Chapter 2

ECOM 2311- Discrete Mathematics
Chapter # 2 : Basic Structures: Sets, Functions, Sequences,
Sums, and Matrices
Fall, 2013/2014
ECOM 2311- Discrete Mathematics - Ch.2 Dr. Musbah Shaat 1 / 45

Outline
1 Sets
2 Set Operations
3 Functions
4 Sequences and Summations
5 Matrices

Sets
Introduction
Set
is an unordered collection of objects, called elements or members of the
set. A set is said to contain its elements. We write a ∈ A to denote that
a is an element of the set A. The notation a 6∈ A denotes that a is not an
element of the set A.
It is common for sets to be denoted using uppercase letters.

Lowercase letters are usually used to denote elements of sets.
The set V of all vowels in the English alphabet can be written as
[roster method] V = {a, e, i, o, u}.
The set of positive integers less than 100 can be denoted by
{1, 2, 3, · · · , 99}.
”· · · ” is called ellipses which used for brevity when the general
pattern of the elements is obvious.
Sets
Introduction
Equal sets
Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements. Therefore,
if A and B are sets, then A and B are equal if and only if
∀x(x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B). We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.
The sets {1, 3, 5} and {3, 5, 1} are equal, because they have the
same elements.
The order in which the elements of a set are listed does not matter.
{1, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 5} is the same as the set {1, 3, 5} because they
have the same elements.
It does not matter if an element of a set is listed more than once.
Empty set or null set: the set that has no elements and is denoted
by ∅ or by {} [but not {∅}].

Sets
Set builder
By using the set builder, the set can be described by stating the
property they must have to be members.
The set of all odd positive integers can be written as
O = {x|x is an odd positive integer less than 10} or
O = {x ∈ Z + |x is odd and x < 10}.
Famous sets: N: natural numbers, Z: integers, Z+ : positive
integers, Q: rational numbers, R: real numbers, R+ : positive real
numbers and C: complex numbers.
Subset
The set A is a subset of B if and only if every element of A is also an
element of B, i.e ∀x(x ∈ A → x ∈ B). We use the notation A ⊆ B to
indicate that A is a subset of the set B.

Sets
Subsets
Proper subset
written as A ⊂ B and it read as ”A is a proper subset of B”. It used to
emphasize that a set A is a subset of the set B but that A 6= B, i.e.
∀x(x ∈ A → x ∈ B) ∧ ∃x(x ∈ B ∧ x 6∈ A)
A = B → (A ⊆ B) ∧ (B ⊆ A)
(A ⊆ B) ∧ (B ⊆ C ) → A ⊆ C [SEE VENN DIAGRAM]
EX. Find an equal set with the following set

B = {x|x is a subset of the set {a, b}}.
Ans. A = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}, Note that {a} ∈ A but a 6∈ A.
Sets
Cardinality of the Set
Let S be a set. If there are exactly n distinct elements in S where n is a

nonnegative integer, we say that S is a finite set and that n is the
cardinality of S. The cardinality of S is denoted by |S|.
Examples:
A is the set of odd positive integers less than 10 ⇒ |A| = 5 .
S is the set of the English Alphapet ⇒ |S| = 26.
D = ∅ ⇒ |D| = 0.
The set of positive integers ⇒ Infinite set.
The power set of S is the set of all subsets of the set S and is denoted by
P(S) or 2S , i.e. P(S) = {B|B ⊆ S}
P({0, 1, 2}) = {∅, {0}, {1}, {2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, {1, 2}, {0, 1, 2}} .
P(∅) = {∅}
P({∅}) = {∅, {∅}}
Sets
Cartesian Products
The ordered n-tuple (a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) is the ordered collection that has a1

as its first element, a2 as its second element, . . . , and an as its nth
element.
Two ordered n-tuples are equal if and only if each corresponding

pair of their elements is equal. In other words,
(a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) = (b1 , b2 , · · · , bn ) if and only if ai = bi , for
i = 1, 2, · · · , n.
Ordered 2-tuples are called ordered pairs. The ordered pairs (a, b)
and (c, d) are equal if and only if a = c and b = d.
Note that (a, b) and (b, a) are not equal unless a = b.
Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian (direct) product of A and B, denoted

by A × B, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.
Hence, A × B = {(a, b)|a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B}.

Sets
Cartesian Products
EX.A = {1, 2} , B = {a, b, c}

A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}.
B × A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}.
A × B 6= B × A unless A = B.
EX.A = {0, 1} , B = {1, 2} and C = {0, 1, 2}
A × B × C = {(0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (0, 1, 2), (0, 2, 0), (0, 2, 1), (0, 2, 2),
(1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 0), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2)}.
(A × B) × C 6= A × B × C . (A ×B)×C = { [ (a1,b1) , c1 ] , [ (a1,b1) , c2] , ... }
The notation A2 is used to denote A × A

and similarly A3 = A × A × A.
The truth set of the predicate P is the set of elements x in the domain
D for which P(x) is true. The truth set of P(x) is denoted by
{x ∈ D|P(x)}.

Set Operations
Introduction
Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B,

is the set that contains those elements that are either in A or in B, or in
both, i.e. A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}.
Let A and B be sets. The intersection of the sets A and B, denoted by

A ∩ B, is the set that contains those elements in both A and B, i.e.
A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}.
Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.
Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B, denoted by A − B, is

the set containing those elements that are in A but not in B, i.e.
A − B = {x|x ∈ A ∧ x 6∈ B}.. The difference of A and B is also called the
complement of B with respect to A and sometimes is denote by A \ B

Set Operations
Introduction
Let U be the universal set. The complement of the set A, denoted by Ā,
is the complement of A with respect to U. Therefore, the complement of
the set A is U − A, i.e. Ā = {x ∈ U|x 6∈ A}.

Set Operations
Introduction
EX. A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3}

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 5}
A ∩ B = {1, 3}
A − B = {5}
B − A = {2}
The union of a collection of sets [generalized union] is the set that

contains those elements that are Smembers of at least one set in the
collection. A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An = ni=1 Ai
The intersection of a collection of sets [generalized intersection] is the set

that contains those elements thatTare members of all the sets in the
collection. A1 ∩ A2 ∩ · · · ∩ An = ni=1 Ai

Set Operations
Set Identities

Set Operations
Set Identities

Set Operations
Set Identities
Ex. By using the builder notation, prove that A ∩ B = Ā ∪ B̄
Exercise: prove that A ∪ B = Ā ∩ B̄

Functions
Introduction
Function Definition
Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function f from A to B is an
assignment of exactly one element of B to each element of A. We write
f (a) = b if b is the unique element of B assigned by the function f to the
element a of A. If f is a function from A to B, we write f : A → B.
Functions are sometimes also called mappings or transformations.
If f is a function from A to B, we say that A is the domain of f and B is
the codomain of f. If f (a) = b, we say that b is the image of a and a is a
preimage of b. The range, or image, of f is the set of all images of
elements of A. Also, if f is a function from A to B, we say that f maps A
to B.
Check if the following relations of the sets A = {a, b, c},
B = {1, 2, 3} are functions or not :
√
f = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1)} g = {(a, 1), (b, 2)} ×
h = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (a, 2)} ×
Functions
Introduction
EX. What are the domain, codomain, and range of the function that
maps the set A = {a, b, c} to the set B = {1, 2, 3} according to the
relation f = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1)}.
Domain: {a, b, c}.
Codomain: {1, 2, 3}.
Range: {1, 2}
EX. What are the domain, codomain and range of f : Z → Z which
assign the square of an integer to this integer. i.e. f (x) = x 2
Domain: Z (all integers)
Codomain: Z (all integers)
Range: the set of all integers that are perfect squares, namely,
{0, 1, 4, 9, · · · }. OR { x : x is a perfect square }
EX. Express the range of the function that maps the set A to B using
the set builder notation.
range of f ={b ∈ B|f (a) = b for some a ∈ A}
Functions
Introduction
Let f1 and f2 be functions from A to R. Then f1 + f2 and f1 f2 are also

functions from A to R defined for all x ∈ A by
(f1 + f2 )(x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x),
(f1 f2 )(x) = f1 (x)f2 (x).
EX. Let f1 and f2 be functions from R to R such that f1 (x) = x 2 and
f2 (x) = x − x 2 . What are the functions f1 + f2 and f1 f2 ?
(f1 + f2 )(x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x) = x 2 + (x − x 2 ) = x and
(f1 f2 )(x) = x 2 (x − x 2 ) = x 3 − x 4 .
Let f be a function from A to B and let S be a subset of A. The image of
S under the function f is the subset of B that consists of the images of
the elements of S. We denote the image of S by f (S), so
f (S) = {t|∃s ∈ S(t = f (s))} or {f (s)|s ∈ S}.
EX. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4} with f (a) = 2, f (b) = 1,
f (c) = 4, f (d) = 1, and f (e) = 1. The image of the subset
S = {b, c, d} is the set f (S) = {1, 4}.

Functions
One-to-One and Onto Functions
A function f is said to be one-to-one, or injective, if and only if

f (a) = f (b) implies that a = b for all a and b in the domain of f. i.e. the
value from Range
function never assigns the same value to two different domain elements.
∀a∀b(f (a) = f (b) → a = b) a and b are elements from the domin

Functions
A function f from A to B is called onto, or surjective, if and only if for

every element b ∈ B there is an element a ∈ A with f (a) = b. i.e, the
range and the codomain are equal.
∀y ∃x(f (x) = y ).
The function f is a one-to-one correspondence, or bijective, if it is

both one-to-one and onto.
Ex. State whether the following functions are one-to-one, onto or
bijective:
**(1) f from {a, b, c, d} to {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} with f (a) = 4, f (b) = 5, f (c)
= 1, and f (d) = 3
One-to One and not onto as 2 has no preimage.
**(2) f (x) = x 2 from the set of integers to the set of integers
not one to one as f (1) = f (−1) = 1 for example and not onto as there is
no integer x with x 2 = −1, for instance.
Functions
**(3) f (x) = x + 1 from the set of real numbers to itself

The function f (x) = x + 1 is a one-to-one function. To demonstrate this,
note that x + 1 6= y + 1 when x 6= y . Additionally, this function is onto,
because for every integer y there is an integer x such that f (x) = y. To
see this, note that f (x) = y if and only if x + 1 = y, which holds if and
only if x = y - 1. The function is bijective as its one-to-one and onto.
**(4) f is the function from {a, b, c, d} to {1, 2, 3} defined by f (a) = 3,

f (b) = 2, f (c) = 1, and f (d) = 3.
not one to one but onto.
**(5) f is the function from {a, b, c, d} to {1, 2, 3, 4} with f (a) = 4, f

(b) = 2, f (c) = 1, and f (d) = 3.
one to one and onto ⇒ bijective.

Functions

Functions
Inverse Functions and Compositions of Functions
Let f be a one-to-one correspondence from the set A to the set B. The

inverse function of f is the function that assigns to an element b ∈ B the
unique element a in A such that f (a) = b. The inverse function of f is
denoted by f −1 . Hence, f −1 (b) = a when f (a) = b.

Functions
Ex. State whether the following functions are invertible or not:

**(1) f is the function from {a, b, c} to {1, 2, 3} such that f (a) = 2, f
(b) = 3, and f (c) = 1.
The function f is invertible because it is a one-to-one correspondence.
The inverse function f −1 reverses the correspondence given by f , so
f −1 (1) = c, f −1 (2) = a, and f −1 (3) = b.
**(2) Let f : Z → Z be such that f (x) = x + 1.

The function f has an inverse because it is a one-to-one correspondence.
To reverse the correspondence, suppose that y is the image of x, so that
y = x + 1. Then x = y - 1 ⇒ f −1 (y ) = y − 1.
**(3) Let f be the function from R to R with f (x) = x 2 .

f is not invertible as it not bijective.
** Exercise: Let f be the function from R+ to R+ with f (x) = x 2 .

4x
** Exercise: (i) f (x) = log2 (x + 1) (ii) f (x) = (2x−1) .
Functions
Let g be a function from the set A to the set B and let f be a function
from the set B to the set C. The composition of the functions f and g,
denoted for all a ∈ A by f ◦ g , is defined by (f ◦ g )(a) = f (g (a)).
To find (f ◦ g )(a) we first apply the function g to a to obtain g(a)
and then we apply the function f to the result g(a) to obtain
(f ◦ g )(a) = f (g (a)).
The composition f ◦ g cannot be defined unless the range of g is a
subset of the domain of f.

Functions
EX. Let g be the function from the set {a, b, c} to itself such that g(a)
= b, g(b) = c, and g(c) = a. Let f be the function from the set a, b, c
to the set 1, 2, 3 such that f (a) = 3, f (b) = 2, and f (c) = 1. What is
the composition of f and g, and what is the composition of g and f ?
The composition f ◦ g is defined by
(f ◦ g )(a) = f (g (a)) = f (b) = 2, (f ◦ g )(b) = f (g (b)) = f (c) = 1, and
(f ◦ g )(c) = f (g (c)) = f (a) = 3.
g ◦ f is not defined, because the range of f is not a subset of the domain
of g.
EX. Let f and g be the functions from the set of integers to the set of
integers defined by f (x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = 3x + 2. What is the
composition of f and g? What is the composition of g and f ?
(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (3x + 2) = 2(3x + 2) + 3 = 6x + 7.
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (2x + 3) = 3(2x + 3) + 2 = 6x + 11.
Note that f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f

Functions
Let A be a set. The identity function on A is the function ιA : A → A,

where ιA (x) = x for all x ∈ A. In other words, the identity function ιA is
the function that assigns each element to itself. The function ιA is
one-to-one and onto, so it is a bijection.
When the composition of a function and its inverse is formed, in

either order, an identity function is obtained.
suppose that f is a one-to-one correspondence from the set A to the
set B. Then the inverse function f −1 exists and is a one-to-one
correspondence from B to A.
f −1 (b) = a when f (a) = b, and f (a) = b when f −1 (b) = a.
(f −1 ◦ f )(a) = f −1 (f (a)) = f −1 (b) = a ⇒ f −1 ◦ f = ιA
(f ◦ f −1 )(b) = f (f −1 (b)) = f (a) = b ⇒ f ◦ f −1 = ιB

Functions
Some Important Functions
The floor function assigns to the real number x the largest integer that
is less than or equal to x. The value of the floor function at x is denoted
by ⌊x⌋. The ceiling function assigns to the real number x the smallest
integer that is greater than or equal to x. The value of the ceiling
function at x is denoted by ⌈x⌉.
⌊ 12 ⌋ = 0, ⌈ 12 ⌉ = 1, ⌊ −1
2 ⌋ = −1, ⌈ 2 ⌉ = 0
−1
Note that ⌈x + y ⌉ =
6 ⌈x⌉ + ⌈y ⌉

Functions
Some Important Functions

Functions
Cardinality of Sets
The sets A and B have the same cardinality if and only if there is a
one-to-one correspondence from A to B. When A and B have the same
cardinality, we write |A| = |B|.
If there is a one-to-one function from A to B, the cardinality of A is less

than or the same as the cardinality of B and we write |A| ≤ |B|.
SCHRÖDER-BERNSTEIN THEOREM
if there are one-to-one functions f from A to B and g from B to A, then
there is a one-to-one correspondence between A and B.

Sequences and Summations
Sequences
Sequence
A sequence is a function from a subset of the set of integers (usually
either the set {0, 1, 2, . . .} or the set {1, 2, 3, . . .}) to a set S. We
use the notation an to denote the image of the integer n. We call an a
term of the sequence.
Consider the sequence {an }, where an = n1 .

The list of terms of this sequence starts with: {1, 12 , 13 , 14 , · · · }
Geometric progression
A geometric progression is a sequence of the form
a, ar , ar 2 , · · · , ar n , · · ·
where the initial term a and the common ratio r are real numbers.

Sequences
Arithmetic progression
An arithmetic progression is a sequence of the form
a, a + d, a + 2d, · · · , a + nd, · · ·
where the initial term a and the common difference d are real numbers.
List the first five terms of the sequences
{bn } with bn = (−1)n ⇒ the terms are: 1, −1, 1, −1, · · · . Its a
geometric progression with initial term 1 and common ratio -1.
{sn } with sn = −1 + 4n ⇒ the terms are: −1, 3, 7, 11, · · · . Its an
arithmetic progression with initial term -1 and common difference 4.
Recurrence Relation
A recurrence relation for the sequence {an } is an equation that expresses
an in terms of one or more of the previous terms of the sequence,
namely, a0 , a1 , ..., an−1 , for all integers n with n ≥ n0 , where n0 is a
nonnegative integer. A sequence is called a solution of a recurrence
relation if its terms satisfy the recurrence relation.
Recurrence Relations
Let an be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an = an−1 + 3

for n = 1, 2, 3, · · · and suppose that a0 = 2. What are a1 , a2 , and a3 ?
We see from the recurrence relation that a1 = a0 + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5.
It then follows that a2 = 5 + 3 = 8 and a3 = 8 + 3 = 11.
a0 = 2 is called the initial condition.
Fibonacci sequence
The Fibonacci sequence, f0 , f1 , f2 , · · · is defined by the initial conditions
f0 = 0, f1 = 1, and the recurrence relation
fn = fn−1 + fn−2 for n = 2, 3, 4, · · ·
The Fibonacci numbers: f2 = f1 + f0 = 1 + 0 = 1, similarly

f3 = 2, f4 = 3, f5 = 5 and f6 = 8.
It is an important sequence for many applications and we will study
it in depth later.

Recurrence Relations
Find formulae for the sequences with the following first five terms: (a) 1,
1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16 (b) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
(a) an = 1/2n is a possible match (b) an = 2n + 1 is a possible match.
How can we produce the terms of a sequence if the first 10 terms are 1,
2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4?
The integer 1 appears once, the integer 2 appears twice, the integer
3 appears three times, and the integer 4 appears four times. A
reasonable rule for generating this sequence is that the integer n
appears exactly n times.
How can we produce the terms of a sequence if the first 10 terms are 1,
3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123?
Starting with the third term, each term is the sum of the two
previous terms. That is, 4 = 3 + 1, 7 = 4 + 3, 11 = 7 + 4, and so on.
We can guess that the sequence is determined by the recurrence
relation Ln = Ln−1 + Ln−2 with initial conditions L1 = 1 and L2 = 3.
Summations
Pn
The summation notation i=m ai used to refer to the sum of
am + am+1 + · · · + an .

Matrices
Matrix Arithmetic
Matrix
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. A matrix with m rows and n
columns is called an m × n matrix. A matrix with the same number of
rows as columns is called square. Two matrices are equal if they have the
same number of rows and the same number of columns and the
corresponding entries in every position are equal.
The sum of two matrices of the same size is obtained by adding

elements in the corresponding positions.

Matrices
Matrix Arithmetic
Let A be an m × k matrix and B be a k × n matrix. The product

of A and B, denoted by AB, is the m × n matrix with its (i,j)th
entry equal to the sum of the products of the corresponding
elements from the ith row of A and the jth column of B.
Matrix multiplication is not commutative. That is, if A and B are

two matrices, it is not necessarily true that AB and BA are the
same.
Matrices
Matrix Arithmetic
The Identity Matrix of order n is n×n matrix where the main

diagonal is all 1 and every other element is 0.
The transpose of A, denoted by At , is obtained by interchanging the

rows and columns of A.
A square matrix A is called symmetric if A = At .

a matrix is symmetric if and only if it is square and it is symmetric
with respect to its main diagonal.
Matrices
ZeroOne Matrices
Zero-one matrices
It is a matrix with entries that are 0 or 1. They represent discrete
structures using Boolean arithmetic.
The Boolean arithmetic is based on the Boolean operations ∧ and ∨,
which operate on pairs of bits, defined by
Let A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] be m × n zero-one matrices.

The join of A and B (A ∨ B) is the zero-one matrix with (i,j)th entry
aij ∨ bij .
The meet of A and B (A ∧ B) is the zero-one matrix with (i,j)th entry
aij ∧ bij .
Matrices
ZeroOne Matrices
Example: Find the join and meet of the zero-one matrices:
The join of A and B is:
The meet of A and B is:
Now we will define the Boolean Product of two matrices.

Matrices
ZeroOne Matrices
Example: Find the join and meet of the zero-one matrices:
The join of A and B is:
The meet of A and B is:
Now we will define the Boolean Product of two matrices.

Matrices
ZeroOne Matrices
Boolean product
Let A = [aij ] be an m×k zero-one matrix and B = [bij ] be a k×n
zero-one matrix. Then the Boolean product of A and B, denoted by
A ⊙ B, is the m×n matrix with (i, j)th entry cij where
cij = (ai1 ∧ b1j ) ∨ (ai2 ∧ b2j ) ∨ · · · ∨ (aik ∧ bkj ).
Example: Find the Boolean product of A and B, where:

Matrices
ZeroOne Matrices

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ECOM 2311- Discrete Mathematics

Chapter # 2 : Basic Structures: Sets, Functions, Sequences,

Sums, and Matrices

ECOM 2311- Discrete Mathematics - Ch.2 Dr. Musbah Shaat 1 / 45

4 Sequences and Summations

ECOM 2311- Discrete Mathematics - Ch.2 Dr. Musbah Shaat 2 / 45

It is common for sets to be denoted using uppercase letters.

ECOM 2311- Discrete Mathematics - Ch.2 Dr. Musbah Shaat 4 / 45

ECOM 2311- Discrete Mathematics - Ch.2 Dr. Musbah Shaat 5 / 45

EX. Find an equal set with the following set

Let S be a set. If there are exactly n distinct elements in S where n is a

The ordered n-tuple (a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) is the ordered collection that has a1

Two ordered n-tuples are equal if and only if each corresponding

Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian (direct) product of A and B, denoted

ECOM 2311- Discrete Mathematics - Ch.2 Dr. Musbah Shaat 8 / 45

EX.A = {1, 2} , B = {a, b, c}

The notation A2 is used to denote A × A

ECOM 2311- Discrete Mathematics - Ch.2 Dr. Musbah Shaat 9 / 45

Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B,

Let A and B be sets. The intersection of the sets A and B, denoted by

Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B, denoted by A − B, is

ECOM 2311- Discrete Mathematics - Ch.2 Dr. Musbah Shaat 10 / 45

ECOM 2311- Discrete Mathematics - Ch.2 Dr. Musbah Shaat 11 / 45

EX. A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3}

The union of a collection of sets [generalized union] is the set that

The intersection of a collection of sets [generalized intersection] is the set

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Ex. By using the builder notation, prove that A ∩ B = Ā ∪ B̄

Exercise: prove that A ∪ B = Ā ∩ B̄

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Let f1 and f2 be functions from A to R. Then f1 + f2 and f1 f2 are also

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A function f is said to be one-to-one, or injective, if and only if

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A function f from A to B is called onto, or surjective, if and only if for

The function f is a one-to-one correspondence, or bijective, if it is

**(3) f (x) = x + 1 from the set of real numbers to itself

**(4) f is the function from {a, b, c, d} to {1, 2, 3} defined by f (a) = 3,

**(5) f is the function from {a, b, c, d} to {1, 2, 3, 4} with f (a) = 4, f

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Let f be a one-to-one correspondence from the set A to the set B. The

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Ex. State whether the following functions are invertible or not:

**(2) Let f : Z → Z be such that f (x) = x + 1.

**(3) Let f be the function from R to R with f (x) = x 2 .

** Exercise: Let f be the function from R+ to R+ with f (x) = x 2 .

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Let A be a set. The identity function on A is the function ιA : A → A,

When the composition of a function and its inverse is formed, in

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If there is a one-to-one function from A to B, the cardinality of A is less

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Consider the sequence {an }, where an = n1 .

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Let an be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an = an−1 + 3

The Fibonacci numbers: f2 = f1 + f0 = 1 + 0 = 1, similarly

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