MATHEMATICS

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION MODULE

MATHEMATICS
BCM 131

SCHOOL OF BUSINESS STUDIES

MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS
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Acknowledgements
The University would like to thank those below for their contribution to this MATHEMATICS
MODULE:
Mr U.N.Haankuku
 Contents
About this Mathematics Module:- BDM 131 1
How this Mathematics Module is structured.............................................................................. 1

Course overview 3
Welcome to Mathematics course which covers Algbra, differntial and integral calculus—is
this course for you? .................................................................................................................... 3
Course outcomes ........................................................................................................................ 3
Timeframe .................................................................................................................................. 4
Study skills ................................................................................................................................. 4
Need help? .................................................................................................................................. 5
Assignments ............................................................................................................................... 5
Assessments ............................................................................................................................... 6

Getting around this [DOCUMENT TYPE] 7

Margin icons ............................................................................................................................... 7

Unit 1 Set Theory, Relations , Functions and Gradratic Equations 9

Set Theory .................................................................................................................................. 9
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 9
Relations and Functions ......................................................................................................... 110
Theory of quadratic equations .............................................................................................. 2711
Unit summary ........................................................................................................................... 34
Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 34
Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 34

Unit 2 Binomial Theorem, Polynomials and Matrices 35

Binomial Theorem........................................................................................................................
Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 355
Polynomials .............................................................................................................................. 38
Matrices .................................................................................................................................... 41
Unit summary ........................................................................................................................... 50
Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 50
Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 50

Unit 3 Differential Calculus 51

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 51
Limits .......................................................................................................................................... 54
Differentions................................................................................................................................ 67
Applications of Differentiations .................................................................................................. 89
Unit summary .............................................................................................................................. 95
Assignment .................................................................................................................................. 95
Assessment .................................................................................................................................. 95

Unit 4 Integration 96
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 97
Background .............................................................................................................................. 97
integration .............................................................................................................................. 104
Applications ........................................................................................................................... 137
Unit summary ......................................................................................................................... 151
Assignment ............................................................................................................................. 151
Assessment ............................................................................................................................. 151
 This MATHEMATICS MODULE has been produced by the Institute of Distance Education.

How this MATHEMATICS MODULE

is structured
The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course. Information contained in the
course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
 Where to get help.
 Course assignments and assessments.
 Activity icons.
 Units.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before starting your study.

The course content

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
 An introduction to the unit content.
 Unit outcomes.
 New terminology.
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
 A unit summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with a list of additional
resources at the end of this MATHEMATICS MODULE; these may be books, articles or web
sites.

Your comments
After completing we would appreciate it if you would take a few moments to give us your feedback
on any aspect of this course. Your feedback might include comments on:

1
 Course content and structure.
 Course reading materials and resources.
 Course assignments.
 Course assessments.
 Course duration.
 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this course.

2
Course overview

Welcome to Mathematics:
In this course you will be given an overview of algebra which was covered at secondary mathematics
focusing on concepts and skills required for differential and integral calculus which is our focus in this
course.

Mathematics (Algebra and

Calculus), is this course for you?
This course is intended for people who completed grade 12, and are following a bachelor‘s degree
programme at Mulungushi University. This Course aims to give students Mathematical concepts,
knowledge and skills which will help them in later courses in Research Methodology, Statistics and in
Decision Making techniques. The module begins by reviewing grade 12 work such as sets, relations,
functions and theory of quadratic equations. Set theory forms a basis for higher mathematics, statistics
and probability theories. Therefore, it is important that we begin by introducing some notations and
symbolism here which will help you understand some basic concepts when we meet them later in this
module.
Grade 12 work is required as a pre requisite

Course outcomes
Upon completion of you will be able to:

 Use set operations correctly

 Write the domain, co domain and range of any given function
 Solve any quadratic equation
Outcomes  Graph any quadratic function and write the max or min point of the
function

3
Timeframe

It is recommended that you take 120 Hours to complete this module

How long?

Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-
study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:

 http://www.how-to-study.com/
The ―How to study‖ web site is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.

 http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a ―where does time
go?‖ link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (―remembering‖).

 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another ―How to study‖ web site with useful links to time

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 management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (―hands-on‖ learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type ―self-study basics‖, ―self-study tips‖, ―self-
study skills‖ or similar.

Need help?
www.mathstutor.com
For any information regarding this Module Code:- BCM 131,
course Title ; Mathematics, Contact Mr U.N.Haankuku of
Help
Mulungushi University
For any technical issues contact the CICT department

Assignments
This Module will have 2 assignments which will be given to you at the
time of registration.
The mode of submission of these assignments shall be communicated to
you by the Institute of Distance Education.
Assignments The IDE will advise you on who is responsible of receiving the
assignments.
The schedule of submitting assignments shall be given to you by the IDE
All details regarding assignments will be communicated to you by the
IDE.

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Assessments
The Module will have two assignments, one test normally conducted
during residential school.
The assignments shall be marked and shall constitute 10% of the final
Assessments
continuous assessment while the test shall contribute 20 % of the total
continuous assessment.
The schedule of assignments will guide you on the logistics of
assignments.

6
Getting around this MATHEMATICS MODULE

Margin icons
While working through this MATHEMATICS MODULE you will notice the frequent use of margin
icons. These icons serve to ―signpost‖ a particular piece of text, a new task or change in activity; they
have been included to help you to find your way around this MATHEMATICS MODULE.

A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize yourself with the icons and their
meaning before starting your study.

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group activity Help Note it!

Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

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Unit 1 Set Theory

1.1 Introduction
The module begins by reviewing grade 12 work such as sets, relations,
functions and theory of quadratic equations. Set theory forms a basis for
higher mathematics, statistics and probability theories. Therefore, it is
important that we begin by introducing some notations and symbolism
here which will help you understand some basic concepts when we meet
them later in this module.

1.2 Objectives
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Use set operations correctly

 Write the domain, co domain and range of any given function
 Solve any quadratic equation
Outcomes
 Graph any quadratic function and write the max or min point of the
function.

U: Universal set

A, B, C, D,……….: Shall represent a set

Terminology {…………}: Braces; used for sets

,  : Intersection and Union respectively

,  : ―Subset‖ and ― member of "

: ― Not a subset of ―

: ―Not a member of ―

: ― subset of or equal‖
 or   Empty set

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1.3 Sets
Definition: A set is a collection of objects which are alike.

In this context, examples of sets are:

 Names of wild animals
 Employees of a certain firm
 Set of books in the library
 Set of real numbers which satisfies the equation: x 2  2 x  3  0

Notations:
A, B, P ; that is capital letters shall represent a set.
Small letters shall represent elements
{…} these are braces which stand for a collection of elements
Definition: A Universal set is the collection of the entire collection of objects. Notation;
U  Universal set
For example:
 A set of animals
 A set of books
 A set of employees

Venn Diagrams

Venn diagrams are used to visualize sets and their relations to one another.

Above is a diagrammatic representation of set A. The set can be represented

mathematically as: A={1,3,5,7,9} .

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Note that set A(the circle) is a subset of the Universal set(the rectangle).

A set can either be described or members of the set can be listed.

For example:
Let A be a set of vowels in the English alphabet. This set describes the set but we can list the
members of this set as:
A  {a, e, i, o, u} Note that there are 5 vowels in the English alphabet. a is a member of set A in
symbols we write a  A or we can say a belong to set A, or a is an element of A. But the letter c
is not an element of A, in symbols c  A , reads c do not belong to A.

Description of set Listing the elements of the set

A= set of positive multiples of 3 A  {3,6,9,12,15}

less than 18

B= set of vowels

C= set of domestic animals

D= set of prime numbers

E= set of rational numbers

F= set of irrational numbers

G= set of real numbers

Dog, cow, john, mary, car, wood

1.3.1 Equal Sets

Definition. Two sets A and B are said to be equal if and only if for every element of A is an
element of B and every element of B is an element of A. That is, they have same elements.
Example;
Let A  {1, 2, 3, 4} and B  {4,1, 2, 3} then A  B , reads A is equal to B

Let A  {1, 2, 3} and B  {a, b, c} then A  B ,reads A is equivalent to B.

Exercise:
State whether the two given sets below are equal.

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A  {x x is a positive int eger less than two} and

B  {x 2 x  9  11}

1.3.2 Subsets
Definition. A set A is a subset of a set B, written, A  B , if every element of A is also an element
of B.
In fact this is a proper subset, it means B has some elements which are not elements of A. If
A  B and B  A then A  B . Or we can have A  B that means every elements of A are
elements of B and every element of B are elements of A.

Subsets

If B is a subset of A. Then all of the elements of B are also in A.

These are recaps from secondary mathematics.

1.3.3 Operations on sets

Just as we add , subtract numbers, we can also take the union, intersection and complements of
sets.
Intersection of sets
Definition
Intersection: is a set of elements which are found in both sets.

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A  B is a set of elements found in both A and B

The intersection of sets A and B contains a particular group of elements that exist in set
A and in set B.

Union of sets
Definition:
Union; is a set of elements which are found in A and B.
A  B is a set of elements which are found in A as well in B( note that elements found in both A
and B are written once).

The union of sets A and B contains all of the elements from both sets.

Complement

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 A' (A-dash)is called the complement of A. It contains all elements which are not
members of A.

A and A' together make up the Universal set.

Example 1
Let u  a, e, i, o, u and subsets A  a, e, u and B  a, i, o
Find :
(i) A B (ii) A B (iii) A'B'
(iv) ( A  B)'
Solutions
(i) List the elements found in both A and B
A  B  a, note that a is the only element found in both A and B

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(ii) Here list all the elements found in A and B
A  B  a, e, i, o, u, note that a which appears in both A and B it is written once.

(iii) List the elements of A‘ and B‘ and write the elements found in both A‘ and B‘
A' i, o and B' e, u then A'B'   means there is no element common in A‘ and B‘.

(iv) List the elements found in A and B then find the complement of this set.
A  a, e, uand B  a, i, othen
A  B  a, e, i, o, u
( A  B)'  

15
Students should try these questions and check their answers from the Appendix given.
De Morgan‘s Law
( A  B)'  A'B' and
( A  B)'  A'B'

1.3.4 Sets of Numbers

Notations and symbols
N  1,2,3,4,....., the set of natural numbers or counting numbers
W  0,1,2,3,4,5,......., the set of whole numbers
Z  ....,3,2,1,0,1,2,3,4,......, the set of integers. Note that the set of integers has three sets
of numbers , namely the negative numbers, zero and positive numbers.
What this means is the this set contains the set of whole numbers W, and the set of Natural
numbers N. in symbols we write , N  W  Z . The set of positive integers can be written as:
Z   1,2,3,4,5,.....and the set of negative integers can be written as: Z   ........  3,2,1,
the two set plus 0 gives the set of integers.
The next set to this set of integers is called the set of rational numbers.

Definition 1
a 
A rational number is defined as ; Q   , b  0, where a, b  R  , that is the set of rational
b 
a
numbers can be written in the form , b  0 where a and b are integers. Note that in
b
mathematics divisible by 0 not allowed, therefore , where an unknown appears in the
denominator, it is only valid in a case where it not assume the value zero in the denominator.
This set of rational numbers contains all integers, in symbols we write: Z  Q , since whole
a 3
numbers can be written in the form , for example, 3  , hence it is a rational number by
b 1
definition.
Definition 2 .
A rational numbers can be written as terminating decimals or decimals repeat
3
For example  0.75 , this is an example of terminating decimals
4
1
 0.33333....... , this is an example of repeating decimals. This type of decimals can be
3

1
expressed in another shorter form, that is,  0.3333......  0.3 , the bar on top shows that 3
3
repeats.

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 3
What is known is that o.75 can easily be converted to a fraction which is . What would be
4
1
interesting to us here is how can 0.3333…… be converted to a fraction .
3
1
Take for example .
3

Let a  0. 3 , multiply 10 both side of the equation. We multiply by 10 because the repeating
decimal has one digit after the decimal point. If the repeating digits were two we would have
multiplied by 100.

10a  3. 3 ……(1)

a  0. 3 …….(2)
Subtract (2) from (1)
 9a  3
Divide by 9 both sides
3
a 
9
1
a 
3
a
If a number can not be written in the form , b  0 where a and b are integers or can not be
b
written as terminating decimals or repeated decimals, then this number is an Irrational number(I).
That is, Q  I   , but Q  I  R ,that is the set of rational numbers plus the set of irrational
numbers equal the set of Real numbers. That is the set of real numbers contains rational numbers
and irrational numbers.
Some properties of real numbers
1. Identity element.
0 is an identity element under the operation +; 0+4=4
1 is an identity element under the operation x, 1x4=4
2. commutative properties
The operation + is commutative; a+b=b+a, for real numbers a and b
The operation x is commutative; axb = bxa , for real numbers a and b
3. Inverse element
The operation + has an inverse element 0, for real number a
The operation x has an inverse element a 1 , for real number a
4. Transitive property
if a  b and b  c ,then a  c
5. Associative property
The operation + is associative
The operation x is associative
6. The distributive property
The operation x is distributive over +

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a(b+c)=ab+ac

1.3.5. Laws of the algebraic of sets

1a. A  A  A 1 b. A A  A Idempotent laws

2a. ( A  B)  C  A  ( B  C ) 2b. ( A  B)  C  A  ( B  C ) Associative laws
3a. A  B  B  A 3b. A B  B  A Commutative laws
4a. A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  ( A  C ) 4b.
A  ( B  C)  ( A  B)  ( A  C ) Distributive laws
5a. A    A 5b. A U  A Identity laws
6.a. A  U  U 6b. A   A Identity laws

7a. A  A'  U 7b. A  A'   Compliment laws

8a. ( A' ) '  A 8b. U '   ,  '  U Compliment laws

9a. ( A  B)  A'  B ' 9b. ( A  B)  A'  B ' De Morgan’s laws

Exercise 1.
1. Let u  0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13 and subsets A = the set of prime numbers, B= the
set of counting numbers and C= the set of multiples of 3.
Here the universal set U has been given a form of elements while the subsets of U, namely, A ,B
and C has been described. What this means is that you stat by writing the elements of the sets
which has been described.
Write the following sets and Display your solutions as Venn Diagrams.
(i) A  B (ii) B C (iii) A'B'
(iv) A'C ' (v) ( A  B)' (vi) ( A  C )'
(vii) U‘ (viii) '
2. Let U and the subsets A, B and C be the sets given in question 1. above
Verify the De Morgan‘s Law.

1.4 Relations and Functions

1.4.1 Relation

A relation R from a set A to a set B assigns to each pair (a,b) in AXB

exactly one of the following statements:

(i) “a is related to b”, written aRb

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 (ii) “ a is not related to b” written

A relation from a set A to the same set A is called a relation in A

Example:

1. Marriage is a relation from the set M of men to the set W of women. For, given any
man m  M and any w  W , either m is married to w or m is not married to w.
2. Order, symbolized by ―<‖ or equivalently, ―x is less than y‖ is a relation in any set of
real numbers. For, given any order pair (a,b) of real numbers, either a<b or
3. Perpendicularity is a relation in the set of lines in the plane. For, given any pair of
lines a and b , either a is perpendicular to b or a is not perpendicular to b.
4. X = n=set of Natural numbers and Y= n+2

This a 'notation' for expressing a relation between two variables(say X and Y).

Individual values of these variables are called elements

eg Domain; X  1,2,3,4,5,6,.... and Co domain: Y  3,4,5,6,7,8,....

Note that Y values are all images of element in X, this can be called the Range

The first set of elements ( X) is called the domain .

The second set of elements ( Y) is called the Co domain . If all elements in Y are some
images of some elements in X the co domain is called the range

5. A simple relation like y = x2 can be more accurately expressed using the following
format:

In this example the Domain is X  x : x  R, that is all real numbers is the domain.

19
 But the co domain is Y  y : y  R, and the Range Y  y : y  0, y  R

The sketch of the graph of the function y  x 2

Here, you will observe that there are no values of x whose images are negatives. The
images are always 0 or positives. This gives a good distinction example of Co domain and
the Range. Y is a set of real numbers but some real numbers are not images of the x
values in the Domain.

Inverse Relation

Let R be a relation from A to B. The inverse of R , denoted by R 1 , is the relation from b

to A which consists of those ordered pairs which when reversed belong to

R: R 1  (b, a) : (a, b)  R

Example:

1. Consider a mapping

R  (1,2), (1,3), (2,3)

R 1  (2,1), (3,1), (3,2)

2. The inverse of the relations defined by;

― x is the husband of y‖ and ― x is taller than y‖ are respectively

― x is the wife of y‖ and ― x is shorter than y‖.

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1.4.2 One-One mapping

Here one element of the domain is associated with one and only one element of the range.

1.4.3 Onto

A relation is onto if and only if the every element in Y is some image of some element in
the domain X. ( or if Y is filled)

1.4.4 Many-One mapping

Here more than one element of the domain can be associated with one particular element
of the range.

Example

Z is the set of integers(positive & negative whole numbers not including zero)

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1.5 Functions

1.5.1 Definition

If there is associated with each element of a set X exactly one element of another set Y,
then this association constitutes a function from X to Y and is written f : X  Y .

The unique element in Y assigned to x  X by f denoted by f(x) , and called the image of
x under f or the value of f at x. The domain of f is X, and the co domain Y. The range of f
denoted f X  is the set of images, that is , f X    f ( x) : x  X .

A property of one-one functions is that a on a graph a horizontal line will only cut the
graph once.

Example

R+ the set of positive real numbers

Complete function notation is a variation on what has been used so far. It will be used
from now on.

1.5.2 Inverse Function f -1

The inverse function is obtained by interchanging x and y in the function equation and
then rearranging to make y the subject.

1
If f -1 exists then, ff ( x)  f 1 f ( x)  x

It is also a condition that the two functions be 'one to one'. That is that the domain of f is
identical to the range of its inverse function f -1 .

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When graphed, the function and its inverse are reflections either side of the line y = x.

Example

Find the inverse of the function(below) and graph the function and its inverse on the same
axes.

1.5.3 Composite Functions

A composite function is formed when two functions f, g are combined.

However it must be emphasized that the order in which the composite function is
determined is important.

The method for finding composite functions is:

find g(x) then, find f[g(x)]

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Example

For the two functions,

find the composite functions (i) fog (ii) g o f

1.5.4 Exponential & Logarithmic Functions

Since for any positive number x and any positive number a  1 , there is one and only one
real value of y which satisfies the equation a y  x , we can solve this equation for y, and
have y equal to the power to which a must be raised in order to obtain the number x.

Definition

The exponent or power y to which the number a is raised to give the number x is called
the logarithm of x to the base a, and is written:

a y  x  y  log ax where x>0, and a>0 and a  1 . This is the defining equation for the
logarithmic function.

Exponential functions have the general form:

24
where 'a' is a positive constant

However there is a specific value of 'a' at (0.1) when the gradient is 1 . This value, 2.718...
or 'e' is called the exponential function.

The function(above) has one-one mapping. It therefore possesses an inverse. This inverse
is the logarithmic function.

Basic rules on logarithms are ;

1. log aa  1

2. log a mn  log a m  log a n

25
 m
3. log a  log a m  log a n
n

4. log a m n  n log a m

5. log a 1  0

6. log x  log 10 x , called common logarithm

7. log e x  ln x , called Natural logarithm

These basic rules are used when changing from one base to another, the rule of the thumb
is ; change the log to exponential form and from this form change to the required base.

Exercise
1. Express the following in logarithmic notation
(i) 33  27 (ii) 5 4  625 (iii) 10 3  0.001
2. Sketch the graphs of the following functions,
(i) y  log 5 x (ii) y  log 1 x (iii) y  log 10 x
2

3 Express as a single logarithm

(i) log a x  log a y  log a z (ii)  log a x  6 log a ( x  1)  3 log a x 2
4. Solve the equations (i) log( x  3)  log x  2 (ii) log( 3x  2)  log( x  2)  1

(iii) 3 x 1  4 x 7 (iv) 3 x  32

26
1.6 Theory of Quadratic equations

The general form of a quadratic equation is:

ax2 +bx + c = 0

where a, b & c are constants

The expression b2 - 4ac is called the discriminant and given the letter Δ (delta).

All quadratic equations have two roots/solutions. These roots are REAL, EQUAL or
COMPLEX*.
*
complex - involving the square root of -1

Solution by factorising - This is best understood with an example.

solve:

You must first ask yourself which two factors when multiplied will give 12 ?

The factor pairs of 12 are : 1 x 12, 2 x 6 and 3 x 4

You must decide which of these factor pairs added or subtracted will give 7 ?

1 : 12 ...gives 13, 11

27
 2 : 6 .....gives 8, 4

3 : 4 .....gives 7, 1

Which combination when multiplied makes +12 and which when added gives -7?

these are the choices:

(+3)(+4),

(-3)(+4),

(+3)(-4)

(-3)(-4)

Clearly, (-3)(-4) are the two factors we want.

therefore

Now to solve the equation .

factorising, as above

either

or

for the equation to be true.

So the roots of the equation are:

From ―O‖ level we know that we can solve quadratic equation by:

 Factorization method
 Using a formula-

28
 Graphical method
 Completing the squares- this method is not used at ―O‖ level, so it will be explained here.
The other methods are covered at secondary mathematics.

1.6.2 Completing the square

This can be fraught with difficulty, especially if you only half understand what you are
doing.

The method is to move the last term of the quadratic over to the right hand side of the
equation and to add a number to both sides so that the left hand side can be factorised as
the square of two terms.
e.g.

However, there is a much neater way of solving this type of problem, and that is by
remembering to put the equation in the following form:

using the previous example,

29
Using the Formula - the two solutions of quadratic equations in the form

are given by the formula:

30
Proof

The proof of the formula is by using 'completing the square'.

Example Find the two values of x that satisfy the following quadratic equation:

31
 Graphs of Quadratic Functions

The general form of a quadratic function is given as: f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c . To graph this

function we need to know the following about the curve :

1. Turns, either up or down. If the coefficient of x 2 which is a is positive , the curve has a
minimum, but if a is negative , then the curve has a maximum.
2. cuts the y-axis or x-axis
3. the value of y where the curve turns

To find these values, we complete the squares on the given function;

y  ax 2  bx  c factorize a

b c b
y  a( x 2  x  ) complete squares inside the bracket ( take the coefficient of x, which is , half it,
a a a
b b 2 b b
gives , square it, ( ) add a zero of the form ( ) 2 - ( ) 2 ), this gives;
2a 2a 2a 2a

b b b c
y  a[ x 2  x  ( )2  ( )2  ]
a 2a 2a a

b 2 4ac  b 2
y  a[( x  )  ] . We are able to read out the minimum value and point from
2a 4a 2
this expression. That is ;

32
 4qc  b 2 b
The minimum value is y  and it occurs at x   , hence, the turning point
4a 2a
b 4ac  b 2
is ( , )
2a 4a

Exercise

1. Find the turning point, state whether the turning point is a minimum or maximum
of the following functions, hence sketch the functions:

(a) y  3x 2  x  2 .
(b) y  4  3x  x 2

2. Solve the following quadratic equations

(i) x 2  3x  2  0 using factorization method

(ii) 3x 2  2 x  1  0 using completing square method

(iii) 2 x 2  5x  1  0 using formula method

33
Unit summary
In this unit you learned set theory and their operations, relations and
functions. Lastly the unit discussed the theory of quadratic equations and
functions.
Summary

Assignment
Two Assignments will given to you by IDE

Assignment

Assessment
The Two assignments which will be given to you through IDE and one
test to be given during your residential school shall constitute the
Continuous Assessment in the ratio given in the Academic Regulations
Assessment

34
 Unit 2 Binomial Theorem
2.1 Introduction
This section of work is to do with the expansion of (a+b)n and (1+x)n .

Pascal's Triangle and the Binomial Theorem give us a way of expressing the
expansion as a sum of ordered terms. In this unit you will be given techniques of
expanding expressions of the form (a  b) n were n is a positive integer and n a
rational number or negative integers

2.2 Objectives
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Calculate the coefficient of any term in the binomial expansion for

integral n
 Compute the series of the binomial expansion for rational n and
Outcomes negative integers of n.
 Find the region of validity for the binomial series for rational n

n!: n factorial

n Binomial Coefficient

  :
Terminology r

C rn : Binomial Coefficient

x : Absolute value of x

2.3 Pascal's Triangle

This is a method of predicting the coefficients of the binomial series.

Coefficients are the constants(1,2,3,4,5,6 etc.) that multiply each variable, or

group of variables.

Consider (a+b)n variables a, b .

35
 The first line represents the coefficients for n=0.

(a+b)0= 1

The second line represents the coefficients for n=1.

(a+b)1= a + b

The third line represents the coefficients for n=2.

(a+b)2= a2 + 2ab + b2

The sixth line represents the coefficients for n=5.

(a+b)5 = a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5ab4 + b5

The Binomial Theorem builds on Pascal's Triangle in practical terms, since

writing out triangles of numbers has its limits.

2.4 The General Binomial Expansion ( n≥1 )

This is a way of finding all the terms of the series, the coefficients and the powers
of the variables. The coefficients, represented by nCr , are calculated using
probability theory. For a deeper understanding you may wish to look at where nCr
comes from; but for now you must accept that:

where 'n' is the power/index of the original expression

and 'r' is the number order.

This formula is valid if n is a positive integer, then:

36
Example 1

Example 2

It is suggested that the reader try making similar questions, working through the
calculations.

37
2.5 The Particular Binomial Expansion

This is for (1+x)n , where n can take any value rational or negative, and x is a
fraction ( -1<x<1 ).

This series is valid in the region x  x  1  1  x  1. Outside this region the

series is not valid.

Example

Find the first 4 terms of the expression (x+3)1/2 .

38
2.6 Polynomials

2.6.1 Introduction

A polynomial is an expression which:

1. consists of a sum of a finite number of terms

2. has terms of the form kxn (x a variable, k a constant, n a positive integer)

Every polynomial in one variable (eg 'x') is equivalent to a polynomial with the
form:

Polynomials are often described by their degree of order. This is the highest
index of the variable in the expression.

eg: containing x5 order 5, containing x7 order 7 etc.

These are NOT polynomials:

3x2+x1/2+x

second term has an index which is not an integer(whole number)

5x-2+2x-3+x-5

indices of the variable contain integers which are not positive

examples of polynomials:

x5+5x2+2x+3

(x7+4x2)(3x-2)

x+2x2-5x3+x4-2x5+7x6

2.6.2 Algebraic long division

If f(x) the numerator and d(x) the denominator are polynomials

And the degree of d(x) <= the degree of f(x) and d(x) does not =0 then two
unique polynomials q(x) the quotient and r(x) the remainder exist,
so that:

39
 Note - the degree of r(x) < the degree of d(x).

We say that d(x) divides evenly into f(x) when r(x)=0.

Example

2.6.3 The Remainder Theorem

If a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x-a), where a is any constant, until a constant

remainder independent of x is obtained, this remainder is equal to f(a).

Example

Find the remainder when (2x3+3x+x) is divided by (x+4).

40
 The reader may wish to verify this answer by using algebraic division.

2.6.4 The Factor Theorem

( a special case of the Remainder Theorem) . If f(a) = R is zero , that ia, a is a zero
of f(x), then (x−a) is a factor of the polynomial f(x).

The converse is true , that is, If (x-a) is a factor of f(x), then f(a) = R = 0, and a
is a zero of f(x).

Example

2.7 Matrices

A matrix is an ordered set of numbers listed rectangular form.

Example. Let A denote the matrix

 2 5 7 8
 
 5 6 8 9
 3 9 0 1
 

41
This matrix A has three rows and four columns. We say it is a 3 x 4 matrix.

We denote the element on the second row and fourth column with a2,4.

Square matrix

If a matrix A has n rows and n columns then we say it's a square matrix.

In a square matrix the elements ai,i , with i = 1,2,3,... , are called diagonal elements.
Remark. There is no difference between a 1 x 1 matrix and an
ordenary number.

Diagonal matrix
A diagonal matrix is a square matrix with all de non-diagonal elements 0.
The diagonal matrix is completely denoted by the diagonal elements.
Example.

 7 0 0
 
 0 5 0
 0 0 6
 
The matrix is denoted by diag(7 , 5 , 6)

Row matrix
A matrix with one row is called a row matrix

Column matrix
A matrix with one column is called a column matrix

Matrices of the same kind

Matrix A and B are of the same kind if and only if
A has as many rows as B and A has as many columns as B

The transpose of a matrix

The n x m matrix AT is the transpose of the m x n matrix A if and only if

The ith row of A = the ith column of AT for (i = 1,2,3,..n)
So ai , j  a Tj ,i

The transpose of A is denoted T(A) or AT

42
0-matrix
When all the elements of a matrix A are 0, we call A a 0-matrix.
0 0
We write shortly 0 for a 0-matrix.  
0 0

An identity matrix I

An identity matrix I is a diagonal matrix with all diagonal element = 1.

1 0 0
 
0 1 0
0 0 1
 

A scalar matrix S
A scalar matrix S is a diagonal matrix with all diagonal elements alike.
a1,1 = ai,i for (i = 1,2,3,..n)

The opposite matrix of a matrix

If we change the sign of all the elements of a matrix A, we have the opposite matrix -A.
If A' is the opposite of A then ai,j' = -ai,j, for all i and j.

A symmetric matrix
A square matrix is called symmetric if it is equal to its transpose.
Then ai,j = aj,i , for all i and j.

A skew-symmetric matrix
A square matrix is called skew-symmetric if it is equal to the opposite of its transpose.
Then ai,j = -aj,i , for all i and j.

The sum of matrices of the same kind

Sum of matrices

 2 3 0  0 5 2
   
Let A   4  2 1  and B   2 2 1  , Find A + B.
 1 5 3  3 4 6
   

To add two matrices of the same kind, we simply add the corresponding elements.

43
Sum properties

Consider the set S of all n x m matrices (n and m fixed) and A and B are in S.
From the properties of real numbers it's immediate that

 A + B is in S
 the addition of matrices is associative in S
 A+0=A=0+A
 with each A corresponds an opposite matrix -A
 A+B=B+A

Scalar multiplication
Definition
To multiply a matrix with a real number, we multiply each element with this number.

Properties
Consider the set S of all n x m matrices (n and m fixed). A and B are in S; r and s are real
numbers.
It is not difficult to see that:

r(A+B) = rA+rB
(r+s)A = rA+sA
(rs)A = r(sA)
(A + B)T = AT + BT
(rA)T = r. AT

Because in the following, there is an intensive use of the properties of sums, the reader who is not
familiar with these properties must read first sums in math..
Multiplication of a row matrix by a column matrix

This multiplication is only possible if the row matrix and the column matrix have the
same number of elements. The result is a ordinary number ( 1 x 1 matrix).
To multiply the row by the column, one multiplies corresponding elements, then adds the
results.
1
 
Example. 2 1 3 .  2  = [19]
5
 

Multiplication of two matrices A.B

This product is defined only if A is a (l x m) matrix and B is a (m x n) matrix.
So the number of columns of A has to be equal to the number of rows of
B.
The product C = A.B then is a (l x n) matrix.

44
 The element of the ith row and the jth column of the product is found by
multiplying the ith row of A by the jth column of B.

ci,j = sumk (ai,k.bk,j)

Example. Multiply the given matrices

1 2 1 3  5 7 1 3 1 2
1.   =  ,     = ?
2 1   2 2   4 8   2 2  2 1
1 3 3 1 3 0 1 3 0 1 3 3
     
2. 2 2 1  3 1 3 = ? ,  3 1 3  2 2 1 = ?
1 4 2   2 4 2   2 4 2 1 4 2
   
1 1  2 2   2 2  1 1 
3.    = ? ,     = ?
1 1   2  2    2  2   1 1

From these examples we see that the product is not commutative and that there are zero divisors.

Properties of multiplication of matrices

Associativity
If the multiplication is defined then A(B.C) = (A.B)C holds for all matrices A,B and C.
Proof:
We'll show that an element of A(B.C) is equal to the corresponding
element of (A.B)C
First we calculate the element of the ith row and jth column of A(B.C)

Distributive
If the multiplication is defined then A(B+C) = A.B+A.C and (A+B).C = A.C+B.C holds for all
matrices A,B and C. This theorem can be proved in the same way as
above.

Theorem 1
For each A, there is always an identity matrix E and an identity matrix E' so that A.E = A and E'.A
= A If A is a square matrix, E = E'.

Theorem 2

(A.B)T = BT .AT
This theorem can be proved in the same way as above.

Theorem 3
If the multiplication is defined then for each A

A.0 = 0 = 0.A

45
Theorem 4
r and s are real numbers and A , B matrices. If the multiplication is defined then (rA)(sB) =
(rs)(AB) This theorem can be proved in the same way as above.

Theorem 5

if D = diag(a,b,c) then D.D = ( a2 , b2 , c2)

D.D.D = ( a3 , b3 , c3)
.....
This property can be generalised for D = diag(a,b,c,d,e,...,l).

Determinant of Order Two and Three

To every square matrix there is assigned a specific number called the determinant of a matrix.
This determinant function, first discovered in the investigation of systems
of linear equations has many interesting properties. In this unit we shall
investigate the determinant of square matrices of order two and three,
including their applications.
Write det(A) or A for the determinant of A;it is a number assigned to square matrices only.

Determinant of order two

a b  a b
Let a 2x2 matrix A =   , then det(A)= A   ad  bc
c d  c d
Example
Find the determinant of the following matrix.
 5 4
  .
 2 3
5 4
Therefore, by the above argument , we have  5.3  4.2  15  8  7
2 3
Note that a square array of numbers enclosed by straight lines is not a matrix but denotes the
number that the determinant function assigns to the enclosed array of
numbers, ie, to the enclosed square matrix.
Theorem:
The determinant of a product of matrices is the product of the determinants of the matrices:
det(AB) = det(A).det(B).
Determinant of order Three

The determinant of a 3x3 matrix is defined as follows;

46
 a b c
 
Let A   d e f  , find det(A).
g h i 


a b c
e f d f d e
So we write det(A)= A = d e f =a -b +c
h i g i g h
g h i
=a(ei –fh) – b(di –fg) + c( dh – eg)
=aei – afh –bdi + bfg + cdh –ceg
= aei + bfg + cdh – afh – bdi – ceg

Example

 2 1 3 
 
Let A    5 6  1  , find A .
 4 0  2
 

2 1 3
6 1  5 1 5 6
A  5 6 1 = 2 -1 +3
0 2 4 2 2 0
4 0 2
= 2(-12-0) – ( 10 + 4) + 3 ( 0 – 24*
= -24 -14 -72
= -110
Remark: This example show that the determinant of a 3 x 3 matrix can be expressed as a linear
combination of three determinants of order two with coefficients from
any row or from any column, and not just from the firs row as shown
above.
Inverse of a Matrix
A Matrix has an inverse if and only if:
1. it is a square matrix
2. its determinant is not zero
3. it is non singular
Definition
1
The inverse of a square matrix A denoted by A 1 is defined as; A 1  adjo int AT ’
A
Where adjo int A , is the matrix of co factors, and the matrix of co factors obtained as follows:

47
 a b   d  c
Take a 2 x 2 matrix for example: A =   , Adj A =   ,
c d   b a 
 a  b
Adj AT =  
 c d 
1 1  a  b
Therefore, A 1  adjo int AT =   and once you know the determinant this will
A A   c d 
give you the inverse of A.
Care must be taken when writing the Adj A, otherwise your inverse will be wrong.
Theorem
For any square matrix A, its inverse A 1 exists and unique if A  0. and AA 1  I ,

Where I is an identity matrix.

Example

 2 3  1
 
Let A   1 2 1  , find A 1 .
1 1 3 
 
Solution
Det(A)= 1

 7 8 5 
1
 
A =   4 5  3 Verify these results as an exercise
 1 1 1 
 

Applications
Matrices are used in solving of systems of linear equations. Here we shall look at two methods.
1. Solutions of systems of linear equations using inverse method.
Solve the system of equation
3x  5 y  8 5x  2 y  7
(i) (ii)
4x  2 y  1 3y  4  4x
2x  5 y  2z  7 2 z  3  y  3x
(iii) x  2 y  4z  3 (iv) x  3z  2 y  1
3x  4 y  6 z  5 3y  z  2  2x

48
 2. Using Cramer‘s rule
Cramer‘s rule states that if you are asked to solve a system of equation as:
Sole the system of equation
2x  3y  z  3
x  2y  z  1
 x  y  3z  2
This means we seek x, y , z which satisfies this system of equation.
By Cramer‘s rule all we need is to find the determinant of as follows:

The system can be written in the form AX=B where

 2 3  1
 
A 1 2 1  , the coefficients of x,y, z in the system of equation above.
1 1 3 
 
 x  3
   
X   y  , and B   1 
z  2
   

A1 A2 A3
x , y , z where A = determinant of A, A1 =
A A A
determinant of a matrix with column 1 replaced by column
B, A2 = determinant of a matrix with column 2 replaced by
column B, A = determinant of a matrix with column 3
replaced by column B.

Find x,y, z as an Exercise

Exercise
1 2 5
1. Find the value of x if (i) 1 x 5 0 (ii)
3 1 2
1 2 3
1 x 3  0
1 4 x

49
  1 2 3 
 
2. Let A    2  1  2  , find A 1 .
 3 4 
 1
3. Solve the system of linear equations

2x  3y  z  3
x  2y  z  1
 x  y  3z  2

Unit summary
In this unit you learned operations of matrices. You can add , subtract and
multiply matrices. Lastly you learnt how to get inverse of matrices and
how to solve system of equations using matrices.
Summary

Assignment
Two Assignments will given to you by IDE

Assignment

Assessment
The Two assignments which will be given to you through IDE and one
test to be given during your residential school shall constitute the
Continuous Assessment in the ratio given in the Academic Regulations
Assessment

50
 Unit 3 Differential Calculus

3.1 Introduction
This unit begins with the background of the development of calculus by Isaac Newton (1642-
1727) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716). Their investigation on the slope of a
tangent on curves at a given point and finding the areas of irregular shapes in a plane gave
birth to differential and integral calculus respectively.The unit also gives an overview of the
linkage between pre calculus mathematics with differential calculus just to show you that
differential calculus is not independent of pre calculus mathematics.

3.2 Objectives
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 Explain how differential calculus was developed
 Find the limit of a function as x approaches a given number
 State whether a given function is continuous or not at a given point
 Use graphical method to discuss continuity of a given function at a
Outcomes given point


dy The first derivative of f(x) ( The derivative of y

y '  f ' ( x)  : with respect to x).
dx

Terminology du The derivative of u w.r.t.x

u'  :
dx

3.3 Background
Historically, the development of calculus by Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) resulted from the investigation of the following problems:
(i) Finding the tangent line to a curve at a given point on the curve

51
(ii) Finding the area of a planar region bounded by an arbitrary cure

The tangent line problem might appear to be unrelated to any practical applications of
mathematics, but as you will see later, the problem of finding the rate of change of one
quantity with respect to another is mathematically equivalent to the geometric problem of
finding the slope of the tangent line to a curve at a given point on the curve. It is precisely
the discovery of the relationship between these two problems that spurred the
development of calculus in the seventeenth century and made it such an indispensable tool
for solving practical problems. The following are the few examples of such problems:
 Finding the rate of change of a bacteria population with respect to time
 Finding the velocity of an object
 Finding the rate of change of a company‘s profit with respect to time
 Finding the rate of change of a travel agency‘s revenue with respect to the
agency‘s expenditure for advertising.
The study of tangents-line problem led to the creation of differential calculus, which
relies on the concept of the derivative of a function. The study of the area problem led to
the creation of integral calculus, which relies on the concept of the ant-derivative or
integral, of function. Both the derivative of a function and the integral of a function are
defined in terms of a more fundamental concept called – Limit.
What is Calculus?
Calculus can be referred to as a ― Limit Machine‖ theta involves three stages. The first
stage is pre-calculus mathematics such as the slope of a straight line or area of a rectangle.
The second stage is the limit process and the third stage is new calculus formulation, such
as derivative of integral.

52
 Students who learn calculus as a collection of new formulas, and reduce calculus to the
memorization of differentiation and integral formulas miss a great deal of understanding
and lacks self confidence and satisfaction of the subject matter. As a result they may not
appreciate the applications of calculus in modeling real life situations in economics,
business and engineering. In this text, our goal is to learn how pre calculus formulas and
techniques are used as building blocks to produce the more general calculus formulas and
techniques.
Pre calculus Mathematics With Differential calculus

Average rate of change between t=a and t=b Instantaneous rate of change at t=aCurvature
of a circle Curvature of a curve

53
Tangent plane to a sphere Tangent plane to a surface
Direction of a motion Direction of motion along
Along a straight line a curved line.

These are some of the examples of pre calculus formulas required to understand differential
calculus formulas.

In the study of calculus, what happens to the value of a function as the independent
variable gets very close to a particular value is very important. We came across this
concept in the Introduction, where we zoomed in on a curve to get an approximation for
the slope of that curve. This lead to the theory of limits and continuity as x approaches a
particular number or approaches a number from either the left or right.

3.4 Limits

In this section you will learn how to take limits. As consecutive points, given by the
1
terms of the sequence 2  as shown on a number scale, it is noted that they cluster
n
about the point 2.

In such a way that there are points of the sequences whose distance from 2 is less than any
pre assigned positive number, however small. In this unit we shall be interested in the
limit of a function. Let x  2 , then f ( x)  x 2  4 as limit. Under this assumption, we
say ―the limit , as x approaches 2, of x 2 is 4‖ and write lim x 2  4
x 2

Right and Left limits: as x  2 over the sequence given above, its value is always less
than 2. We say that x approaches 2 from the left and write x  2  . Similarly, as x  2
1
over the given sequence 2  , its value is always greater than 2. We say that x
n
approaches 2 from the right and we write x  2  . Clearly, the statement lim f ( x) exists
xa

54
 implies that both the left lim f ( x) and the right limit lim f ( x) exists and are equal.
x a x a
However, the existence of the right (left) limits does not imply the existence of the left (
right) limit.

Example

The function f ( x)  9  x 2 has the interval  3  x  3 as domain of definition. If a is

any number on the open interval  3  x  3 , then lim 9  x 2 exists and is equal to
x a

9  a . Now consider a = 3. First , let x approaches 3 from the left, then

2

lim 9  x 2  0 . Next, let x approaches 3 from the right, then lim 9  x 2 does not exist
x 3 x 3

since for x>3, 9  x 2 is imaginary. Thus, lim 9  x 2 does not exist.

x 3

Theorems:

The following theorems on limits are listed for future reference.

1. If f(x)=c, a constant , then lim f ( x)  c

x a

If lim f ( x)  A and lim g ( x)  B , then

x a x a

2. lim k. f ( x)  kA , k being a constant

x a

3. lim[ f ( x)  g ( x)]  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)  A  B

x a x a x a

4. lim[ f ( x).g ( x)]  lim f ( x). lim g ( x)  A.B

x a x a x a

f ( x) lim f ( x) A
5. lim  x a  ,B  0
x a g ( x) lim g ( x) B
x a

6. lim n f ( x)  n lim f ( x)  n A
x a x a

These results may be very useful in the next sections.

3.4.1 Limits as x Approaches a Particular Number

Sometimes, finding the limiting value of an expression means simply substituting

a number.

55
Example 1:

Find the limit as t approaches 10 of the expression P = 3t + 7.

Answer

We write this using limit notation as: lim (3t  7)

t 10

In this example there is no complication - we simply substitute and write

lim (3t  7  37
t 10

There is no complication because f(t) = 3t + 7 is a continuous function.

But there are cases where we cannot simply substitute like this.

Example 2:

We know that x cannot equal 3 in the following expression (because we cannot

x 2  2x  3
have a denominator equal to zero): f ( x) 
x3

However, we can see that the function approaches a particular value as x

approaches 3 from the left:

x 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9

f(x) 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9

Continuing, we get closer and closer to x = 3:

x 2.9 2.92 2.94 2.96 2.97 2.98 2.99

f(x) 3.9 3.92 3.94 3.96 3.97 3.98 3.99

Likewise, approaching x = 3 from the right gives the same limit value:

x 3.5 3.1 3.01 3.00001

f(x) 4.5 4.1 4.01 4.00001

56
 We note that the function value is getting closer and closer to 4.

x 2  2x  3
We write: lim 4
x 3 x3

NOTE: We could have evaluated this limit by factorizing first:

CAUTION: The factorizing process is only possible in this example because we have:
x ≠ 3. This is a typical problem in the study of introductory limits. It appears to be a bit
silly, in that we could have factored it, cancelled and substituted x = 3 like we just saw.
But the example is important for the concept that there is no actual value of the function
when x = 3, but if we get really, really close to 3, the function value is really close to
some value (4, in this case).

3.4.2 Limits as x Approaches 0

We must remember that we cannot divide by zero - it is undefined.

But there are some interesting, and important, limits where there is a limiting
value as x approaches 0 and where it would appear that we have a 0 denominator.

Example

x 1 1
Find the limit as x approaches 0 of lim
x 0 x

Answer

0
Notice we cannot just substitute 0 because is indeterminate.
0

There is no algebraic process to find this limit. We can substitute values of x

which get closer and closer to 0 (from both the left side and right side) and
x 1 1 1
conclude that 
x 2

A way to check this is to graph it and see that indeed the limit as x gets closer to 0
is 1:

57
 We cannot see it, but there is a "hole" at x = 0 in our graph.

3.4.3 Limits as x Approaches Infinity

Example 1:

5
Consider the fraction .
x

Answer

Clearly, if we take larger and larger values of x, the value of the fraction becomes
5
smaller and smaller until it gets very close to 0. We say that "the limit of as x
x
approaches infinity is 0".

5
We write this in mathematical notation as: lim ( )  0 .
x  x

1
In general: lim    0
 
x   x

 1 
And similarly, lim  2   0
 
x  x

We use these limits when evaluating limits of functions and it is especially useful
in curve sketching.

58
Example 2:

5  3x
Find the limit lim ( ).
x  6x  1

Answer
This time it is not so obvious what the limit value is. We could substitute larger and larger
values of x until we could see what was happening (try 100, then 1000, then 1000000 and
so on).

1
Or, we could rearrange the expression and use the fact that lim    0
 
x  x

to find the limiting value.

We divide throughout by x to get the expression in a form where we can evaluate it.

 5 3
 5  3x   x 
lim    lim  
x   6 x  1 x  
  6 1
 x

03

60

1

2

 5  3x 
Notice that we cannot substitute ∞ into the fraction   , because this does not make
 6x  1 
mathematical sense.

 5  3() 
Please do not write   . It really upsets mathematicians.
 6()  1 

Example 3:

 1 x2 
Find lim  2 
x  8 x  5 
 

After explaining to a student about limits, I gave him the following example:

59
I tried to check whether he really understood that, so I gave him a different example.

1
The answer was: lim 
x 5 x5

3.4.4 Graphical Approach to Limits

Example 3:

The graph below shows that as x approaches 1 from the left, y = f(x) approaches 2 and this can be
written as

lim f ( x)  2
x 1

As x approaches 1 from the right, y = f(x) approaches 4 and this can be written as

lim f ( x)  4
x 1

Note that the left and right hand limits and f(1) = 3 are all different.

Example 4:
This graph shows that

lim f ( x)  2
x 1
As x approaches 1 from the right, y = f(x) approaches 4 and this can be written as

60
lim f ( x)  4
x 1
Note that the left hand limit and f(1) = 2 are equal.

Example 5:
This graph shows that
lim f ( x)  1 and lim f ( x)  1
x 0 x 0 
Note that the left and right hand limits are equal and we can write
lim f ( x)  1
x 0
In this example, the limit when x approaches 0 is equal to f(0) = 1.

Example 6:
This graph shows that as x approaches - 2 from the left, f(x) gets smaller and smaller without
bound and there is no limit. We write
lim f ( x)  
x 2 

61
As x approaches - 2 from the right, f(x) gets larger and larger without bound and there is no limit.
We write
lim f ( x)  
x 2 
Note that -  and  are symbols and not numbers. These are symbols used to indicate that the
limit does not exist.

Example 7:
The graph below shows a periodic function whose range is given by the interval [-1 , 1]. If x is
allowed to increase without bound, f(x) take values within [-1 , 1] and has no limit. This can be
written
lim f ( x) = does not exist
x 
If x is allowed to decrease without bound, f(x) take values within [-1 , 1] and has no limit again.
This can be written
lim f ( x) = does not exist
x 

Example 8:
If x is allowed to increase without bound, f(x) in the graph below approaches 2. This can be
written
lim f ( x)  2
x 
If x is allowed to decrease without bound, f(x) approaches 2. This can be written
lim f ( x)  2
x 

62
Find the limits of various functions using different methods. Several Examples with
detailed solutions are presented. More exercises with answers are at the end of this page.

x 2  2x  3
Example 1: Find lim
x 1 x 1

Solution to Example 1:

 Note that we are looking for the limit as x approaches 1 from the
left (values smaller than 1). Hence
x<1
x-1<0

 If x - 1 < 0 then | x - 1 | = - (x - 1)

 Substitute | x - 1 | by - (x - 1), factor the numerator to write the

limit as follows

 Simplify to obtain  lim  ( x  3)

x 1

 4

x 2  25
Example 2: Find the limit lim 2
x 5 x  x  30

Solution to Example 2:

63
  Although the limit in question is the ratio of two polynomials, x = 5 makes both the
numerator and denominator equal to zero. We need to factor both numerator and
denominator as shown below.

 Simplify to obtain

10

11

x 2  4 x  12
Example 3: Calculate the limit lim
x 2 x2

Solution to Example 3:

 We need to look at the limit from the left of 2 and the limit from
the right of 2. As x approaches 2 from the left
x - 2 < 0 hence

|x - 2| = -(x - 2)

 Substitute to obtain the limit from the left of 2 as follows

x 2  4 x  12
lim
x 2   ( x  2)

= -8

 As x approaches 2 from the right x - 2 > 0 hence

|x - 2| = x - 2

 Substitute to obtain the limit from the right of 2 as follows

64
 x 2  4 x  12
lim
x 2  ( x  2)

=8

The limit from the right of 2 and the limit from the left of 2 are not equal therefore the given limit
DOES NOT EXIST.

Example 4: Calculate the limit lim 3 x  1 ln( x  1)

x 1

Solution to Example 4:

 As x approaches -1, cube root x + 1 approaches 0 and ln (x+1)

approaches - infinity hence an indeterminate form 0 . infinity

lim 3
x  1 ln( x  1)  0.
x 1

 Let us rewrite the limit so that it is of the infinity/infinity

indeterminate form.

ln( x  1) 
lim 
x 1
( x  1)
1
3 

3x
Example 5: Find the limit lim
x 
16 x 2  1

Solution to Example 5:

 We first factor out 16 x 2 under the square root of the

denominator and take out of the square root and rewrite the limit as

3x 3
lim 
x  4
1
4 x 1
16 x 2

 Since x approaches larger positive values (infinity) | x | = x.

Simplify and find the limit.

x2 1
Example 6: Find the limit lim
x 2 x  2

65
Solution to Example 6:

 As x approaches 2 from the left then x - 2 approaches 0 from the

left or x - 2 < 0. The numerator approaches 5 and the denominator approaches 0 from the left
hence the limit is given by

3x 2
Example 7: Find the limit lim
x  4 x 2  2 x  1

Solution to Example 7:

 Factor x 2 in the denominator and simplify.

 As x takes large values (infinity), the terms 2/x and 1/x 2

approaches 0 hence the limit is
3

4

x 1
Example 7: Find the limit lim
x  2 x 2  3

Solution to Example 7:

 Factor x 2 in the numerator and denominator and simplify.

 As x takes large values (infinity), the terms 1/x and 1/x 2 and 3/x 2
approaches 0 hence the limit is

0
 0
2

66
 Exercises:

Calculate the following limits

x2 1 3 x x2
1. lim 2. lim 3. lim
x 2 x 1 x 
x  3x
2 x2 x2

x2  4  2
4. lim
x 0 x

Solutions to Above Exercises:

1) 3 2) 1 3) 1 4) ¼

3.5 Differentiation

3.5.1 Introduction

In this unit we will be differentiating polynomials. But later we will come across more
complicated functions and at times, we cannot differentiate them. We need to understand
the conditions under which a function can be differentiated.

Earlier we learned about Continuous and Discontinuous Functions.

A function like f(x) = x3 − 6x2 − x + 30 is continuous for all values of x, so it is

differentiable for all values of x.

67
 2
However, a function like f ( x)  is not defined for x = 0 and x = 1.
x x
2

It is discontinuous at those points. Hence, we cannot differentiate the function for those
values.

Split Functions and Differentiation

We met Split Functions before in the Functions and Graphs chapter.

A split function is differentiable for all x if it is continuous for all x.

Example 1:

We met this example in the earlier chapter.

68
 This function has a discontinuity at x = 1, but it is actually defined for x = 1 (and has
value 1). It is differentiable for all values of x except x = 1, since it is not continuous at x
= 1.

We now move on to see how limits are applied to the problem of finding the rate of
change of a function from first principles. This is the same as finding the slope of a
tangent.

3.5.2 The Slope of a Tangent to a Curve (Numerical Approach)

Since we can model many physical problems using curves, it is important to obtain an
understanding of the slopes of curves at various points and what a slope means in real
applications.

Remember: We are trying to find the rate of change of one variable compared to
another.

NOTE

In this section, we show you one of the historical approaches for finding slopes of
tangents, before differentiation was developed. This is to give you an idea of how it
works.

If you want to see how to find slopes (gradients) of tangents directly using derivatives, go
to Tangents and Normals in the Applications of Differentiation chapter.

Applications include:

 Temperature change at a particular time

 Velocity of a falling object at a particular time
 Current through a circuit at a particular time
 Variation in stock market prices at a particular time
 Population growth at a particular time
 Temperature increase as density increases in a gas

Later, we will see how to find these rates of change by differentiating a function and
substituting a value. For now, we are going to find rates of change numerically (that is,
by substituting numbers in until we find an acceptable approximation.)

We look at the general case and write our functions involving the familiar x (independent)
and y (dependent) variables.

69
 The slope of a curve at the point P means the slope of the tangent at the point P. We
need to find this slope to solve many applications since it tells us the rate of change at a
particular instant.

Delta Notation

In this work, we write

 change in y as Δy
 change in x as Δx

change in y y y 2  y1
By definition, the slope is given by: m   
change in x x x2  x1

We use this to find a numerical solution to the slope of a curve.

Example: 1

Find the slope of the curve f(x) = x2 at the point (2,4), using a numerical method.

Answer

We start with a point Q(1, 1) which is near P(2,4):

70
The slope of PQ is given by:

Now we move Q further around the curve so it is closer to P. Let's use Q(1.5,2.25) which
is closer to P(2,4):

The slope of PQ is now given by:

71
We see that this is already a pretty good approximation to the tangent at P, but not good
enough.

Now we move Q even closer to P, say Q(1.9,3.61).

Now we have:

So

We can see that we are very close to the required slope.

Now if Q is moved to (1.99,3.9601), then slope PQ is 3.99.

If Q is (1.999,3.996001), then the slope is 3.999.

Clearly, as x → 2, the slope of PQ → 4. But notice that we cannot actually let x = 2, since
the fraction for m would have 0 on the bottom, and so it would be undefined.

We have found that the rate of change of y with respect to x is 4 units at the point x = 2 .

We will now extend this numerical approach so that we can find the slope of any
continuous curve if we know the function. We will see an algebraic approach that can be
used for most functions.

72
3.5.3 The Derivative from First Principles

In this section, we will differentiate a function from "first principles". This means we will
start from scratch and use algebra to find a general expression for the slope of a curve, at
any value x.

First principles is also known as "delta method", since many texts use Δx (for "change in
x) and Δy (for "change in y"). This makes the algebra appear more difficult, so here we
use h for Δx instead. We still call it "delta method".

NOTE

If you want to see how to find slopes (gradients) of tangents directly using derivatives,
rather than from first principles, go to Tangents and Normals in the Applications of
Differentiation chapter.

We wish to find an algebraic method to find the slope of y = f(x) at P, to save doing the
numerical substitutions that we saw in the last section (Slope of a Tangent to a Curve -
Numerical Approach).

We can approximate this value by taking a point somewhere near to P(x, f(x)), say Q(x +
h, f(x + h)).

g
The value is an approximation to the slope of the tangent which we require.
h

We can also write this slope as "change in y / change in x" or:

73
If we move Q closer and closer to P, the line PQ will get closer and closer to the tangent
at P and so the slope of PQ gets closer to the slope that we want.

If we let Q go all the way to touch P (i.e. h = 0), then we would have the exact slope of
the tangent.

g g f  x  h   f ( x)
Now, can be written: 
h h h

So also, the slope PQ will be given by:

y 2  y1 y f ( x  h)  f ( x)
m  
x2  x1 x h

But we require the slope at P, so we let h → 0 (that is let h approach 0), then in effect, Q
g
will approach P and will approach the required slope.
h

Putting this together, we can write the slope of the tangent at P as:

dy f ( x  h)  f ( x )
 lim
dx x0 h

This is called differentiation from first principles, (or the delta method). It gives the
instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x.

This is equivalent to the following (where before we were using h for Δx):

dy y
 lim
dx x0 x

You will also come across the following for delta method:

74
 dy f ( x  h)  f ( x )
 lim
dx x  0 x

Notation for the Derivative

IMPORTANT: The derivative (also called differentiation) can be written in several

ways. This can cause some confusion when we first learn about differentiation.

The following are equivalent ways of writing the first derivative of y = f(x):

dy
or f ‘(x) or y‘.
dx

Example 1:

dy
Find from first principles if y = 2x2+ 3x.
dx

Solution:
f(x) = 2x2+ 3x so

We now need to find:

We have found an expression that can give us the slope of the tangent anywhere on the
curve.

If x = -2, the slope is 4(-2) + 3 = -5 (red, in the graph below)

75
 If x = 1, the slope is 4(1) + 3 = 7 (green)

If x = 4, the slope is 4(4) + 3 = 19 (black)

We can see that our answers are correct when we graph the curve (which is a parabola)
and observe the slopes of the tangents.

This is what makes calculus so powerful. We can find the slope anywhere on the curve
(i.e. the rate of change of the function anywhere).

Example 2:

a. Find y' from first principles if y = x2 + 4x.

b. Find the slope of the tangent where x = 1 and also where x = -6.

c. Sketch the curve and both tangents.

Solution:
a. Note: y' means "the first derivative". This can also be written dy/dx.

Now f(x) = x2 + 4x

So

76
b. When x = 1, m = 2(1) + 4 = 6

When x = -6, m = 2(-6) + 4 = -8

c. Sketch:

Example 3

Find y' from first principles if: f ( x)  x 2 ,

77
as expected.

dy 1
Example 4 From first principles find of f ( x) 
dx x

Exercise:
dy
From first principles find of :
dx
(i) y=2x+1 (ii) y  x 3  3x 2  2
1
(iii) y  2x  1 (iv) y
x 1
1 x 1
(v) y (vi) y
x 1 x 1

78
Answers:

1 1
(i) 2 (ii) 3x 2  6 x (iii) (iv) 
2x  1 ( x  1) 2

3
1  2
(v)  ( x  1) 2 (vi) 
2 ( x  1) 2

3.5.4 Rules of Derivatives

The good news is that we can find the derivatives of polynomial expressions without
using the delta method that we met in the derivative from first principles. They follow
from the "first principles" approach to differentiating, and make life much easier for us.

This is basic. In English, it means

d (c ) that if a quantity has a constant
Constant: 0
dx value, then the rate of change is
zero.

d n This follows from the delta

n-th power of x: x  nx n 1
dx method.

Here, y is some function of x. It

means that if we are finding the
d d derivative of a constant times that
Constant product: (cy )  c ( y )
dx dx function, it is the same as finding
the derivative of the function first,
then multiplying by the constant.

Here, u and v are functions of x.

Derivative of sum or d du dv The derivative of the sum is equal
(u  v)  
difference: dx dx dx to the derivative of the first plus
derivative of the second.

Here, u and v are functions of x.

d (uv) dv du The derivative of the product is
Derivative of product u v equal to the first x derivative of
dx dx dx the second plus the second x
derivative of the first.

79
 Here, u and v are functions of x.
The derivative of the quotient is
du dv equal to the denominator x
v u
Derivative of quotient d u dx dx derivative of the numerator minus
( ) 2 the numerator x derivative of the
dx v v
denominator divided by the
denominator squared.

dy
y  ex  ex Special function
dx

dy 1
y  ln x  , x0 Special function
dx x

Exarcise:

dy
1. Find the of ;
dx

(i) y = -7x6 (ii) y = 3x5 – 1 (iii) y  13x 4  6 x 3  x  1

1 1
(iv y   x 8  x 4  3x 2 (v) y  x 4  9 x 2  5x , at the point (3,15).
4 2

1 2
(vi) yx 4
 (vii) y  e 3 x ( x 2  1) (viii) y  3x 2 ln( x 2  1)
x

80
 2. (a) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 3x − x3 at x = 2.

(b) Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the given curve at the given point

(i) y  x3  x , at x=-3

(ii) y  3x 3  2 x 2  x  3 , at x=-1

3.5.5 Function of a Function

If y is a function of u, and u is a function of x, then we say

"y is a function of the function u".

Example

Consider the function

y = (5x + 7)12.

If we let u = 5x + 7 (the inner-most expression), then we could write our original function
as

y = u12

We have written y as a function of u, and in turn, u is a function of x.

This is a vital concept in differentiation, since many of the functions we meet from now
on will be functions of functions, and we need to recognise them in order to differentiate
them properly.

3.5.6 Chain Rule

To find the derivative of a function of a function, we need to use the Chain Rule:

dy dy du
 .
dx du dx

This means we need to

1. Recognize u (always choose the inner-most expression, usually the part inside brackets, or
under the square root sign).
2. Then we need to re-express y in terms of u.
3. Then we differentiate y (with respect to u), then we re-express everything in terms of x.

81
 4. The next step is to find du/dx.
5. Then we multiply dy/du and du/dx.

Example 1:

dy
Find if y = (x2+ 3)5.
dx

Answer

In this case, we let u = x2 + 3 and then y = u5.

We see that:

 u is a function of x and
 y is a function of u.

dy dy
For the chain rule, we firstly need to find  5u 4  5( x 2  3) 4 and  2 x . So
dx dx

dy dy du
 .
dx du dx

 5( x 2  3) 4 (2 x)

 10 x( x 2  3) 4

Example 2:

dy
Find if y  4 x 2  x .
dx

1
We write the given function as y  (4 x 2  x) 2 , we let u  4 x 2  x , and our function
1 dy dy du dy 1  12
now becomes, y  u 2 . Applying the chain rule  . ,  u and
dx du dx du 2
du
 8x  1
dx

dy 1  12
Therefore,  u .(8 x  1)
dx 2

82
 1 1
 (4 x 2  x) 2 (8 x  1) , since u  4 x 2  x .
2

dy
Example 3. Find if y  ( x 2  5x) 6
dx

3.5.7 The Derivative of a Power of a Function (Power Rule)

An extension of the chain rule is the Power Rule for differentiating. We are finding the
derivative of x n , n  R (a power of a function):

dy dx dy
Let y  x n , therefore,  nx n 1 , by the chain rule, give  nx n 1
dx dx dx

Example: Find the derivative of y  (2 x 3  1)

dy
In the case of y  (2 x 3  1) we have a power of a function. So  6x 2  0  6x 2
dx

3.5.8 The Product Rule Equation

If u and v are two differentiable functions of x, then the derivative of uv is given by:

y  uv

dy dv du
u v
dx dx dx

this can also be written, using 'prime notation' as :

y '  (uv) '  u.v '  vu'

83
 dy
Example 1. Find of the given function : y  ( x 2  1) 3 ( x 3  1) 2 ;
dx

Solution: Let u  ( x 2  1) 3 and v  ( x 3  1) 2 ; so we have,

dy
Example 2 Find of the given function : y  ( x 2  4)( x  3) 2 .
dx

Solution. Let u  x 2  4 and v  ( x  3) 2 , so we have;

84
 dy
Example 3. Find of the given function : y  ( x 2  3) (2  x) .
dx

1
Solution. Let u  ( x 2  3) and v  (2  x) 2
, so we have,

3.5.9 The quotient Rule Equation

As with the Product Rule, , if u and v are two differentiable functions of x, then the derivative of
u
u/v is given by: y
v

du dv
v u
dy dx dxv
 2
dx v

this can also be written, using 'prime notation' as :

vu '  uv '
y 
'

v2

This rule must be remembered, and note that you can not interchange the positions of these letters
from where they are placed, otherwise the derivative will be wrong. The choice of u and v can be
any of the two given functions. The examples below illustrates this rule:

85
 dy ( x  3) 2
Example 1. Find of the given function : y 
dx ( x  2) 2

Solution; Let u  ( x  3) 2 and v  ( x  2) 2 , so we have;

dy x
Example 2. Find of the given function y  .
dx (1  x 2 )

1
Solution: Le u  x and v  (1  x 2 ) 2

86
 1 x2
Example 3. Find y ' of the following; y 
1 x2

Solution: Let u  1  x 2 and v  1  x 2 , so

x 2 (3x  1)
Exercise: Find the derivative of y
x4  2

Students can try this as an exercise.

3.5.10 Rates of change

The Chain Rule is a means of connecting the rates of change of dependent variables.

Example 1

If air is blown into a spherical balloon at the rate of 10 cm3 how quickly will the radius grow?

87
Example 2

A spherical raindrop is formed by condensation. In an interval of 10 sec. its volume increases at a

constant rate from 0.010mm3 to 0.500mm3.

Find the rate at which the surface area of the raindrop is increasing, when its radius is 1.0mm

88
3.5.11 Higher Derivatives

We can continue to find the derivatives of a derivative. We find the

 second derivative by taking the derivative of the first derivative,

d2y
that is the second derivative is given by; y ''  f '' ( x)  , any of these notation may be used
dx 2
to refer to the second derivative. I we differentiate the second derivative we get the third
derivative.
 third derivative by taking the derivative of the second derivative
d3y
is given by the notation; y  f ( x) 
''' '''
... etc
dx 3

Exercise. Find y‘, y‘‘ , y‘‘‘ for the following functions:

(i) x 2  2 x  2 xy 2  2

x 2 (3x  1)
(ii) y
x4  2

3.6 Applications of differentiations

3.6.1 Curve Sketching

 You need to be able to sketch the curve, showing important features. Avoid drawing x-y
boxes and just joining the dots.

 We will be using calculus to help find important points on the curve.

The kinds of things we will be searching for in this section are:

x-intercepts Use y = 0
NOTE: In many cases, finding x-intercepts is
not so easy. If so, delete this step.

y-intercepts Use x = 0

local maxima Use dy/dx = 0, sign: + → −

local minima Use dy/dx = 0, sign: − → +

points of inflection Use d2y/dx2 = 0, and sign of d2y/dx2 changes

89
3.6.2 Finding Maxima and Minima

Two methods of checking the nature of the turning points are:

Second derivative test.

dy
This method involves finding of the curve. The
dx
dy
equation =0 will give you the turning point(s) of the
dx
curve. When the value of x is substituted in the original
equation

y = f(x) , you will get the turning point, since it will have x-
value and y-value which is a point in the plane. To check
whether a particular point is a local minimum or
maximum we use the second derivative test as follows:
d2y
Find . At the point x  a ;
dx 2

d2y
(i) if  0 at x  a , the point at x  a is a Minimum.
dx 2

d2y
(ii) If  0 at x  a , the point at x  a is a Maximum
dx 2

d2y
(iii) If  0 at x  a , the point at x  a is an inflexion point
dx 2

Exercise 1:

Sketch the following curve by finding intercepts, maxima and minima and points of
inflection:

90
 Exercise 2:
Sketch the curve and show intercepts, maxima and minima and points of inflection:

Exercise 3:
Sketch the curve and show intercepts, maxima and minima and points of inflection:

Students should try these 3 exercises

3.6.3 Tangents

The gradient of the tangent to the curve y = f(x) at the point (x1, y1) on the curve is given by: the
value of dy/dx, when x = x1 and y = y1

3.6.4 Normal

Two lines of gradients m 1, m 2 respectively are perpendicular to each other if the product,

m 1x m 2 = -1

3.6.5 Equation of a tangent

The equation of a tangent is found using the equation for a straight line of gradient m, passing
through the point (x1, y1)

91
 y - y1= m(x - x1)

To obtain the equation we substitute in the values for x1 and y1 and m (dy/dx) and rearrange to
make y the subject.

Example

Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 2x2 at the point (1,2).

3.6.6 Equation of a normal

The equation of a normal is found in the same way as the tangent. The gradient(m 2 )of the normal
is calculated from;

m 1x m 2 = -1 (where m 1 is the gradient of the tangent)

so

m 2 = - 1/( m 1)

92
 Example

Find the equation of the normal to the curve:

y = x2 + 4x + 3, at the point (-1,0).

Exercise 3.5
dy
1. Find of the following:
dx
3x  2 3  2x  x 2 x 1
(a) y (b) y (c) y
2x  3 x2 1 x
(d) y  (3x 3  4 x)( x  5)( x  1) (e) y  3(4  9 x) 4
2 1
(f) y  (9  x 2 ) 3
(g) y  3 9 x 2  4 (h) y
x2
2
 1  1 1
(i) y  (j) x 2  y 2  16 (k) x 2
y 2
9
 x  3
(l) xy  x  2 y (m) x 3  2 x 2 y  3xy 2  38

93
 2. A population of 500 bacteria is introduced into a culture and grows in number according to the
equation

 4t 
P(t )  5001  2 
 50  t 
Where t is measured in hours. Find the rate at which the population is growing when t = 2.
3. (a) Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon at the rate of 4.5 cubic cm per minute. Find
the rate of change of the radius when the radius is 2 cm.
(b) all edges of a cube are expanding at a rate of 500cubic cm per minute. How fast is the
volume changing when each edge is (i) 1 cm (ii) 10 cm.
4. A manufacturer wants to design an open box having a square base and a surface area of 108 sq
cm. what at dimensions will produce a box with maximum volume.
5. A rectangular page is to contain 24 sq. cm of print. The margins at the top and bottom of the page
are to be 1.5 cm, and the margins on the left and right are to be 1 cm. what should the dimensions
of the page be so that the least amount of page is used.
6. Four metres of wire is to be used to form a square and circle. How much of the wire should be
used for the square and how much should be use for the circle to enclose the maximum total area?

94
Unit summary
In this unit you learned methods of differentiation and their applications.

Summary

Assignment
Two Assignments will given to you by IDE

Assignment

Assessment
The Two assignments which will be given to you through IDE and one
test to be given during your residential school shall constitute the
Continuous Assessment in the ratio given in the Academic Regulations
Assessment

95
Unit 4 INTEGRATION

4.1 Introduction
This unit gives the second major component of the Calculus which is called integration. This is
introduced as a means of finding areas using summation and limits. Integration was developed
from investigation of areas of irregular shapes. You know formulas of square, triangle, rectangles
etc, but you have no formula for irregular shapes and the answer to areas of irregular shapes is the
applications of integral calculus.

4.2 Objectives
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 find, by using rectangles above and below the curve, the area
between the graph of a quadratic function, the x-axis, and two
vertical lines
 Calculate integral of any function using various methods
Outcomes  Calculate integral function using tables of integrations
 Integrate special functions
 Calculate area under the curve ( area of irregular shapes)
 Find the volume of any solid given the function of the generating
curve

 : Integral sign- indefinite integral

b Definite integral
Terminology 
a
:

 : Summation

96
4.3 Back ground
In this unit we are going to look at how we can find the area underneath the graph of a function.
The technique we are going to use is called integration. The idea behind it is that we can find the
area of a shape by dividing it into small shapes whose areas are easier to calculate. We then add
up the areas of the small shapes. In most cases, we cannot make the division exactly, and so we
estimate by using a slightly larger or slightly smaller area. As the small shapes get smaller and
smaller, our estimates get better and better.
One way might be to place a grid of squares over the circle. Then we could work out the area of
each square, and add all these areas together. However, some of the squares will not coincide
completely with the circle. Do we count such squares, or do we leave them out?

If we add together all the squares that contain any part of the circle, we will arrive at an
overestimate of the area of the circle. If we ignore all those squares that do not completely
coincide with the circle, we will obtain an under-estimate of the area of the circle. However, we
now have two limits on the area of the circle, an upper one and a lower one. To ‗trap‘ the area of
the circle ever tighter between an upper limit and a lower limit, we would need to make the
squares in the grid smaller and smaller. Then the parts that were included or discarded would be,
in total, smaller and smaller.
4.4 The area under the graph of a quadratic function
We are now going to apply this process to an area, one edge of which is defined by a curve whose
equation, y = f(x), is known. We begin by looking at a specific case, the area contained by the x-
axis from x = 0 to x = a, the curve y = x2, and the line
x = a. The area A we want to find is shown on the following diagram.

97
How can this area be calculated? A first attempt might be made by taking two rectangles, of equal
a
width , and heights corresponding to the y-values of the x
2
a2
co-ordinates that extend above the curve. So the height of the first rectangle will be , and the
4
height of the second rectangle will be a 2 . These two rectangles include

more area than that contained between the curve and x-axis, and so we have an over-estimate of
the area.

The area under the curve, A, is less than the total area of the two rectangles. So

a a2 a
A  ( x )  ( x a2 )
2 4 2
We now take a rectangle which contains only area between the curve and the x-axis. This is the
rectangle whose upper boundary is marked by a dashed line, and comes below the curve. Its
a2
height is . Its area provides an under-estimate of the area under the curve. Hence
4
a a
( x 2) A
2 4
We can combine these two inequalities into a single formula by writing
a a a a2 a
( x 2 )  A  ( x )  ( x a2 )
2 4 2 4 2

In keeping with our ideas about the circle, let us now reduce the size of the grid. In this case, we
reduce the width of the rectangles. So taking the areas of the rectangles which come ‗above‘ and
‗below‘ the curve we have the following diagram.

98
In each case, we can find the height of a rectangle by looking at the corner where the rectangle
meets the curve, and taking the y co-ordinate. Let us first take the rectangles ‗above‘ the curve.
a
The width of each rectangle is . The height of the first rectangle is a2/16, the height of the
4
second is, and so on. Adding together the areas of the four rectangles, we see that the area A
satisfies the inequality

a a2 a 22 a 2 a 32 a 2 a 4 2 xa 2
A( x )  ( x )( x )( x ),
4 16 4 16 4 16 4 16
a a2
and we can take out factors of and on the right-hand side to re-write this as
4 16

a a2
A x x(12  2 2  32  4 2 ) .
4 16
We can do the same for the rectangles below the curve, and this gives

a a2 a 22 a 2 a 32 a 2
( x )( x )( x ) A
4 16 4 16 4 16
a a2
Once again we can take out factors of and on the right-hand side to give
4 16
a a2
x x(12  2 2  32 )  A
4 16
Again, we can combine these two inequalities to obtain
a a2 a a2
x x(1  2  3 )  A  x
2 2 2
x(12  2 2  32  4 2 )
4 16 4 16

99
 a
Now suppose we divide the x-axis between x = 0 and x = a into n equal strips, each of width ,
n
and look at the area of the r-th rectangle which comes ‗above‘ the curve.

The height of the r-th rectangle ‗above‘ the curve is the y co-ordinate of the top right-hand corner,
ra 2
and this is ( ) . So the area of the r-th rectangle is
n
a r 2a2
x ,
n n2
a3 2
and we can tidy this up to give r ,
n3
So if we write δA for the area below the curve in this little strip, we will have
a3 2
A  r ,
n3
Adding up the areas of all these outer rectangles will give an over-estimate of the total area A
under the curve, so that
n
a3 2
A 3
r ,
r 1 n

Now let us look at the r-th rectangle ‗below‘ the curve. The height of the r-th rectangle is the y co-
(r  1)a 2
ordinate of the top left-hand corner, and this is ( )
n
So the area of the (r − 1)-th rectangle is
a (r  1) 2 a 2 a3
x and we can tidy this up to give (r  1) 2 ,
n n2 n 3

10
0
The area of this rectangle is less than δA, so that

a3
(r  1) 2  A .
n3
Adding up the areas of all these inner rectangles will give an under-estimate of the total area A
under the curve, so that

a3
 n 3 (r  1) 2  A
Thus the area A is contained between the two estimates,

a3 n
a3 n

n3
 (r  1) 2  A 
r 1 n3
r
r 1
2
,

Now there is a formula for the sum of the squares of the first n integers. The sum is given by the
formula
n
n(n  1)(2n  1)
r
r 1
2
 12  2 2  ...  n 2 
6
We can use this formula directly for the sum on the right-hand side of the inequality. We can also
use it for the sum on the left-hand side, because
n

 (r  1)
r 1
2
 0 2  12  2 2  ...  (n  1) 2

 12  ...  (n  1) 2
n 1
 r2
r 1

so that we just have to replace n by n − 1 in the formula. We get

n
(n  1)[(n  1)  1][2(n  1)  1]
 (r  1)
r 1
2

6
(n  1)n(2n  1)

6
Substituting this into the inequality above gives

a 3 (n  1)n(2n  1) a 3 n(n  1)(2n  1)

x  A  x
n3 6 n3 6
On each side, we can cancel an n and multiply out the two remaining brackets to give
a3 1 a3 1
x 2 x(2n 2  3n  1)  A  x 2 x(2n 2  3n  1)
6 n 6 n
We can also divide each bracket through by the remaining n2 in the denominator, to give
a3 3 1 a3 3 1
x(2   2 )  A  x( 2   2 )
6 n n 6 n n

10
1
Now as we increase the number of strips, their width becomes smaller and smaller, and our
estimate of the area becomes more and more accurate. If we take this process to the ‗limit‘ and let
n tend to infinity, then 3/n and 1/n2 tend to zero. Thus the area under the curve A is trapped
2a 3 2a 3
between and , so that
6 6
a3
A
3
To find the area, we divide up the area under the curve into two series of rectangles, all with the
same width. One set of rectangles contains elements of area above the curve and provides an
over-estimate of the area. The other set of rectangles is completely within the area under the
curve and omits some of that area, thus providing an under-estimate of the area. We then let the
width of these rectangles tend to zero by letting n tend to infinity, trapping the value for the area
under the curve between two equal limits.
4.5 The area under a general graph

We have just seen how to find the area under a very particular curve, namely the graph of y = x2.
We are now going to extend this process to cover all curves which have similar properties to y =
x2. One particular property is that we shall want the curve to lie above the x-axis. We shall then
have a general process for finding the area contained by a curve, the x-axis, and specified limits.

We shall look at the area contained by the curve, the x-axis, the y-axis, and the ordinate x = a.
We shall divide this areas into thin strips, each of the same width δx. Let us look at a typical strip,
with area δA.
In this strip, there is a point P on the curve with co-ordinates (x, y). The y co-ordinate of P gives
the height of the inner rectangle. As we increase x by a small positive amount δx, we move along
the curve to the point Q, with co-ordinates (x + δx, y + δy). Here, δy is the change in y resulting
from the small change in x. The y co-ordinate of Q gives the height of the outer rectangle.
Now the area δA is caught between two rectangles. Both rectangles have width δx. So

10
2
y δx < δA < (y + δy)δx .
Now the total area A between the curve and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = a is given by the sum of
all the little areas δA,
xa
A   A ,
x 0

xa xa
and hence  yx  A   ( y  y)x
x 0 x 0

xa x a

 yx  A   ( yy  yx) .

x 0 x 0

We now want to let δx tend to zero, so that the vertical strips get thinner and thinner. As the
change in x tends to zero, the change in y, δy, also tends to zero. And the product of two small
quantities, δy δx, is very small indeed. In the limit, the area A is given by
xa
A  lim  yx .
x 0
x 0

(There are various assumptions which have been made in arriving at this result. One is that the
graph of the function, as we have drawn it, is increasing. This means that height of each inner
rectangle is given by the y-value at its left hand edge, and the height of each outer rectangle is
given by the y-value at its right-hand edge. But the same result is valid for functions which are
decreasing, or which oscillate up and down. There are some technical mathematical arguments,
including some conditions on the types of function which can be considered, that ensure the
validity of the formula we have given.)
We need a notation for the right-hand side of this expression. The notation we use is
xa a
A  lim  yx   ydx
x 0
x 0 0

We say that this is the ‗the integral of y with respect to x, between the limits 0 and a‘.
The area A between the graph of a positive function, the x-axis, the y-axis and the vertical line x =
a is given by
xa
A  lim  yx
x 0
x 0

This expression is also written as

a
A   ydx
0

and is called the integral of y with respect to x, between the limits 0 and a.
We can also find the area between a curve, the x-axis, and two vertical lines x = a and x = b,
where a < b.

10
3
Now we can think of this area as the difference between two areas, so that
b a
A   ydx   ydx
0 0

b
We normally write this as A   ydx . This is called the integral of y with respect to x,
a
between the limits a and b.

Exercises

1. Calculate the area contained by the ordinates x = 0, x = 2, the x-axis and the curve
defined by the equation y = x by dividing the area into n rectangular strips that (a)
form an upper limit to the area, and (b) form a lower limit, as in the example of the area
contained by the curve y = x2, the x-axis and the ordinates x = 0 and x = a. Check your
answer by calculating the area of the triangle in the usual way.
2. Calculate the area contained by the ordinates x = 0, x = a, the x-axis and the curve
defined by the equation y = ex by dividing the area into n rectangular strips and (a) form
an upper limit to the area and (b) form a lower limit. Show that this area is ea − 1.

4.6 Integration as the reverse of differentiation

By now you will be familiar with differentiating common functions and will have had the
opportunity to practice many techniques of differentiation. In this unit we carry out the process of
differentiation in reverse. That is, we start with a given function, f(x) say, and ask what function or
functions, F(x), would have f(x) as their derivative. This leads us to the concepts of an
antiderivative and integration.

10
4
In order to master the techniques explained here it is vital that you undertake plenty of practice
exercises so that they become second nature.
After reading this text, and/or viewing the video tutorial on this topic, you should be able to:
• understand what is meant by the antiderivative, F(x), of a function f(x)
• calculate some antiderivatives by using a table of derivatives
• calculate some antiderivatives by using a table of antiderivatives
• understand the link between antiderivatives and definite integrals
• calculate simple definite integrals using antiderivatives
• calculate simple indefinite integrals.
4.6.1 Introduction
By now you will be familiar with differentiating common functions and will have had the
opportunity to practice many techniques of differentiation. In this unit we carry out the process of
differentiation in reverse. That is, we start with a given function, f(x) say, and ask what function or
functions, F(x), would have f(x) as their derivative. This leads us to the concepts of an
antiderivative and integration.
An earlier unit, Integration as summation, explained integration as the process of adding
rectangular areas. To evaluate integrals defined in this way it was necessary to calculate the limit
of a sum — a process which is cumbersome and impractical. In this unit we will see how integrals
can be found by reversing the process of differentiation — that is by finding antiderivatives.
4.6.2 Antiderivatives— differentiation in reverse.
Consider the function F(x) = 3 x 2 + 7x − 2. Suppose we write its derivative as f(x), that is f(x) =
dF
dx
You already know how to find this derivative by differentiating term by term to
dF
obtain f(x) = = 6x + 7. This process is illustrated in Figure 1.
dx

Figure 1. The function F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x)

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5
Suppose now that we work back to front and ask ourselves which function or functions could
possibly have 6x + 7 as a derivative. Clearly, one answer to this question is the function
3x 2  7 x  2 . We say that F(x) = 3x 2  7 x  2 is an antiderivative of f(x) = 6x + 7.
There are however other functions which have derivative 6x + 7. Some of these are
3x 2  7 x  2 ,
3x 2  7 x ,
3x 2  7 x  11
The reason why all of these functions have the same derivative is that the constant term disappears
during differentiation. So, all of these are antiderivatives of 6x+7. Given any antiderivative of f(x),
all others can be obtained by simply adding a different constant. In other words, if F(x) is an
antiderivative of f(x), then so too is F(x) + C for any constant C.

Example
dF
(a) Differentiate F(x) = 4 x 3  7 x 2  12 x  4 to find f(x) =
dx
.
(b) Write down several antiderivatives of f(x) = 12 x 2 − 14x + 12.

Solution
dF
(a) Differentiating F(x) = 4 x 3  7 x 2  12 x  4 we find f(x) = = 12 x 2 − 14x + 12..
dx
We can deduce from this that an antiderivative of 12 x 2 − 14x + 12.
is 4 x 3  7 x 2  12 x  4 .
(b) All other antiderivatives of f(x) will take the form F(x)+C where C is a constant. So, the
following are all antiderivatives of f(x):

4 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 12x − 4,
4 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 12x − 10,
4 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 12x,
4 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 12x + 3.
From these examples we deduce the following important observation.

dF
A function F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x) if = f(x).
dx
If F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x) then so too is F(x) + C for any constant C.

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6
We can deduce many antiderivatives that we will need simply by reading a table of derivatives
from right to left, instead of from left to right. However, in practice tables of antiderivatives are
commonly available such as that shown in Table 1.
f(x) F(x), an antiderivative of f(x)
k constant kx + C

x2
x +C
2
x3
x2 C
3
x n 1
xn  C , (n  1)
n 1
e mx
e mx C
m
Table 1. Table of some common antiderivatives
Exercises 1.
Use the Table of antiderivatives to find F(x) given f(x):
1
1. f(x) = 5 2. f(x) = x 8 3. f(x) = 4. f(x) = e 3 x
x2
5. f(x) = e 2 x
4.6.3 The link with integration as a summation
Consider that portion of the graph of y = f(x) to the right of the y-axis as illustrated in Figure 2.
Suppose f(x) lies entirely above the x-axis. Clearly the area bounded by the graph and the x-axis

will depend upon how far to the right we move. That is the area, A, will depend upon the value of
x, A = A(x).

Figure 2.
The area bounded by the graph will depend upon how far to the right we move, that is A = A(x).

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7
Suppose we consider the additional contribution made to this area by moving a little further to the
right as shown in Figure 3. Let this additional contribution be denoted by δA. Then δA is the
change in area produced by increasing x by δx. Note then that δA = A(x + δx) − A(x).

Figure 3. The additional contribution to the area is δA ≈ f(x) δx.

This additional contribution, δA, can be approximated by assuming it has the form of a rectangle
of height y = f(x) and width δx, that is δA ≈ f(x)δx ,

A
that is  f (x)
x
In the limit as δx tends to zero we have
dA
 f (x)
dx
We can use the previous section to interpret this result.

Given that f(x) is the derivative of A(x) then, A(x) must be an antiderivative of f(x), i.e.
A(x) = F(x) + C (1)

10
8
In Section 2 we wrote F(x) + C for a whole family of functions all of which are antiderivatives
when F(x) is. Now, we are looking for a specific antiderivative by choosing a specific value for C.
This is obtained by noting that when x = 0 the area bounded is zero, that is 0 = F(0) + C, and this
gives us a value for C, that is
C = −F(0).
We can use this result as follows: given a function f(x), then the formula in Equation 1 can tell us
the area under the graph provided we can calculate an antiderivative F(x).
Suppose now we want to find the area under the graph between x = a and x = b as shown in Figure
4.
The total area up to x = b is given, using Equation 1, by A(b) = F(b) + C .
The total area up to x = a is given, using Equation 1, by A(a) = F(a) + C .
And so, subtracting, the area between a and b is A(b) − A(a) = F(b) − F(a) .
Note how the C‘s cancel out.

Figure 4. The area between a and b is A(b) − A(a).

When f(x) lies entirely above the x axis between a and b we can find the area under
y = f(x) between a and b by finding an antiderivative F(x), and evaluating this at x = a and
at x = b. The area is then A = F(b) − F(a)

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9
In the unit entitled Integration as a summation we looked at how the area under a curve could be
found by adding the areas of rectangular elements. It was shown that the area under y = f(x)
between x = a and x = b is found from
x b
A  lim  f ( x)x
x 0
xa

This limiting process is denoted by

b
A   f ( x)dx
a

and this defines what we mean by the definite integral of f(x) between the limits a and b. So we
now have two ways of finding the area under a curve, one involving taking the limit of a sum, that
is finding a definite integral, and one involving find an antiderivative. Generally, finding the limit
of a sum is difficult, whereas with some practice, finding an antiderivative is much simpler. So, in
future we can avoid the more difficult way and evaluate integrals using antiderivatives.
b
If F(x) is any antiderivative of f(x) then  f ( x)dx  F (b)  F (a)
a

Example
1
Suppose we wish to evaluate lim
x 0
 x x . This limit of a sum arises when we use the sum of
0
2

small rectangles to find the area under y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 1. This limit defines the
1
definite integral definite integral  f ( x)dx
0

Using the Key Point above we can evaluate this integral by finding an antiderivative of x 2 . This
x3
is F(x) =  C . We evaluate this at x = 1 and x = 0 and find the difference between the two
3
results.

1
13 03 1
0     C) 
2
x dx ( C ) (
3 3 3
Note that the C‘s cancel — this will always happen, and so in future when dealing with definite
integrals we will omit the C altogether. It is conventional to set the previous calculation out as
follows:
b
More generally we write  f ( x)dx  F (b)  F (a)
a

11
0
Exercises 2
Evaluate the following limits of sums using antiderivatives.
Find
1
(i) lim  x 3x
x 0
0

1
(ii) lim  x 4x
x 0
0

1
(iii) lim  e 2 xx
x 0
0

4.7 Indefinite integrals

As we have seen definite integration is closely associated with finding antiderivatives. Because of
this it is common to think of antidifferentiation in general as integration. So when asked to reverse
the process of differentiation this is commonly referred to as integration.
In the Example on page 2 we found antiderivatives of f(x) = 12 x 2 −14x+12. Using integration
notation we would commonly write

 (12x  14 x  12)dx  4 x 3  7 x 2  12 x  C
2

and refer to this as the indefinite integral of 12x2 −14x+12 with respect to x. The constant C is
called the constant of integration. Tables of antiderivatives such as Table 1 are often called
Tables of Integrals.

The indefinite integral of the function f(x),  f(x)dx, is another function. It is given by F(x) +
C where F(x) is any antiderivative of f(x) and C is an arbitrary constant.
b
The definite integral of the function f(x) between the limits a and b,  f ( x)dx , is a number. It
a
may be obtained from the formula F(b) − F(a), where F(x) is any antiderivative of f(x).
In this unit we have described how to carry out differentiation in reverse, leading to the concept of
an antiderivative. We have also seen how we can use antiderivatives to find integrals. In
subsequent units you can learn how to integrate a much wider range of functions that are met in
engineering and the physical sciences.
Exercises 3
Use a Table to find the following integrals:

e
2x
1. dx

1
1 
 e dx  x 3 dx  x 2 dx
3 x
2. (3) (4)

11
1
Answers
Exercises 1.

x9 1 1 3x
1. 5x + C (2) C (3)  C (4) e C
9 x 3
1
(5)  e 2 x  C
2
Exercise 2.

1 31 1 2
1. (2) (3) (e  1)
4 5 2

Exercise 3

3
2
1 2x 1 1 2x
1. e C (2)  e 3 x  C (3)  C (4) C
2 3 2x 2 3

4.8 Integration using a table of anti-derivatives

We may regard integration as the reverse of differentiation. So if we have a table of derivatives,

we can read it backwards as a table of anti-derivatives. When we do this, we often need to deal
with constants which arise in the process of differentiation.
In order to master the techniques explained here it is vital that you undertake plenty of practice
exercises so that they become second nature. After reading this text, you should be able to:
• use a table of derivatives, or a table of anti-derivatives, in order to integrate simple functions.

4.8.1 Introduction
When we are integrating, we need to be able to recognise standard forms. The following table
gives a list of standard forms, obtained as anti-derivatives. Sometimes, it may be possible to use
one of these standard forms directly. On other occasions, some manipulation will be needed first.

x n 1
 x dx  C , n 1
n
1.
n 1
(ax  b) n1
 (ax  b) dx  a(n  1)  C , n  1
n
2.

1
3.  x dx  ln x  C

11
2
 1 1
4.  ax  b dx  a ln ax  b  C
 e dx  e C
x x
5.

1 mx
e dx  e C
mx
6
m

4.8.2 Integrating powers

We know that the derivative of x n is nx n 1 . Replacing n by n + 1 we see that the derivative of

n 1
n 1 x
x xn+1 is (n  1) x , so that the derivative of
n
is x n (provided that n  1 . Thus
n 1

x n 1
 x dx  C , n 1
n

n 1
Similarly, the derivative of (ax  n) n is na(ax  n) n1 . Replacing n by n + 1 we see that the
derivative of (ax  n) n1 is a(n  1)(ax  n) n , so that the derivative of
n 1
(ax  b)
(provided that n  1 and that a  0 . Thus
a(n  1)
(ax  b) n1
 (ax  b) dx  C , n 1
n

a(n  1)

What happens if n = −1, so that n + 1 = 0? We know that the derivative of ln |x| is 1/x, so that
1
 x dx  ln x  C
a
Simlarly, the derivative of ln |ax + b| is , so that the derivative of
ax  b
1 1 1 1
a
ln ax  b is
ax  b
. Thus  ax  b dx  a ln ax  b  C

Example
1
Find  2  3x dx
1 1
Here, a = −3 and b = 2, so  2  3x dx   3 ln 2  3x  C

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3
4.8.3 Integrating exponentials
We know that the derivative of e x remains unchanged, as e x . Thus

 e dx  e C
x x

Similarly, we know that the derivative of e mx is me mx , so that the derivative of

1 mx 1 mx
e is e mx Thus e dx  e C .
mx

m m
Example:
1 4x
e e dx  e C
4x 4x
Find dx , Here, m = 4, so
4

Exercises
1. Determine the integral of each of the following functions
1 1 1
(a) x8 (b) (c) (d)
x3 x x

2. Integration has the same linearity rules as differentiation, namely

 kf(x) dx = k  f(x) dx and  [f(x) + g(x)]dx =  f(x) dx +  g(x) dx .

Use these rules to determine the integrals of the following functions

(a) 12e 4 x  4 x

Answers
1. In all answers the constant of integration has been omitted.

1 9 1 2
(a) x (b)  x (c) 2 x (d) lnx
9 2

2. In all answers the constant of integration has been omitted.

3
8
(a) 3e 4 x  x 2
3

11
4
4.9 Methods of Integration

There are various methods of integration that we are going to discuss in this unit. The guiding
factor to the choice of the method to be used depends on the integrand that you are integration. As
various methods are being discussed please take note of the guideline to the choice of the method.

4.9.1 Integration by parts

A special rule, integration by parts, is available for integrating products of two functions.
This unit derives and illustrates this rule with a number of examples.
In order to master the techniques explained here it is vital that you undertake plenty of practice
exercises so that they become second nature.
After reading this text, and/or viewing the video tutorial on this topic, you should be able to:
• state the formula for integration by parts
• integrate products of functions using integration by parts
Functions often arise as products of other functions, and we may be required to integrate these
products. For example, we may be asked to determine

 x ln xdx .
Here, the integrand is the product of the functions x and cos x. A rule exists for integrating
Products of functions and in the following section we will derive it.

Derivation of the formula for integration by parts

We already know how to differentiate a product: if

y=uv
then

dy d (uv) dv du
 u v in short we normally write y '  uv '  vu'
dx dx dx dx
Rearranging this rule:
dv d (uv) du
u  v
dx dx dx

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5
Now integrate both sides:
dv d (uv) du
 u dx   dx
 v
dx
The first term on the right simplifies since we are simply integrating what has been differentiated.
dv du
 u dx  uv   v dx
This is the formula known as integration by parts.
dv du
 u dx  uv   v dx

The formula replaces one integral (that on the left) with another (that on the right); the intention is
that the one on the right is a simpler integral to evaluate, as we shall see in the following
examples.
Using the formula for integration by parts

Example

x e
2 3x
Find dx

Solution
dv
We have to make a choice and let one of the functions in the product equal u and one equal .
dx
As a general rule we let u be the function which will become simpler when we differentiate it.
dv
In this case it makes sense to let u  x 2 and  e3x
dx
Then
1
u '  2 x and v  e 3 x
3
Then, using the formula for integration by parts,
dv du
 u dx  uv   v dx

1
x e dx  x 2 e 3 x   e 3 x .2 xdx
2 3x

3
2
The resulting integral is still a product. It is a product of the functions x
3
And e 3 x . We can use the formula again. This time we choose

11
6
u
2
x and v'  e3x
3
2 1
Then u '  and v   e 3 x dx  e 3 x
3 3
1 2 3x 1
x e dx  x e   e 3 x .2 xdx
2 3x

3 3
1 2  2 1 3x 1 2 
x e dx  x   x. e   e 3 x . dx 
2 3x

3 3 3 3 3 
1 2 3x 2 3x 2 3x
x e dx  x e  xe  e  C
2 3x

3 9 27
where c is the constant of integration. So we have done integration by parts twice to arrive at our
final answer.

Note that you can apply integration by parts more than once as the above example shows.
dv
Remember that to apply the formula you have to be able to integrate the function you call .
dx
This can cause problems — consider the next Example.

Example

Find  x ln |x| dx.

Solution
dv du
Remember the formula:  u dx  uv   v dx
du
It would be natural to choose u = x so that when we differentiate it we get  1.
dx
dv
However this choice would mean choosing  ln x and we would need to be able to integrate
dx
this. This integral is not a known standard form. So, in this Example we will choose u = ln|x| and
dv
 x from which
dx
du 1 x2
 and v
dx x 2
Look at this choice , if you were to choice the other way round you would have complicated the
integration procedure.
Then applying the formula

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7
 dv du
 u dx  uv   v dx , we have

x2 x
 x ln x dx  2
ln x   dx
2
x2 x2
 x ln x dx  2
ln x 
4
C where c is the constant of integration.

Example

Find  ln x dx .
Solution
We can use the formula for integration by parts to find this integral if we note that we can write
ln |x| as 1 · ln |x|, a product. We choose

dv
 1 and u  ln x if you look at this choice it is a bit strange as compared to earlier statement
dx
on choose u which reduce to a constant on successive differentiation. Here u  ln x is easy to
differentiate than to integrate which is the original question.

du 1
Therefore, v  x and  , using the formula for integration by parts we have;
dx x
dv du
 u dx  uv   v dx

1
 
Therefore, 1. ln x dx  x ln x  x. dx you can see that the x‘s cancel in the last integral.
x


Thus, 1. ln x dx  x ln x  x  C , where c is the constant of integration.

Exercises
1. Find the following:

 xe
x
(c) dx (d)

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8
  2 x e dx x
2 x 2
(e) (f) ln x dx ( (i)

Answers:

(c)  xe  x  e  x  C

(e) 2 x 2 e x  4 xe x  4e x  C
1 3 1
(f) x ln x  x 3  C
3 9

4.9.2 Integration by substitution

There are occasions when it is possible to perform an apparently difficult piece of integration by
first making a substitution. This has the effect of changing the variable and the integrand.
When dealing with definite integrals, the limits of integration can also change. In this unit we will
meet several examples of integrals where it is appropriate to make a substitution.
In order to master the techniques explained here it is vital that you undertake plenty of practice
exercises so that they become second nature.
After reading this text, and/or viewing the video tutorial on this topic, you should be able to:
• carry out integration by making a substitution
• identify appropriate substitutions to make in order to evaluate an integral
There are occasions when it is possible to perform an apparently difficult piece of integration by
first making a substitution. This has the effect of changing the variable and the integrand.
When dealing with definite integrals, the limits of integration can also change. In this unit we will
meet several examples of this type. The ability to carry out integration by substitution is a skill
that develops with practice and experience. For this reason you should carry out all of the practice
exercises. Be aware that sometimes an apparently sensible substitution does not lead to an integral
you will be able to evaluate. You must then be prepared to try out alternative substitutions.

Integration by substituting u = ax + b

We introduce the technique through some simple examples for which a linear substitution is
appropriate.
Example
Suppose we want to find the integral

 ( x  5)
5
dx (1)

u
5
You will be familiar already with finding a similar integral dx and know that this integral

11
9
 u6
is equal to  C , where c is a constant of integration. This is because you know that the rule
6
for integrating powers of a variable tells you to increase the power by 1 and then divide by the
new power. In the integral given by Equation (1) there is still a power 5, but the integrand is more
complicated due to the presence of the term x + 4. To tackle this problem we make a substitution.
We let u = x + 4. The point of doing this is to change the integrand into the much simpler u5.
However, we must take care to substitute appropriately for the term dx too.
du
In terms of differentials we have du  ( )dx
dx
du
Now, in this example, because u = x + 4 it follows immediately that  1 and so du = dx.
dx
So, substituting both for x + 4 and for dx in Equation (1) we have

 ( x  5) dx   u 2 dx The resulting integral can be evaluated immediately to give

5

u6
 C , We can revert to an expression involving the original variable x by recalling that
6
( x  5) 6
 ( x  5) dx  C
5
u = x + 4, giving
6
We have completed the integration by substitution.
Example
1
Suppose we wish to find  1  2 x dx
1
We make the substitution u = 1 − 2x in order to simplify the integrand to , Recall that the
u
1
integral of with respect to u is the natural logarithm of u, ln |u|. As before,
u
du
du  ( )dx and so
dx
du
with u = 1 − 2x and  2 It follows that
dx
du
du  ( )dx  2dx , The integral becomes
dx
1 1 1 1
 u ( 2 du)   2  u du
1
  ln u  C
2

12
0
   ln 1  2 x   C
1
2
The result of the previous example can be generalized: if we want to find
1 1
 ax  b dx , the substitution u = ax + b leads to a
ln( ax  b)  C , This means, for example, that
1
when faced with an integral such as  3x  7 dx we can immediately write down the answer as
 ln 3x  7   C
1
3
A little more care must be taken with the limits of integration when dealing with definite
integrals. Consider the following example.
Example
3

 (9  x)
2
Suppose we wish to find dx
1

du
We make the substitution u = 9 + x. As before, du  ( )dx , and so
dx
du du
with u = 9 + x and  1 , du  ( )dx  dx , The integral becomes
dx dx

x 3

u
2
du
x 11

where we have explicitly written the variable in the limits of integration to emphasise that those
limits were on the variable x and not u. We can write these as limits on u using the substitution u
= 9 + x. Clearly, when x = 1, u = 10, and when x = 3, u = 12. So we require
u 12 12
u 3 
 2
u du  
u 10  3  10
(12 3  10 3 )

3
728

3
Note that in this example there is no need to convert the answer given in terms of u back into one
in terms of x because we had already converted the limits on x into limits on u.

Exercises 1.
1. In each case use a substitution to find the integral:

12
1
 1 1

 ( x  2) dx  ( x  5) dx  (2 x  7) dx (d)  (1  x)
3 4 7 3
(a) (b) (c) dx
0 1

2. In each case use a substitution to find the integral:

1
e  3x  7 dx
3 x 2
(a) dx (b)

3. Finding  f ( g ( x)) g ' ( x)dx by substituting u = g(x)

Example
Suppose now we wish to find the integral

 2x 1  x 2 dx (3)

In this example we make the substitution u  1  x 2 , in order to simplify the square-root term. We
shall see that the rest of the integrand, 2x dx, will be taken care of automatically in the substitution
process, and that this is because 2x is the derivative of that part of the integrand used in the
substitution, i.e. u  1  x 2
As before,
du
du  ( )dx and so with u  1  x 2 , and du  2 xdx
dx
So, substituting u for u  1  x 2 and with 2x dx = du in Equation (3) we have

 2 x 1  x dx   u 2 dx
2

3
3 2
 u C
2
We can revert to an expression involving the original variable x by recalling that
3
3
u  1  x 2 giving  2 x 1  x dx  (1  x 2 ) 2  C
2

2
We have completed the integration by substitution.
Let us analyse this example a little further by comparing the integrand with the general case
f(g(x)) g′(x). Suppose we write g ( x)  1  x 2 and f (u )  u

Then we note that the composition1 of the functions f and g is f ( g ( x))  1  x 2

12
2
(when finding the composition of functions f and g it is the output from g which is used as
input to f,
resulting in f(g(x)))

Further, we note that if g ( x)  1  x 2 then g′(x) = 2x. So the integral

 2x 1  x 2 dx is of the form  f ( g ( x)) g ' ( x)dx , To perform the integration we used the
substitution u  1  x 2 , In the general case it will be appropriate to try substituting u = g(x). Then
du
du  ( )dx  g ' ( x) , Once the substitution was made the resulting integral became
dx

 u du In the general case it will become  f (u )du . Provided that this final integral can be
found the problem is solved. For purposes of comparison the specific example and the general
case are presented side-by-side:

 2x 1  x 2 dx  f ( g ( x)) g ' ( x)dx

Let u  1  x 2 Let u  g (x)

du du
du  ( )dx  2 xdx du  ( )dx  g ' ( x)
dx dx
1
 f ( g ( x)) g ' ( x)dx =
 2 x 1  x dx   u dx
2 2

3
 f (u)du
3
 u2 C
2
3
3
 2 x 1  x dx  2 (1  x ) 2  C
2 2

To evaluate  f ( g ( x)) g ' ( x)dx substitute u = g(x), and du = g′(x)dx to give  f (u)du
Integration is then carried out with respect to u, before reverting to the original variable x.

It is worth pointing out that integration by substitution is something of an art - and your skill at
doing it will improve with practice. Furthermore, a substitution which at first sight might seem
sensible, can lead nowhere. For example, if you were try to find  1  x 2 dx

by letting u  1  x 2 you would find yourself up a blind alley. Be prepared to persevere and try
different approaches.

12
3
 Example
4x
Suppose we wish to evaluate  2x 2  1
dx , By writing the integrand as

1
2x 2  1
.4 x we note that it takes the form  f ( g ( x)) g ' ( x)dx where
1
f (u )  , g ( x)  2 x 2  1 and g ' ( x)  4 x
u
The substitution u  g ( x)  2 x 2  1 transforms the integral to

1
 f (u)   u
du This is evaluated to give

1
1 
 u
du   u 2 dx

1
 2u  C 2

Finally, using u  2 x 2  1 to revert to the original variable gives

1
4x
 2x 2  1
dx  2(2 x 2  1) 2  C or equivalently

 2 2x 2  1  C
Exercises 2
1. In each case the integrand can be written as f(g(x)) g′(x). Identify the functions f and g and use
the general result given above to complete the integration.

 2 xe
x 2 5
(a) dx

1. In each case use the given substitution to find the integral:

  2 xe
x
dx , u   x 2
2
(a)

x x 4  1 dx , u  x 4  1
3
(c)
0

3. In each case use a suitable substitution to find the integral.

12
4
 dx
(a)  5x 1  x 2 dx (b)  x (1  x ) 2
(c)

x (1  x 5 ) 3 dx
4

1
x3 x3
(d)  x 4  16
dx (f) 
0 x 4  12
dx

 5x 1  x 3 dx
2
(g)

Answers to Exercises
Exercises 1

( x  2) 4 4651 1 (2 x  1) 8
1. (a)  C (b)  930 (c)  C (d) 4
4 5 5 16
e 3 x2 1
2. (b) C (c) 1.382 (d) ln 7 x  5  C
3 7

4.9.3 Integrating algebraic fractions

Sometimes the integral of an algebraic fraction can be found by first expressing the algebraic
fraction as the sum of its partial fractions. In this unit we will illustrate this idea. We will see that
it is also necessary to draw upon a wide variety of other techniques such as completing the square,
integration by substitution, using standard forms, and so on.
In order to master the techniques explained here it is vital that you undertake plenty of practice
exercises so that they become second nature.
After reading this text, and/or viewing the video tutorial on this topic, you should be able to:
• integrate algebraic fractions by first expressing them in partial fractions
• integrate algebraic fractions by using a variety of other techniques
In this section we are going to look at how we can integrate some algebraic fractions. We will be
using partial fractions to rewrite the integrand as the sum of simpler fractions which can then be
integrated separately. We will also need to call upon a wide variety of other techniques including
completing the square, integration by substitution, integration using standard results and so on.
Examples of the sorts of algebraic fractions we will be integrating are

x 1 1 x3
, 2 , and
(2  x)( x  3) x  x  1 ( x  1) 2 ( x  1) x2  4
Whilst superficially they may look similar, there are important differences. For example, the
denominator of the first contains two linear factors. The second has an irreducible quadratic factor
(i.e. it will not factorise), and we consider how to deal with this case in the second video on
Integrating by Partial Fractions. The third example contains a factor which is repeated. The fourth
is an example of an improper fraction because the degree of the numerator is greater than the

12
5
degree of the denominator. All of these factors are important in selecting the appropriate way to
proceed.
It is also important to consider the degree of the numerator and of the denominator. For
instance, if we consider the third example, then the degree of its denominator is 3, because when
we multiply out ( x  1) 2 ( x  1) the highest power of x is x 3 . Also, the degree of the numerator is
zero, because we can think of 1 as 1x 0 . So the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of
the denominator, and that is the case for the first three of the examples. We call fractions like
these proper fractions. On the other hand, in the final example, the degree of the numerator is 3
whereas the degree of the denominator is 2. This is called an improper fraction.

The degree of a polynomial expression in x is the highest power of x appearing in the

expression. An algebraic fraction where the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of
the denominator is called a proper fraction. If the degree of the numerator is greater than, or
equal to, the degree of the denominator then the fraction is an improper fractio
Some preliminary results

To understand the examples which follow you will need to use various techniques which you
should have met before. We summarise them briefly here, but you should refer to other relevant
material if you need to revise the details.
Partial fractions
A linear factor, ax + b in the denominator gives rise to a partial fraction of the form
A
Repeated linear factors, (ax  b) 2 give rise to partial fractions of the form
ax  b
A B

ax  b (ax  b) 2
Ax  B
A quadratic factor ax 2  bx  c gives rise to a partial fraction of the form
ax  bx  c
2

Integration - standard results

f ' ( x) 1
 f ( x)
dx  ln f ( x)  C , e.g  x  1 dx  ln x  1  C

Integration - substitution
1 du
To find  ( x  1) 2
dx , substitute u = x − 1, du  (
dx
)dx to give

1 1
 ( x  1) 2
dx  
u2
dx

  u 2 dx

12
6
 u 1
 C
1
1
 C
x 1
4.9.4. Algebraic fractions with two linear factors
In this section we will consider how to integrate an algebraic fraction which has the form of a
proper fraction with two linear factors in the denominator.
Example
x
Suppose we want to find  (2  x)( x  3) dx
Note that the integrand is a proper fraction (because the degree of the numerator is less than the
degree of the denominator), and also that the denominator has two, distinct, linear factors.
Therefore the appropriate form for its partial fractions is
x A B
  ,
(2  x)( x  3) 2  x x  3
where A and B are constants which we shall determine shortly. We add the two terms on the
right-hand side together again using a common denominator:
x A( x  3) B(2  x)
 
(2  x)( x  3) 2 x x3

Because the fraction on the left is equal to that on the right for all values of x, and because their
denominators are equal, then their numerators too must be equal. So, from just the numerators,
x = A(x + 3) + B(2 − x) . (1)
We now proceed to find the values of the constants A and B. We can do this in one of two
ways, or by mixing the two ways. The first way is to substitute particular values for x. The
second way is to separately equate coefficients of constant terms, linear terms, quadratic terms etc.
Both of these ways will be illustrated now.
Substitution of particular values for x
Because expression (1) is true for all values of x we can substitute any value we choose for x. In
particular, if we let x = 2 the second term on the right becomes zero, and everything looks simpler:
2 = A(2 + 3) + 0
from which 5A = 2 and so
2
A
5
Similarly, substituting x = −3 in expression (1) makes the first term zero:
−3 = 5B
from which

12
7
 3
B
5
Thus the partial fractions are
x 2 3
 
(2  x)( x  3) 5(2  x) 5( x  3)
Both of the terms on the right can be integrated:
2 3 2 1 3 1
 ( 5(2  x)  5( x  3) )dx =  5  2  x dx  5  x  3 dx
2 3
  ln 2  x  ln x  3  C
5 5
Note that in the first of the two integrals, we have set the numerator to be −1 and compensated for
this by writing a minus sign outside the integral. We have done this because the derivative of 2 −
x is −1, so that the integral is in a standard form. So by using partial fractions we have broken
down the original integral into two separate integrals which we can then evaluate. Equating
coefficients A second technique for finding A and B is to equate the coefficients of equivalent
terms on each side. First of all we expand the brackets in Equation (1) and collect together like
terms:
x = Ax + 3A + 2B − Bx = (A − B)x + 3A + 2B .
Equating the coefficients of x on each side:
1=A−B . (2)
Equating constant terms on each side of this expression gives
0 = 3A + 2B . (3)
These are two simultaneous equations we can solve to find A and B. Multiplying Equation (2) by
2 gives
2 = 2A − 2B . (4)
Now, adding (3) and (4) eliminates the B‘s to give
2 = 5A
2 3
from which A  Also, from (2), B  A  1   just as we obtained using the
5 5
method of substituting specific values for x. Often you will find that a combination of both
techniques is efficient.
Example
Suppose we want to evaluate

2
3
 x( x  1)dx
1

Note again that the integrand is a proper fraction and also that the denominator has two,
distinct, linear factors. Therefore the appropriate form for its partial fractions is

12
8
 3 A B
 
x( x  1) x x  1
where A and B are constants we need to find. We add the two terms on the right-hand side
together again using a common denominator.
3 A B
 
x( x  1) x x  1

Because the fraction on the left is equal to that on the right for all values of x, and because their
denominators are equal, then their numerators too must be equal. So, from just the numerators,

If we substitute x = 0 we can immediately find A:

3 = A(0 + 1) + B(0)
so that A = 3.
If we substitute x = −1 we find B:
3 = A(−1 + 1)+B(−1)
so that B = −3. Then

2 2
3 3 3
1 x( x  1)dx = 
1
( 
x x 1
)dx

 3 ln x  3 ln x  1 1
2

 (3 ln 2  3 ln 3)  (3 ln 1  3 ln 2)
 6 ln 2  3 ln 3
 ln 2 6  3 ln 33
26
 ln( )
33
64
 ln( )
27

Exercises 1
1. Find each of the following integrals by expressing the integrand in partial fractions.

12
9
 1 x
(a)  ( x  1)( x  2)dx (b)  (2 x  3)( x _ 4)dx (c)

3x  2
 ( x  1)( x  7)dx

4.9.5 Algebraic fractions with a repeated linear factor

When the denominator contains a repeated linear factor care must be taken to use the correct form
of partial fractions as illustrated in the following example.
Example
Find
1
 ( x  1) 2
( x  1)
dx

In this Example there is a repeated factor in the denominator. This is because the factor
x − 1 appears twice, as in ( x  1) 2 . We write

1 A B C
  
( x  1) ( x  1) ( x  1) ( x  1)
2 2
x 1

1(( x  1) 2 ( x  1) A( x  1) 2 ( x  1) B( x  1) 2 ( x  1) C ( x  1) 2 ( x  1)
  
( x  1) 2 ( x  1) ( x  1) ( x  1) 2 x 1

As before, the fractions on the left and the right are equal for all values of x. Their denominators
are equal and so we can equate the numerators:
1 = A(x − 1)(x + 1) + B(x + 1)+C(x − 1) 2 (1)
1
Substituting x = 1 in Equation (1) gives 1 = 2B, from which B 
2
1
Substituting x = −1 gives 1 =4C from which C 
4
Knowing B and C, substitution of any other value for x will give the value of A. For example, if
we let x = 0 we find
1 = −A + B + C

and so

13
0
 1 1
1  A  
2 4
1
from which A   . Alternatively, we could have expanded the right-hand side of Equation
4
(1), collected like terms together and equated coefficients. This would have yielded the same
values for A, B and C.
The integral becomes
1 1 1 1
 ( x  1) 2
( x  1)
dx   ( 
4( x  1) 2( x  1) 2

4( x  1)
)dx

1 1 1
  ln x  1   ln x  1  C
4 2( x  1) 4
Using the laws of logarithms this can be written in the following alternative form if required:
1 x 1 1
ln( ) C
4 x  1 2( x  1)

Exercises 2
1. Integrate each of the following by expressing the integrand in partial fractions.
1 2x  1 x 1
(a)  ( x  3) 2
( x  1)
dx (b)  ( x  2)
2
( x  1)
dx (c)  x ( x  7) 2
dx

4.9.6 Dealing with improper fractions

When the degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator the
fraction is said to be improper. In such cases it is first necessary to carry out long division as
illustrated in the next Example.

Example
Find
x3
 x 2  4 dx
The degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the numerator. This fraction is
therefore improper. We can divide the denominator into the numerator using long division of
fractions:

13
1
so that

x3 4x
 x 2
x 4
2
x 4
Note that the denominator of the second term on the right hand side is the difference of two
squares and can be factorised as x 2 − 4 = (x − 2)(x + 2). So,

4x 4x A B
  
x  4 ( x  2)( x  2) x  2 x  2
2

As before, the fractions on the left and on the right are equal for all values of x. Their
denominators are the same, and so too must be their numerators. So we equate the numerators to
give
4x = A(x + 2) + B(x − 2) .
Choosing x = 2 we find 8 = 4A so that A = 2. Choosing x = −2 gives −8 = −4B so that
B = 2. So with these values of A and B the integral becomes

x3 2 2
 x 2  4 dx   x  ( x  2  x  2 )dx
x2
  2 ln x  2  2 ln x  2  C
2

Exercises 3
1. Use long division and partial fractions to find the following integrals.
x3  1 x 2  3x  3 7x  6
(a)  1  x 2 dx (b)  x  1 dx (c)  x 1
dx

7 x 2  16 x  19
(d)  x 2  2 x  3 dx

13
2
 Answers
Exercises 1
3 4
1. (a) ln x  1  ln x  2  C (b) ln 2 x  3  ln x  4  C
22 11
5 19
(c) ln x  1  ln x  7  C
8 8
Exercises 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
1. (a) the partial fractions are:  .  
4 ( x  3) 2
16 x  3 16 x  1
1 1 1 1
the integral is .  ln x  3  ln x  1  C
4 ( x  3) 16 16
3 1 1
(b) the partial fractions are  
( x  2) 2
x  2 x 1

3
the integral is   ln x  2  ln x  1  C
x3
1 8 1
(c) the partial fractions are  
49 x 7( x  7) 2
49( x  7)
1 8 1
the integral is ln x   ln x  7  C
49 7( x  7) 49

Exercises 3
1
1. (a) the partial fractions are  x  ;
x 1
x2
the integral is   ln x  1  C
2
1
(b) the partial fractions are x  2  ;
x 1
x2
the integral is  2 x  ln x  1  C
2
1
(c ) the partial fractions are 7  ;
x 1

13
3
 the integral is 7x + ln|x − 1| + C.

1 1
(d) the partial fractions are 7   ;
x  3 x 1
the integral is 7x + ln|x + 3| + ln|x − 1| + C.

4.9.7 Integrating algebraic fractions 2

Sometimes the integral of an algebraic fraction can be found by first expressing the algebraic
fraction as the sum of its partial fractions. In this unit we look at the case where the denominator
of the fraction involves an irreducible quadratic expression.
In order to master the techniques explained here it is vital that you undertake plenty of practice
exercises so that they become second nature.
After reading this text, and/or viewing the video tutorial on this topic, you should be able to:
• integrate an algebraic fraction where the denominator involves an irreducible quadratic
expression.
In this unit we are going to look at how we can integrate some more algebraic fractions. We shall
concentrate on the case where the denominator of the fraction involves an irreducible quadratic
factor. The case where all the factors of the denominator are linear has been covered in the first
unit on integrating algebraic fractions.
Algebraic fractions with an irreducible quadratic factor

When the denominator of a fraction contains a quadratic, ax 2 + bx + c, which will not factorise
into two linear factors (said to be an irreducible quadratic factor) the appropriate form of partial
fractions is
Ax  B
ax  bx  c
2

Suppose the value of A turns out to be zero. Then we have an integrand of the form

cons tan t
ax 2  bx  c
A term like this can be integrated by completing the square as in the following example.

Example
Suppose we wish to find
2x  1
x 2
 x 1
dx

13
4
Here the derivative of x 2 + x + 1 is 2x + 1 and so immediately we can write down the answer:
2x  1
x 2
 x 1
dx  ln x 2  x  1  C

Finally, we may have values of A and B such that the numerator is not the derivative of the
denominator. In such a case we have to adjust the numerator to make it so, and then compensate
by including another term as illustrated in the following example.
So you see that you need a combination of a variety of techniques together with some ingenuity
and skill. Practice is essential so that you experience a wide variety of such problems.
Example
Find
1
 x( x 2
 1)
dx

Here we express the integrand in partial fractions, noting in particular the appropriate form to use
when dealing with an irreducible quadratic factor.
1 A Bx  C
  2
x( x  1)
2
x x 1

The fractions on the left and right are equal for all values of x. The denominators are equal, and so
too must be the numerators. So, from just the numerators:

1 = A( x 2 + 1) + (Bx + C)x .
We can substitute some sensible values for x in order to find the numbers A, B and C, or we can
equate coefficients. We can also use a combination of these two methods. If we substitute x = 0
we obtain
1=A.
Next, we can compare the coefficients of x2 on both sides:
0=A+B.
But we already know that A = 1, and so B must equal −1. And finally, we compare the
coefficients of x on both sides:
0=C.
Returning to the integral, and using these values of A, B and C we find
1 1 x
 x( x 2
 1)
dx   dx   2
x x 1
dx

13
5
 The first integral on the right is a standard form. The second is adjusted as follows to make the
numerator the derivative of the denominator:

x 1 2x
x 2
1
dx   2
2 x 1
dx

Then
1 1 1 2x
 x( x 2
 1)
dx   dx   2
x 2 x 1
dx

1
 ln x  ln x 2  1  C
2
Using the laws of logarithms the first two terms can be combined to express the answer as a single
logarithm if required:
1 1
ln x  ln x 2  1  ln x  ln x 2  1 2
2

 ln x  ln x 2  1

x
 ln
x2 1

Exercises
1. Find the following integrals by expressing the integrand in partial fractions.

3x 2  6 x  4 6 x 2  10 x  5
(a)  ( x 2  4)( x  3)dx (b)  ( x  1)(2 x 2  3x  2) dx

Answers
1 2x
1. (a) the partial fractions are  2 ; the integral is ln x  3  ln x 2  4  C
x3 x  4

1 3  4x
(b) the partial fractions are  2 ; the integral is ln x  1  ln 2 x 2  3x  2  C
x  1 2 x  3x  2

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6
4.10 Applications
4.10.1 Finding areas by integration

Integration can be used to calculate areas. In simple cases, the area is given by a single definite
integral. But sometimes the integral gives a negative answer which is minus the area, and in more
complicated cases the correct answer can be obtained only by splitting the area into several parts
and adding or subtracting the appropriate integrals.
In order to master the techniques explained here it is vital that you undertake plenty of practice
exercises so that they become second nature.
After reading this text, and/or viewing the video tutorial on this topic, you should be able to:
• find the area beween a curve, the x-axis, and two given ordinates;
• find the area between a curve and the x-axis, where the ordinates are given by the points where
the curve crosses the axis;
• find the area between two curves.
We can obtain the area between a curve, the x-axis, and specific ordinates (that is, values of x), by
using integration. We know this from the units on Integration as Summation, and on Integration as
the Reverse of Differentiation. In this unit we are going to look at how to apply this idea in a
number of more complicated situations.
4.10.2 The area between a curve and the x-axis
Let us begin by exploring the following question: ‗Calculate the areas of the segments contained
between the x-axis and the curve y = x(x − 1)(x − 2).‘
In order to answer this question, it seems reasonable for us to draw a sketch of the curve, as there
is no mention of the ordinates, or values, of x. To make the sketch, we see first that the curve
crosses the x-axis when y = 0, in other words when x = 0, x = 1, and x = 2. Next, when x is large
and positive, we see that y is also large and positive. Finally, when x is large and negative, we see
that y is also large and negative. So if we join up these features that we have found on the graph,
we can see that the curve looks like this.

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7
Now the areas required are obviously the area A between x = 0 and x = 1, and the area B
between x = 1 and x = 2. But there is a marked difference between these two areas in terms of
their position. The area A is above the x-axis, whereas the area B is below it. In previous units we
have talked only about calculating areas using integration when the curve, and thus the area, is
above the x-axis. Does the position of the curve make any difference to the area?
In this example, we shall play safe and calculate each area separately. We know that the area A is
given by the integral from x = 0 to x = 1 of the curve y  x( x  1)( x  2)  x 3  3x 2  2 x thus

1
A   ydx
0

1
  ( x 3  3x 2  2 x)dx
0

1
 x 4 3x 3 x2 
  2 
4 3 2 0
1
 x4 
   x3  x2 
4 0
1  0 
   1  1    0  0
4  4 
1

4
Area B should be given by a similar integral, except that now the limits of integration are from x =
1 to x = 2:

2
B   ydx
1

2
  ( x 3  3x 2  2 x)dx
1

2
 x 4 3x 3 x2 
  2 
4 3 2 1
2
 x4 
   x3  x2 
4 1

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8
  24  1 
   2 3  2 2     1  1
4  4 
1

4
Now the two integrals have the same magnitude, but area A is above the x-axis and area B is
below the x-axis; and, as we see, the sign of the value B is negative. The actual value of the area is
Now the two integrals have the same magnitude, but area A is above the x-axis and area B is
below the x-axis; and, as we see, the sign of the value B is negative. The actual value of the area is
1
 , so why does our calculation give a negative answer? , so why does our calculation give a
4
negative answer?
In the unit on Integration as Summation, when we summed the small portions of area we were
evaluating  yx .Now δx was defined as a small positive increment in x, but y was simply the y-
value at the ordinate x. Clearly this y-value will be negative if the curve is below the x-axis, so in
this case the quantity y δx will be minus the value of the area. So in our example, we were adding
up a lot of values equal to minus the area, as the curve is wholly below the x-axis between x = 1
and x = 2. For this reason, the calculation gives a negative answer which is minus the value of the
area.
Now suppose for a moment that the question had asked us instead to find the total area enclosed
by the curve and the x-axis. We know the answer to this question. The total area is the area of A,
1 1
of a unit of area, added to actual value of the area B, which is another of a unit of area. Thus
4 4
1
the total area enclosed by the curve and the x-axis is of a unit of area. But suppose we had
2
decided to work this out by finding the value of the integral between x = 0 and x = 2, without
drawing a sketch. What answer would we get? We would find
2
Shaded Area   ydx
0

2
  ( x 3  3x 2  2 x)dx
0

2
 x 4 3x 3 x2 
  2 
4 3 2 0
2
 x4 
   x3  x2 
4 0
 24  0 
   2 3  2 2     0  0
4  4 
= 0-0
=0

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9
So according to this calculation, the area enclosed by the curve and the x-axis is zero. But we
know that this is not the case, because we have a sketch to prove it. Clearly what has happened is
that the ‗signed‘ values of the two areas have been added together in the process of integration,
and they have cancelled each other out.
Thus the value of the integral evaluated between two ordinates is not necessarily the value of the
area between the curve, the x-axis and the two ordinates. So we must be very careful when
calculating areas to avoid this particular trap. The best way is always to draw a sketch of the curve
over the required range of values of x.

When calculating the area between a curve and the x-axis, you should carry out separate
calculations for the parts of the curve above the axis, and the parts of the curve below the axis.
The integral for a part of the curve below the axis gives minus the area for that part. You may
find it helpful to draw a sketch of the curve for the required range of x-values, in order to see
how many separate calculations will be needed.

Some examples
Example
Find the area between the curve y = x(x − 3) and the ordinates x = 0 and x = 5.
Solution
If we set y = 0 we see that x(x − 3) = 0, and so x = 0 or x = 3. Thus the curve cuts the x-axis at x =
0 and at x = 3. The x 2 term is positive, and so we know that the curve forms a U-shape as shown
below.

From the graph, we can see that we need to calculate the area A between the curve, the x-axis and
the ordinates x = 0 and x = 3 first, and that we should expect this integral to give a negative
answer because the area is wholly below the x-axis:
3
A   ydx
0

14
0
 3
  ( x 2  3x)dx
0

3
 x 3 3x 2 
  
3 2 0

 27 3x9   0 3x0 
   
3 2   3 2 
1
4
2
Next, we need to calculate the area B between the curve, the x-axis, and the ordinates
x = 3 and x = 5:

5
A   ydx
3

5
  ( x 2  3x)dx
3

5
 x 3 3x 2 
  
3 2 3

 53 3x5 2   33 3x32 
    
3 2  3 2 

2 1 1
 41  37  9  13
3 2 2
2
8
3
1 2 1
So the total area is 4  8  13
2 3 6

Example
Find the area bounded by the curve y = x 2 + x + 4, the x-axis and the ordinates x = 1 and
x = 3.
Solution
If we set y = 0 we obtain the quadratic equation x 2 + x + 4 = 0, and for this quadratic

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1
b 2 − 4ac = 1 − 16 = −15 so that there are no real roots. This means that the curve does not cross
the x-axis. Furthermore, the coefficient of x2 is positive and so the curve is U-shaped. When x = 0,
y = 4 and so the curve looks like this.

The required area A is entirely above the x-axis and so we can simply evaluate the integral
between the required limits:
3
A   ydx
1

3
  ( x 2  x  4)dx
1

3
 x3 x2 
   4 x
3 2 1
 33 3 2  1 1 
    4 x3     4
3 2  3 2 
1 5
 25  4
2 6
2
Which equals 20 units of area.
3
Exercises 8.11
1. Find the area enclosed by the given curve, the x-axis, and the given ordinates.
(a) The curve y = x, from x = 1 to x = 3.
(b) The curve y = x 2 + 3x, from x = 1 to x = 3

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2
 (c) The curve y = x 2 − 4 from x = −2 to x = 2
(d) The curve y = x − x 2 from x = 0 to x = 2
2. Find the area contained by the curve y = x(x − 1)(x + 1) and the x-axis.
1
3. Calculate the value of  x( x  1)( x  1)dx
1

Compare your answer with that obtained in question 3, and explain what has happened.
6

 (4 x  x
2
4. Calculate the value of )dx
0

Explain your answer.

4.10.3 The area between two curves

A similar technique to the one we have just used can also be employed to find the areas
sandwiched between curves.
Example
Calculate the area of the segment cut from the curve y = x(3 − x) by the line y = x.
Solution
Sketching both curves on the same axes, we can see by setting y = 0 that the curve y = x(3−x) cuts
the x-axis at x = 0 and x = 3. Furthermore, the coefficient of x2 is negative and so we have an
inverted U-shape curve. The line y = x goes through the origin and meets the curve y = x(3 − x) at
the point P. It is this point that we need to find first of all.

At P the y co-ordinates of both curves are equal. Hence:

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3
 x(3 − x) = x
3x − x 2 = x
2x − x 2 = 0
x(2 − x) = 0
so that either x = 0, the origin, or else x = 2, the x co-ordinate of the point P.
We now need to find the shaded area in the diagram. To do this we need the area under the upper
curve, the graph of y = x(3 − x), between the x-axis and the ordinates x = 0 and x = 2. Then we
need to subtract from this the area under the lower curve, the line y = x, and between the x-axis
and the ordinates x = 0 and x = 2.
The area under the curve is

2 2
A   ydx   x(3  x)dx
0 0

2
  (3x  x 2 )dx
0

2
 3x 2 x 3 
  
 2 3 0

 3x 2 2 2 3   0 0 
    
 2 3  2 3
1
3
3
and the area under the straight line is

2 2
A   ydx   xdx
0 0

2
 x2 
 
 2 0
 2  0
=2
1 1
Thus the shaded area is 3 -2 = 1 units of area.
3 3
The area between two curves may be calculated by finding the area between one curve and the
x-axis, and subtracting the area between the other curve and the x-axis. It is important to draw
a sketch, in order to find the points where the curves cross, so that the ordinates can be

14
4
calculated. The sketch will also show which areas should be subtracted. It may be necessary to
calculate the area in a number of different parts and add the results.

4.10.4 Another way of finding the area between two curves

There is a second way of calculating the area between two curves.

Let us return to the sketch of the first of our two examples, and call the upper curve
y1 = x(3−x) and the lower curve y2 = x.

We can see that the distance between the two curves at any value of x is y1 − y2. Thus a small
piece of the area between the two curves and the ordinates x and x + δx is (y1 − y2)δx. So we can
add these small pieces of area together to get

( y 1  y 2 )x
and in the limit we can obtain the area between the two curves by evaluating
b

(y
a
1  y 2 )dx

Let us see how this works our in our example. Here,

y1 − y2 = x(3 − x) − x = 3x − x 2 − x = 2x − x 2 ,
so that the area between the two curves is given by

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5
 2 2

 ( y1  y 2 )dx   (2 x  x )dx
2

0 0

2
 2x 2 x3 
  
 2 3 0
2
 x3 
 x 2  
 3 0

 23 
 2 2    0
 3

8
 4
3
4

3
Thus the answer is the same as before. This second method is often an easier way to calculate the
area between two curves.

The area between the curves y1 and y2 and the ordinates x = a and x = b is given by

b
A   ( y1  y 2 )dx
a

where y1 is the upper curve and y2 the lower curve.

Exercises
1
5. Calculate the area contained between the curve y = cosx, −π < x < π, and the line y 
2
6. Find the area contained between the line y = x and the curve y = x 2
7. Find the area contained between the two curves y = 3x − x 2 2 and y = x + x 2 .

Answers 8.11
2 2 2
1. (a) 4 (b) 20 (c) 10 (d)
3 3 3
(note that the integrals for parts (c) and (d) are negative, but the areas are positive).

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6
 1
2.
2
3. 0. The areas between x = −1 and x = 0, and between x = 0 and x = 1, are equal in size.
However, one area is above the axis and one is below the axis, so that the integrals have opposite
sign.
4. 0. The curve crosses the x-axis at x = 0 and x = 4. The areas between x = 0 and x = 4,
and between x = 4 and x = 6, are equal in size. However, one area is above the axis and one is
below the axis, so that the integrals have opposite sign.
 1 1
5. 3 6. 7.
3 6 3

Exercises

1
1. The area between the curve y  , the y-axis and the lines y = 1 and y = 2 is rotated about the y-
x
axis. Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed
2. The area between the curve y  x 2 , the y-axis and the lines y = 0 and y = 2 is rotated about the y-
axis. Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed.
3. The area cut off by the x-axis and the curve y  x 2 − 3x is rotated about the x-axis. Find the
volume of the solid of revolution formed.
4. Sketch the curve y 2  x( x  4) 2 and find the volume of the solid of revolution formed when the
closed loop of the curve is rotated about the x-axis.
1
5. A conical funnel is formed by rotating the curve y  x about the y-axis. The radius of the rim
3
of the funnel is 6 cm. Find the depth of the funnel and its volume.
Answers

1 81 1
1.  2. 2 3.  4 21  5. Depth is 2 cm , volume
2 10 3
is 24 cm 3

4.10.5 Integration that leads to logarithm function

1
The derivative of lnx is As a consequence, if we reverse the process, the integral of
x
1
is ln x + c. In this unit we generalize this result and see how a wide variety of integrals result in
x
logarithm functions. In order to master the techniques explained here it is vital that you undertake
plenty of practice exercises so that they become second nature.

14
7
After reading this text, and/or viewing the video tutorial on this topic, you should be able to:
• recognise integrals in which the numerator is the derivative of the denominator.
• rewrite integrals in alternative forms so that the numerator becomes the derivative of the
denominator.
• recognise integrals which can lead to logarithm functions.
dy 1
We already know that when we differentiate y = lnx we find  We also know that if we
dx x
dy f ' ( x)
have y = lnf(x) and we differentiate it we find 
dx f ( x)
The point is that if we recognise that the function we are trying to integrate is the derivative of
another function, we can simply reverse the process. So if the function we are trying to integrate is
a quotient, and if the numerator is the derivative of the denominator, then the integral will involve
a logarithm:
dy f ' ( x)
if y = lnf(x) so that 
dx f ( x)
and, reversing the process,

f ' ( x)
 f ( x)
dx  ln f ( x)  c

This procedure works if the function f(x) is positive, because then we can take its logarithm. What
happens if the function is negative? In that case, −f(x) is positive, so that we can take the
logarithm of −f(x). Then:

dy  f ' ( x) f ' ( x)
If y  ln( f ( x)) so that  
dx  f ( x) f ( x)
and, reversing the process,

f ' ( x)
 f ( x)
dx  ln  f ( x)  c

when the function is negative.

We can combine both these results by using the modulus function. Then we can use the formula in
both cases, or when the function takes both positive and negative values (or when we don‘t
know).

To integrate a quotient when the numerator is the derivative of the denominator, we use

f ' ( x)
 f ( x)
dx  ln f ( x)  c

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8
Some examples

This result can be written in the alternative form ln | sec x| + c.

Example

x
Find 1 x 2
dx

The derivative of the denominator is 2x. Note that the numerator is not quite the derivative of the
x 1 2x
denominator, but we can make it so by rewriting as . . Then
1 x 2
2 1 x2

x 1 2x
1 x 2
dx  
2 1 x2
dx

1
 ln 1  x 2  c
2
Example
1
Find  x ln x dx
1
Remember that the derivative of of lnx is . So we rewrite the integrand slightly differently:
x
1
1
 x . Now the numerator is the derivative of the denominator. So
x ln x ln x

1
1
 x ln x  ln x dx
dx  x

 ln ln x  c

Exercises
1. Determine each of the following integrals
3 x e2x
(a)  2  3x dx (b)  1  2 x 2 dx (c)  e 2 x  1 dx (d)

e2x
 e 2 x  1 dx

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9
 x 1
(e)  x 2  4 dx
f ' ( x)
2. For each of the following integrals, use the result  f ( x)
dx  ln f ( x)  c to determine the
integral. Then repeat the integral, using algebra to simplify the integrand before integration.
Check that the two answers obtained are the same.

3x 2 4 x 5
(a)  x 3 dx (b)  x 4 dx
1 5
x 2
5e 5 x x 2
(d)  1
2
dx (e)  e 5 x dx (f)  3
2
dx
2x x

Answers
1 1
1. a) ln |2 + 3x| + c (b) ln 1  2 x 2  c (c) ln e 2 x 1  c
4 2
1 1
(d) ln e 2 x 1  c (f)  ln x 2  4  c
2 2
2. (a) ln x 3  c  3 ln x  c
1 1
(b)  ln x 4  c  4 ln x  c (c) ln x 2
c  ln x  c
2
2 3
(d) ln e 5 x  c (e)  ln x 2  c  ln x  c
3

Thank you

15
0
Unit summary
In this unit you learned techniques of integration. There are two methods
which came out clearly in this unit on integration:
1. integration can be viewed as an anti derivative
Summary
2. integration can be viewed as area under the curve
b

 f ( x)dx  F (b)  F (a) - Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

a

 f ( x)dx  F ( x)  C - indefinite integral

Note that F(x) is called the anti derivative of f(x) f(x).

Assignment
Two Assignments will given to you by IDE

Assignment

Assessment
The Two assignments which will be given to you through IDE and one
test to be given during your residential school shall constitute the
Continuous Assessment in the ratio given in the Academic Regulations
Assessment

REFERENCES

15
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Prescribed Text Books
1. Buckhouse, J.K and Houldsworth, S.P.T.1985.Pure Mathematics 1.Longman
2. Francis, A. 2002. Business Mathematics and Statistics. Continuum London.

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