+9+14+19+....+(5n-1) (3+5n)

Basis: n=1
 = 4 
 1
4 = (3 +5 )
2

Induction Hypothesis: Assume True n = k  4+9+14+19+....+(5k-1) (3+5k)

Show True n = k+1

 4+9+14+19+.....+(5k-1)+(5(k+1)

 𝑘 (  𝑘 +1  13 𝑘  5 𝑘 2 +¿  8(𝑘 +1) +¿

 5 𝑘 (𝑘 +1)
5
3 +5 𝑘 ) (+¿𝑘 +4 ) =¿ (3 +5+5) 2 +¿  4 =
2 2 2 2 2

 13 𝑘  5 𝑘 2 +¿
5𝑘
 5 𝑘  2
  3 𝑘  5 𝑘 2
 5 𝑘   𝑘 +1 +¿  4 = 4k +4 + 2 +¿ 2
+¿ ¿ 4
+¿ + +(8 +5 𝑘 ) 2 2
2 2 1 2
 13 𝑘 5  𝑘 2 13 𝑘  5 𝑘 2
 
+¿ +4=¿ +¿ +4
2 2 2 2
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The strong induction principle

 The strong induction principle says that you can prove a statement of the form:

Base case: P(1) is true.

Strong inductive step: Suppose k is a positive integer such that

P(1),P(2),...,P(k) are all true. Prove that P(k + 1) is true. So the key step is to
show:

P(1),P(2),..., and P(k) =⇒ P (k + 1).

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P(1),P(2),..., and P(k) =⇒ P (k + 1).

So to speak, the statement is true if you can prove that

The first domino has fallen.
If k is such that the first k dominos have fallen, then the (k + 1)th domino has fallen.
 We now give an example of a proof related to prime numbers using strong induction.
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 Given two integers a and b, we say that b divides a if there is an integer q such
that a = b

An integer p ≥ 2 is called a prime number if the only positive integers that
divide p are 1 and p.
 For example, the first few prime numbers are:
2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31,37,41,43,47,53,59,...
 Fact: If an integer c ≥ 2 is a not prime, then there exist integers a and b with 2
≤ a,b ≤ c − 1 such that:
c = a · b.
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Proposition

Every integer greater than 1 can be written as the product of prime numbers.
Think of it this way:

 Let P(n) be the statement that n can be written as the product of prime
numbers. Then the proposition says: P(n) is true for each integer
greater or equal to 2.
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Why is the induction principle true?

 To be explained by the reporter…