COME104-DISCRETE

MATHEMATICS

LECTURE 4
Review
Example
 Prove, by induction that the sum of first n positive odd integers is
 1+3+5+…+(2n-1)=
 Solution
The sum of first n positive odd integers is
1+3+5+…+(2n-1)=
Example
 Prove using mathematical induction that for all
Steps

 Base case: n=1

 Inductive Step:
 Suppose that holds

1+4+7+…+(3k-2)=

 Show that holds

1+4+7+…+(3k-2)+(3(k+1)-2)=

1+4+7+…+(3k-2)+(3k+1)=
Steps
 1+4+7+…+(3k-2)+(3k+1)=

 1+4+7+…+(3k-2)=

 1+4+7+…+(3k-2)+(3k+1)=

+(3k+1)
equate denominators

𝑘 ( 3 𝑘− 1 ) +6 𝑘+ 2 3 𝑘2 −𝑘+6 𝑘+2
2 2
Example
 Prove using mathematical induction that is divisible by 6 for all

 Note that an integer a is divisible by an integer b, if there is some integer m

with a=mb
 a=51, b=17 a=17 x 3=51
Solution
Base case: n=1,

Therefore P(1) is true.

Inductive Step:

Assume now is divisible by 6 for some k. Then

Assume k=2,

= 7.48 + 6
= 342
342/6= 57
İt is also divisible by 6
Hence, is divisible by 6 and so
Ɐ k (P(k)  P(k+1)) is true.
Divisible by Therefore, by induction, P(n) is true for all n
6
Example
 A sequence of integers is defined recursively as follows:

 Prove using mathematical induction that

Solution
Base case: if n=1,

Therefore P(1) is true.

Inductive Step:

Assume that for some k.

Hence, Ɐ k (P(k)  P(k+1)) is true.

By induction, P(n) is true for all n .

Set Theory
Sets
 A set is a collection or group of objects or elements or members. (Cantor
1895)

 A set is said to contain its elements.

 There must be an underlying universal set U, either specifically stated or

understood.
Sets (cont.)
 Notation:

 list the elements between braces:

 S = {a, b, c, d}={b, c, a, d, d}
(Note: listing an object more than once does not change the set.
Ordering means nothing.)

 specification by predicates:
 S= {x| P(x)},
S contains all the elements from U which make the predicate P true.

 brace notation with ellipses:

 S = { . . . , -3, -2, -1},
the negative integers.
Example
 S= {x: x is an odd positive integers}, describes the set
 S= {1,3,5,7,…}

 An alternative description of the same set is

 S= {2n-1: n is a positive integer}
Example
 Find simpler descriptions of the following sets by enumerating their
elements:

a) A={x: x is an integer and }

b) B={x: x is a day of the week not containing the letter u}

c) C={: n is an integer}
Answer
 Find simpler descriptions of the following sets by enumerating their
elements:
a) A={x: x is an integer and }

then x(x+4)=12.
Since x is an integer and the factors of 12 are ,
The only possibilities for x are x=-6 or x=2

Alternatively, solve the quadratic equation to obtain x=-6 or x=2. Therefore,

A={-6,2}
Answer
 Find simpler descriptions of the following sets by enumerating their
elements:

b) B={x: x is a day of the week not containing the letter u}

B={Monday, Wednesday, Friday}

Answer
 Find simpler descriptions of the following sets by enumerating their
elements:

c) C={: n is an integer}

C={0, 1, 4, 9,16,…}
Sets (cont.)
 Common Universal Sets

 R = is the set of all real numbers (all decimals)

 N = natural numbers = {0,1, 2, 3, . . . }, the counting numbers
 Z = all integers = {. . , -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . .}
 Z+ is the set of positive integers
 Q= is the set of rational numbers ={p/q: p,q integers, q≠0}
 Ø or {} is the empty set

 Notation:
 x is a member of S or x is an element of S:
 x  S.
 x is not an element of S:
 x  S.
Sets (cont.)
 Subsets

 Definition: The set A is a subset of the set B, denoted A  B, iff

x [x  A  x  B]
(if every element of A is an element of B)

Ex: A={2,3,5,7,11} and N={0,1,2,3,…}

Every element in A is automatically an element of the set N.
Sets (cont.)
 Subsets

Definition: The void set, the null set, the empty set, denoted , is the set with
no members.

Note:  is a subset of every set.

Note: A set B is always a subset of itself.

Sets (cont.)
 Definition: If A  B but A  B then we say A is a proper subset of B,
denoted A  B (in some texts).

 Definition: The set of all subset of a set A, denoted P(A), is called the
power set of A.

 Example: If A = {a, b} then

P(A) = {, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}
Sets (cont.)
 Definition: The number of (distinct) elements in A, denoted |A|, is called
the cardinality of A.

 If the cardinality is a natural number (in N), then the set is called finite,
else infinite.

 Example: A = {a, b},

|{a, b}| = 2,
|P({a, b})| = 4.
A is finite and so is P(A).

Useful Fact: |A|=n implies |P(A)| = 2n

Sets (cont.)
 Definition: The Cartesian product of A with B, denoted A x B, is the set of
ordered pairs {<a, b> | a  A  b  B}
Notation:
n
 Ai   a 1 , a 2 ,...,a n  a i  Ai 
i 1

Note: The Cartesian product of anything with  is . (why?)

 Example:
A = {a,b}, B = {1, 2, 3}
AxB = {<a, 1>, <a, 2>, <a, 3>, <b, 1>, <b, 2>, <b, 3>}
What is BxA?

 If |A| = m and |B| = n, what is |AxB|?

Sets (cont.)
 For finite sets A and B, If |A| = m and |B| = n, then |AxB|=m x n

 AxB ≠ BxA

 Example: Let A={x,y} and B={1,2,3}

 Find the Cartesian products AxB, BxA, BxB
Answer
 Example: Let A={x,y} and B={1,2,3}
 Find the Cartesian products AxB, BxA, BxB

 AxB={(x,1), (x,2), (x,3), (y,1), (y,2), (y,3)}

 BxA={(1,x), (1,y), (2,x), (2,y), (3,x), (3,y)}
 BxB={(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3)}
Set Operations (cont.)
 Definition:

Two sets A and B are equal, denoted A = B, iff

x [x  A  x  B].

 Note: By a previous logical equivalence we have

A = B iff x [(x  A  x  B)  (x  B  x  A)]

or
A = B iff A  B and B  A
 Set Operations (cont.)
 Definitions:

 The union of A and B, denoted A U B, is the set

{x | x  A  x  B}

 The intersection of A and B, denoted A  B, is

the set
{x | x  A  x  B}
Note: If the intersection is void, A and B are
said to be disjoint.

 The complement of A, denoted , is the set

{x | (x  A)}
Note: Alternative notation is Ac, and {x|x  A}.

 The difference of A and B, or the complement of

B relative to A, denoted A - B, is the set A 
Note: The (absolute) complement of A is U - A.

 The symmetric difference of A and B, denoted

A  B, is the set (A - B) U (B - A)
Set Operations (cont.)
 Examples:
 U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
 A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
 B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.
 Then

1) AB
2) AB

3) A-B
4) B-A
5) AB
Set Operations (cont.)
 Examples:
 U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
 A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
 B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.
 Then

1) A  B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
2) A  B = {4, 5}
3) = {0, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
4) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 9, 10}
5) A - B = {1, 2, 3}
6) B - A = {6, 7, 8}
7) AB = {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8} A  B = (A - B) U (B - A)