BCS151 - Communication Study Skills-1

ACADEMIC DOCUMENT
COMMUNICATION AND STUDY SKILLS

BCS 151
School of Business
MULUNGUSHI UNIVERSTY
INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
MODULE 1

Study Skills
MULUNGUSHI UNIVERSITY
School of Business/Communication Dept.
Copyright
©2009Mulungushi University
Mulungushi University
School of Business
Great North Road Campus
P.O. Box 80415
Kabwe
Zambia
Fax: +[Add country code] [Add area code] [Add telephone #]
E-mail: rsampa@mu.ac.zm
Website: www.mu.ac.zm
Acknowledgements
The Mulungushi University School of Business/Communication wishes to thank those below for their
contribution to this Module:
Rex Lumpombwe Sampa

Contents
About this [Module] 1
How this Module is structured .......................................................................................... 1
Course overview 3
Welcome to Communication and Study Skills ...................................................................
Communication and Study Skills—is this course for you? ................................................
Course outcomes .................................................................................................................
Timeframe ......................................................................................................................... 4
Study skills ..........................................................................................................................
Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 5
Assignments ...................................................................................................................... 6
Assessments ........................................................................................................................
Getting around this [Module] 7

Margin icons ..................................................................................................................... 7
Unit 1 9
Study Skills ....................................................................................................................... 9
Introduction ...............................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Time Management ................................................................................................. 10
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 15
Assignment ..................................................................................................................... 15
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 16
Unit 2 199
Listening & Learning Styles ..........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.9
Introduction ...............................................................................................................
Listening ................................................................................................................ 20
Learning Styles ...................................................................................................... 24
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 26
Assignment ..................................................................................................................... 27
Assessment..........................................................................................................................
Unit 3 31
Note-Taking & Note-Making ......................................................................................... 31
Introduction ...............................................................................................................
Note-Taking........................................................................................................... 32
Note-Making ......................................................................................................... 34
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 37

Assignment .........................................................................................................................
Assessment..........................................................................................................................
Unit 4 39
Summary & Use of Library & Information Resources ................................................... 39
Introduction ...............................................................................................................
Summary ............................................................................................................... 40
Use of Library & Information Resources .............................................................. 44
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 50
Assignment .........................................................................................................................
Assessment..........................................................................................................................
Unit 5 51
Oral Presentation Skills .................................................................................................. 51
Introduction ...............................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 58
Assignment .........................................................................................................................
Assessment
About this Module

Communication and Study Skills. Study Skills Module has been
produced by Mulungushi University. All Mulungushi University Modules
produced by Mulungushi University are structured in the same way, as
outlined below.
How this Module is structured

The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
 Where to get help.
 Course assignments and assessments.
 Activity icons.
 Units.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.
The course content

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
 An introduction to the unit content.
 Unit outcomes.
 New terminology.
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
 A unit summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
Resources
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For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of this Module; these may be
books, articles or web sites.
Your comments
After completing Communication and Study Skills we would appreciate
it if you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any
aspect of this course. Your feedback might include comments on:
 Course content and structure.
 Course reading materials and resources.
 Course assignments.
 Course assessments.
 Course duration.
 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this
course.
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Course overview
Welcome to Communication and

Study Skills:COMMUNICATION
AND STUDY SKILLS Study Skills
This course is presented in four (4) sections. The first section presents an
overview of communication dealing with language and communication,
as well as with the process of communication the context of
communication. The second section deals with study skills necessary for
the pursuit of university studies. The third section addresses the
conventions of academic writing. Lastly the fourth and final section
focuses on the use of grammar for academic purposes.
Communication & Study Skills.

Study Skills—is this course for
you?
This course is designed to help you acquire basic study skills of time
management, writing, listening and note taking. However, note that
emphasis will be placed on how to write and structure paragraphs and
essays. The importance of documenting sources of information; using
recognized research and reference skills to provide concrete support for
arguments made when writing will also be investigated.
Objectives
Students undertaking communication and study skills will be able to use
their knowledge of and correct use of conventions of the English
language, as well as conduct brief seminars or presentations either as an
individual or as a group. This will help students acquire the confidence
they need to conduct presentations both at university and in the real
world.
Course outcomes
Upon completion of Communication and Study Skills Study Skills you
will be able to:
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 1. Develop personal skills of goal setting, time management and

decision making with particular reference to their role, and
significance in the work and academic environments.
Outcomes  2. Practice essential communication skills and establish proper

protocols for successful interaction in an academic or employment
including environment.
 3. Compare and construct various forms of written communication
accurately, and with clarity and in the appropriate manner.
 4. Investigate a topic with respect to its researched referred literature
and report on and evaluate the consistency using standard guidelines
 5. Promote and acquire stress management skills in individuals as a
means of dealing with difficult situations/people
 6. Prepare and present written essays or reports that demonstrate
relevance of the answer to the question or topic.
Timeframe
Attendance of and participation in 10 hours of class work during the 2
week period of residential school and 6 hours of private study during the
course of the academic year is the minimum normal amount of study
required to enable a passing grade.
How long?
Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-
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study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of

excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
 http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.
 http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).
 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar.
Need help?
For any queries you may contact the following:
Rex Lumpombwe Sampa
School of Business
Help
e-mail address: rsampa@mu.ac.zm
5
Assignments
There are three Assignments in this course. Details will be communicated
later.
Assignments will be completed in the order in which they will be set
Assignments
Assessments
Depending on the unit topic, assessments will be set at the end of the unit.
All assessments will be self-assessments and not teacher marked.
Assessments
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Getting around this Module
Margin icons
While working through this Module you will notice the frequent use of
margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a
new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this Module.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize
yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Assessment Assignment Case study
Discussion Group activity Help Note it!
Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills
Summary Terminology Time Tip
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Unit 1 Study Skills
Study skills
Time Management
Introduction
Welcome to the study of this Unit. The aim of this unit is to help you
acquire the basic study skills of time management, a skill necessary for a
person like yourself who is venturing into university studies as you are
about to. We will look at how best we can manage our time. This unit on
time management will you give you an opportunity to assess where your
time goes so that you may make some decisions about changes you
would perhaps make to use your time more efficiently.
At University you have to organise your work for yourself. In any subject
that requires a lot of reading, this means you have to be self-disciplined
and to plan and use your time sensibly. The number of immediate
demands being made upon you by different lecturers and different
courses can be quite overwhelming at first. While completing an essay in
one course you may be starting one in another and keeping up with
reading for lectures in all courses. Success is not just about intelligence,
but about planning your time sensibly and sticking to it. It is a habit that
will prove useful not just at University, but in any future career.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 Develop personal skills of goal setting, time management and

decision making with particular reference to your role, and
significance in the work and academic environment .
Outcomes
 Practice essential communication skills and establish proper set of
rules for successful interaction in an academic or employment
environment.
 Promote and acquire stress management skills in individuals as a
means of dealing with difficult situations/people.
Terminology
Adding extra rows to the

Table graphicRemoving
rows from the table graphic
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Time Management
Let us begin with looking at how best you can manage your time. Take
this opportunity to assess where your time goes so that you may make
some decisions about the kind of changes you would perhaps make to use
time efficiently. Note that there is no right way to manage your time;
however, it is important to get to know ourselves so that we can make
good decisions about how to use our time.
Basically we all have 24 hours in a day, 168 hours in a week to use as we

may so wish or choose; nevertheless, some people make better use of this
time than others. For the majority of us this is an area of our lives in
which we need much improvement-------hence let us begin the journey to
learn ways that may help us use our time more effectively.
What is time management?
Time management is the most efficient use of time available to complete

tasks or achieve goals. Successful university students make certain of the
following:
 Use time efficiently
 Achieve a balance between daily tasks, study and social
activities.
 Prepare long term and short term plan
How to Organise Your Time

Planning your study is important. However, sitting down to plan your
work in detail may appear like a waste of time. Nonetheless taking the
time to organise makes your studying more effective in the following
manner:
1. You become more productive
2. The quality of your work improves
3. Because you know what you have done, and what you still have to
do, you do not panic about “falling behind”, or you leaving every
thing to the last minute.
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4. You build confidence as a student, and enjoy the work more.
5. You enjoy your leisure time more.
Planning Your Time

The key to planning your time is to impose an organization on your
working time by dividing it up. This can be applied at several levels:
from the overall organization of a semester (or the academic year, or even
the whole of your degree programme) down to planning how to organise
a particular week (or a particular day, or even a particular free hour).
How to organise
The best way to organise is to do it in the manner that works for you. Just
as there is no right way to manage your time, there is no golden rule that
works for everyone. Therefore, what follow below are general ideas that
may help you to work out your own system for organising your time.
Does:
 Work out how much time you have available and when.
 List the tasks in hand
 Work out priorities between the identified tasks. Which
are urgent?
 Decide on how much time should be spent on each task
and set targets for each work.
 Organise pieces of work (essays, presentations papers)
into smaller, less demoralizing tasks.
Don’ts:
 Don’t try to do it all at once
 Neglect any of your courses, especially those you find
relatively easy (or particularly difficult).
 Drift from essay deadline to essay deadline. While
working on one essay in one course, you should continue
reading and preparing for classes in other courses, and
perhaps make initial preparations for future essay.
 Allow yourself to be distracted. Be loyal to your time
table.
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Do you waste time?

Before you answer the question pause and consider how much time each
day you spend on the following activities:-
Sleeping Grooming
Eating/cooking Socializing / Playing Sport
Watching television Making telephone calls
Using the internet Shopping
Doing housework Traveling
Working Going to lectures/Studying
The following are time management principles you may find useful:
 Identify your best time for study
 Try to study at the same time each day
 Use free time be it on campus or at home
 Study difficult subjects first
 Take regular breaks
 Have a suitable study environment
 Combine activities e.g. study while on a bus
 Sleep and eat properly
 Leave unplanned time for flexibility
 Allow time for relaxation and entertainment
Weekly Planning
Planning at this stage is more about developing a successful routine. Note
that we all have different habits here - different times when we are most
wide awake, different times when we can get on with things undisturbed,
different degrees of success at getting down to hard work even when we
have only got a short time available. And the lesson to learn here too is to
control things rather than be pushed around.
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At the beginning of the week it seems like there is plenty of time to get
everything done. But after lectures, work, sleeping, eating, traveling etc.
there is frustratingly little time left. Here are some suggestions for how to
get the most of the remaining hours.
 Use a diary to assign exactly when and how much time you have
available. You could perhaps use a copy of the timetable on
which you have entered your contact hours - lectures and
tutorials - at the beginning of the semester. This will need to be
adjusted to include evenings and weekends in your plan.
 Compile lists of tasks to be completed during the week. Some of
these (taking a quick look over last week's lecture and class
notes, for example) may be done in odd spare hours such as
between lectures. Others (such as essays and presentation papers)
will require longer stretches of time.
 Allocate these tasks to days and periods of time, depending on
how big each is, and how urgent.
 Be flexible. Learn from your mistakes. (In estimating how long a
task will take, for example). If your schedule isn't working,
change it. Don't always work in the same place. Break up long
study sessions into different tasks.
 Don't waste half of a study session sitting around waiting for
inspiration. Do something to get your brain working:
 Jot down the tasks that need doing.
 Start with one of the smaller tasks
 Read through some lecture notes to get you thinking about what
you are reading/writing.
 Draft a page of an essay (you can always change it later).
 Start in the middle of the essay, if this is more straightforward,
and then go back to the Introduction.
 Take responsibility for your working patterns. Work to the
deadline you have set.
Semester Planning
Use a year-planner, e.g. a wall chart or the thing you find in the inside
cover of a diary. Make sure you've marked the following:
 beginning and end of the semester
 the crucial dates for submission of assignments and coursework
 the dates of the exams period
 the numbering of each week in the semester.
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This technique will enable you to have a means of keeping under review
various signs of progress such as: how far through the semester are you?
How far through the syllabus for this course-unit are you supposed to be?
How long until the exams? What proportion of the books you intended to
read have you got through so far?
Then you can also make plans for times when you will be more stretched
than usual - when are you going home for the weekend, when are the
games of that tournament you've been training for? And conversely,
when are the blocks of time when there will be relatively few other
demands on your time? Some foresight over these questions will allow
you to plan ahead in investing your time wisely rather than just wasting it
away at the times you have some to spare.
You can also plan for when resources will be more or less accessible.
When are the vital books from the library going to be in most demand?
How am I going to get access to the web or my essay files during the
vacation? Once again, having the time freed up to work for something
other than an immediate and urgent deadline will allow you to plan rather
than be pushed around.
So, in short: spend your time as if it were costing you money.
Time Saving Tips

 Don't overdo it. It is hardly ever a sensible plan to work until you
drop and if you end up working in irregular and infrequent binges
you'll inevitably under perform, to say nothing of that
background feeling of being vaguely out of control.
 Pace yourself and establish a functional upper limit to the length
of time you can concentrate before the effort starts to outweigh
the benefits.
 Find strategies for dealing with the times when you know your
concentration isn't going to hold up. Make a note of places you
couldn't quite follow what you heard or read, so that you can
come back to it when you're fresher.
 Look for a way to make it easy to get back into something you're
reading even if you have to take a break. It can sometimes be
helpful to force yourself to break off mid-chapter, mid-paragraph
or even mid-idea, so as to make it easier to pick up the threads
again later, rather than trying to plunge in 'cold' to a totally new
topic or chapter. Find out what works for you.
 Find smaller tasks that will occupy you in 'between' times - e.g.
that slightly-less-than-a- free-hour between two lectures. Maybe
you're working on a particular article or book chapter, or are
doing some practice at transcribing diphthongs, or whatever. But
give yourself a task that can realistically be done in the time you
allot yourself.
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 Keep ahead of the game: as much as you can, try to read before
the relevant lecture rather than after it. There's a world of
difference between reading ahead and therefore having the ideas
already formed in your mind when you hear the lecturer
dissecting them, and on the other hand reading in a kind of
'remedial' way, to try to puzzle out what on earth was being
talked about in a lecture you weren't really able to follow. It
doesn't involve much more effort for this to work; it's just a
question of getting the timing right.
The moral of the story: there's a big difference between being on top of
things and playing catch-up all the time, and keeping a watchful eye on
how you make use of your own time can be enough to tip the balance the
right way.
Unit summary
 In this unit you learned and developed your personal skills of goal setting,
time management and decision making with particular reference to your
role, and significance in the work and academic environment .
Summary
Assignment
Assessing your own use of time.
Time management test.
i)If you answer “no” to any of these questions, you need to re-evaluate
your use of time.
Assignment
ii) Calculate the amount of time you spend each week on the activities
listed below. There are 168 hours in a week. Take away your total and
you will find the hours you have left to dedicate to study.
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Assessment
Time Management Test 1
Question Yes No
Assessment
Do you estimate how many hours you will need to study
each week?
Do you meet assignment deadlines?
Do you begin working on semester long projects early in

the semester?
Do you write a daily "to do" list?
Do you prevent social activities from interfering with

your study time?
Do you have a job that requires fewer than 10 hours a

week?
Do you set specific goals for each study period?
Do you begin your study time with your most difficult

assignment?
Do you complete most of your studying during your

most productive hours each day?
Do you think of being a full-time student as you would a

full-time job?
When you have answered all questions, establish your Time Management
Test score by adding up the number of “yes” answers.
If you have a high total score (10 is the maximum score possible), this
indicates that you are using effective time management techniques.
If your total score is low, it may be helpful to learn some techniques for
using your study time more effectively.
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Time Management Test 2

Estimate the number of hours you spend each week on the following
activities. When you are finished, subtract your total hours from 168, the
number of hours in a week. How much time is left? How will you use
this time?
Activity---Hours per week
1) Working-------------------------
2) Doing your assignments--------------------
3) Sleeping------------------
4) Dressing, showering/bathing---------------
5) Traveling to and from work etc------------
6) Studying-------------
7) Eating----------------
8) Watching television……………
9) Engaging in sports; other leisure activities-------------
10) List any other regular obligations or appointments you must meet
during a typical week and the time you spend, for example , at
church, movies, appointments, socializing with friends etc.
_____________
_____________
_____________
Total = ___________ 168 hours minus Total = ___
Now answer the following questions:

1. On what activity do you spend the least amount of time?
2. On what activity do you spend the most time?
3. Is the amount of time you spend studying producing the grades
you want?
4. Overall, are you satisfied with the way you spend your time?
Why or Why not?
5. If you could make some changes, what would they be?
17
Unit 2
Listening & Learning Styles

Introduction
Active listening is necessary for effective communication. Active
listening focuses on the speaker and what is being said. As the listener,
you should then be able to repeat in your own words what the speaker has
said to their satisfaction. This does not mean you agree with them, but
rather understand, what they are saying. We were given two ears but only
on mouth……this probably indicates that listening is twice as hard as
talking. Furthermore, our ability to analyze and increase understanding of
the techniques of effective listening will facilitate successful university
study.
In this unit we will also look at learning styles. This is because we don’t
all learn in the same way. Understanding your preferred learning style
can help you study effectively by using techniques best suited to your
preferred style. It can help you read the information, process the
information, organize and present the information. Upon completion of
this unit you will be able to:
 Analyse and increase understanding of the techniques of effective

listening ;
 Listen effectively in a variety of situations for a variety of purposes ;
Outcomes  Practice the behaviours of effective, active listeners ;
 Use effective listening skills to take accurate notes and summarise
information presented in oral form;
 Describe active listening/participation and explain its role in an
academic environment;
 Assess strengths in listening and set goals for future growth ;
 Identify your preferred learning style;
 Explain why independent learning skills are important and describe
how they might be applied in an academic environment;
 Study effectively by using techniques best suited to your preferred
style .
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Active Listening: This is where you make a conscious effort to hear

not only the words that another person is saying
but, more importantly, to try and understand the
total message being sent.
Terminology
Candid: To be honest and straight forward in speech or
behaviour.
1. Listening
Listening is one of the most important skills you can have. How
well you listen does impact greatly on how effectively you study
and also on the quality of your relationships with others.
Why do we listen?
We listen to obtain information.
We listen to understand.
We listen for enjoyment.
We listen to learn.
Considering the amount we spend listening, one would expect each

one of us to be good at listening! A number of studies carried out
indict that we remember a miserable 25-50% of what we hear. That
means that when you talk to our colleagues, customers, supervisors
or spouse for 10 minutes, they only really hear 2½-5 minutes of the
conversation.
This implies and tells us that when you are receiving directions or
being presented with information, you aren’t hearing the whole
message either. You hope the important parts are captured in your
25- 50%, but what if they’re not?
Without a doubt, listening is a skill that we can all benefit from

improving. By becoming a better listener, you will improve your
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effectiveness as regards study, productivity, as well as your ability

to influence, persuade and negotiate. What’s more, you’ll also
avoid conflict and misunderstandings – all necessary for university
study and not to mention workplace success.
For you to be a good communicator it is necessary to have a high

level of self-awareness. By understanding your personal style of
communicating, you will go a long way towards creating good and
lasting impressions with others.
The only way to become a better listener is to practice “active

listening”. This is where you make a conscious effort to hear not
only the words that another person is saying (in this case your
lecturer) but, more importantly, to try and understand the total
message being sent.
In order to do this you must pay attention to the other person i.e.
your lecturer very carefully.
You cannot allow yourself to become distracted by what else may

be going on around you, or by forming counter arguments that
you’ll make when the other person stops speaking. Nor can you
allow yourself to lose focus on what the other person is saying. All
of these barriers contribute to a lack of listening and understanding.
Barriers to Active Listening

External - e.g. distractions e.g. noise, time
Internal – e.g. boredom, emotions, motivation, stress
If you're finding it particularly difficult to concentrate on what the

lecturer is saying, try repeating their words mentally as they say it –
this will reinforce their message and help you control mind drift.
To enhance your listening skills, you need to let the other person
know that you are listening to what he or she is saying. To
understand the importance of this, ask yourself if you’ve ever been
engaged in a conversation when you wondered if the other person
was listening to what you were saying. You are unsure if your
message is getting across, or if it’s even worthwhile to continue
speaking. It feels like talking to a brick wall and it’s something you
want to avoid.
Strategies for Effective Listening

Focus attention on the subject.
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Do pre-reading or review of the subject.
Avoid distractions.
Maintain eye contact with speaker.
Be involved – respond to Q’s, ask Q’s,
Use non verbal signals to show interest.
Set aside prejudices and opinions.
Control your emotions.
Be active – listening is not passive
Ask yourself what key points are made?
How is the information organized?
How does this connect with what I already know?
Aim to be a better listener.
Becoming an Active Listener
There are five key elements of active listening. They all help you
ensure that you hear the other person, and that the other person
knows you are hearing what they are saying.
1. Pay attention.
Give the speaker your undivided attention and acknowledge the

message. Recognize that what is not said also speaks loudly.
Look at the speaker directly.
Put aside distracting thoughts. Don’t mentally prepare a rebuttal!
Avoid being distracted by environmental factors.
“Listen” to the speaker’s body language.
Refrain from side conversations when listening in a group setting.
2. Show that you are listening.
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Use your own body language and gestures to convey your

attention. Nod occasionally. Smile and use other facial expressions.
Note your posture and make sure it is open and inviting. Encourage
the speaker to continue with small verbal comments like yes and uh
huh.
3. Provide feedback.
Our personal filters, assumptions, judgments, and beliefs can

distort what we hear. As a listener, your role is to understand what
is being said. This may require you to reflect what is being said and
ask questions.
Reflect what has been said by paraphrasing. “What I’m hearing

is…” and “Sounds like you are saying…” are great ways to
reflect back.
Ask questions to clarify certain points. “What do you mean when

you say…” “Is this what you mean?” Summarize the speaker’s
comments periodically.
4. Defer judgment.
Interrupting is a waste of time. It frustrates the speaker and limits

full understanding of the message. Allow the speaker to finish.
Don’t interrupt with counter-arguments.
5. Respond Appropriately.
Active listening is a model for respect and understanding. You are

gaining information and perspective. You add nothing by attacking
the speaker or otherwise putting him or her down.
Be candid, open, and honest in your response. Assert your opinions

respectfully. Treat the other person as he or she would want to be
treated.
Take Note:
You have to concentrate and be determined to be an active listener.

Old habits are hard to break, and if your listening habits are as bad
as many people’s are, then there’s a lot of habit-breaking to do!
Be intentional with your listening and remind yourself constantly

that your goal is to really hear what the other person is saying. Put
aside all other thoughts and behaviours and concentrate on the
message. Ask question, reflect, and paraphrase to ensure you
23
understand the message. If you don’t, then you’ll find that what
someone says to you and what you hear can be remarkably
different!
Start using active listening today to become a better communicator

and improve your learning skills, study, workplace productivity
and relationships.
2. Learning Styles
We all don’t learn the same way. Understanding your preferred learning
style can help you study effectively by using techniques best suited to
your preferred style.
Which of these learning styles describes your learning process?
 Visual
 Auditory
 Kinaesthetic-related to movement and action
Do you process information better when it is presented in pictures,
diagrams, graphs?
Like handouts and take good notes and use mind maps and diagrams?
Memorise by visual association?
Read quickly and spell well, visualizing words?
Speak quickly?
Have good planning and organizational skills?
Forget verbal instructions and forget to relay?
You may:
Learn by listening
Talk to yourself
24
Be easily distracted by noise

Enjoy reading aloud
Be better at telling than writing
Be talkative and enjoy discussions
Spell out loud rather than write down
Be a good speaker.
You may:
Learn by hands on activities
Want to at things out
Speak slowly
Touch people to get attention
Not be able to sit still!
Use gestures
Like books with a strong story line
Use body actions as you read
Have untidy handwriting
Study Tips for Visual learners

 Write things down.
 Draw pictures, diagrams, graphs.
 Use planners or diaries.
 High light notes with colour.
 Read over and copy notes to revise
 Try to visualise ideas and facts.
Study Tips for Auditory learners

 Make use of sound.
 Talk things through as you learn them.
 Join a study group for discussions.
 Recite facts and important information.
25
 Listen carefully to lectures as you learn best by listening and

discussing.
Study Tips for Kinaesthetic learners

 Work through problems physically, you learn best by doing.
 Use activity time to mentally review what you have studied e.g.
while walking.
 Use models where possible.
 Take plenty of breaks.
 Explain you ideas to others.
Unit summary
In this unit you learned the techniques of effective listening, how to listen
effectively in a variety of situations for a diversity of purposes. You also
learnt how to: identify your preferred learning style and the learning
Summary techniques best suited to your preferred style. Lastly, you learnt how to
study effectively using techniques best suited to your preferred learning
style.
Assignment
Assignment
26
Assessment
Learning Styles Test
Do you want to get an indication of your learning style?
Assessment
Complete the following quiz by circling the responses which best

describe you. Results are a guide only to start you thinking about
your learning style. Scoring instructions are provided at the end of
this quiz.
1) When learning something new, you

a) Like to have the aid of diagrams, posters, or a
demonstration
b) Like to have verbal instructions
c) Just go for it and try it out!
2) When you are reading, you

d) Visualise in your mind the descriptive passages?
e) Enjoy the characters’ dialogue?
f) Sometimes read action stories, but would prefer not
to read?
3) When you are spelling, do you

g) Try to “see” the word?
h) Sound the word out before or as you spell it?
i) Write the word down to find out if it looks or “feels”
fight?
4) When concentrating on something
j) Are distracted by movement and untidiness around
you
k) Are distracted by noises in the area you’re working
in
l) Have difficulty sitting still for even short periods of
27
time
5) When problem solving, you
m) Write the problem down or draw diagrams to
visualise it
n) Talk to someone (or yourself) about it
o) Try and use concrete objects to find a solution
6) If you are putting something together, you

p) Follow the instructions and look at the pictures
q) Wish there was a video or tape explaining what to
do
r) Ignore the instructions and figure it out as you go!
7) When trying to recall names, do you remember
s) The person’s face but not their name?
t) The person’s name but not their face?
u) Clearly the situation in which you met them?
8) When giving directions to someone, you

v) Visualise the route first or draw a map
w) Give clear, concise instructions
x) Move your body and gesture as you give them
9) If you need help with a particular computer application,
would you
y) Look for pictures or diagrams to explain the
solution?
z) Ask someone for help or call a help desk?
aa) Persevere and try to figure it out yourself?
10) You can remember a list of items best if you
bb) Write them down
cc) Recite the list to yourself
dd) Use your fingers to count the items off
28
Scoring
Add the total number of responses for each letter (a, b, c) and
record each total:
a) __________ b) __________ c) __________
Many people may have more than one learning style so you may
find you have some responses in each category. The category with
the greatest number of responses may be your main learning style.
If the majority of your responses were for:
a) you are a visual learner

b) you are an auditory learner
c) you are a Kinaesthetic or tactile learner
Source: http://alaike.lcc.hawaii.edu
29
Unit 3
Note taking & Note making

Introduction
For your success in university studies you will need a number of
competences, among them the ability to know and use a multiplicity of
means and techniques to create and organize information and ideas. In
this unit you will acquire the skills of note taking and note making. These
skills will provide you with a stronger foundation for learning. Taking
notes during your study session is a form of active study. It helps you to
keep focused and also provides a record of what is said or of what you
have read. On the other hand note making is more of a passive activity
although equally useful.
 Take accurate notes and summarise information presented in oral

form.
 Use note taking skills for effective university study.
Outcomes  Explain why note-taking techniques are important in an academic
environment.
 Describe and apply note-taking techniques to accurately record
information from oral and /or written sources.
 To understand the difference between note-taking and note-making
 To recognise that there are different ways of taking effective notes.
Note-taking: Is when you are reading or hearing something for

the first time and you are trying to jot down the
key information so that you can use it later.
Terminology Note-making: When you return to those notes and make notes on
them. This means you annotate them; put things
into you own words or summarize them and
highlight key points.
Phrase: A brief expression, sometimes a single word, but

usually two or more words forming an expression
by themselves, or being a portion of a sentence; as,
an adverbial phrase.
31
Sentence: A word of group of words that express a complete

idea. As a rule, a sentence includes a subject and
verb. It begins with a capital letter and ends with
a period, question mark, or exclamation point.
Indent: To set the first line in from the margin of a

paragraph for example. The blank space between a
margin and the beginning of an indented line.
Paraphrasing: Rewriting somebody else’s ideas in your own

words while maintaining the original meaning.
Note-taking
Most of us as students see note-taking as an activity performed basically
in lecture. However, solid note-taking skills involve preparation and
reflection as well. The class notes you take can serve as an important tool
for reviewing for exams and extracting key concepts. In this unit
suggestions on ways to take good notes and use them well will made.
What is important is to develop a system that enables you to:
 Review regularly
 Recite (preparing key concepts from class)
 Reflect (connecting class ideas to other notes and readings)
Taking Lecture Notes

1. As a university student you will have many reasons for taking lecture
notes:
a) The act of taking notes obliges you to listen carefully and also tests
your understanding of the material.
b) The process of reviewing notes enables you to gauge what is
is important in the text.
c) Individual notes are usually easier to remember than text.
d) Your writing down of important points helps you to remember
them even before you have studied the material formally.
2. It is common for a lecturer to give clues to what is important

to take down. Some of the more frequent clues are:
32
a) Material written or projected on the white board

b) Repetition
c) Emphasis:
- Emphasis can be indicated by the tone of voice and
gesture.
- Emphasis can be identified by the amount of time the
lecturer spends on points and the number of examples he
or she uses.
d) Word signals for example; “There are two points of view on……..” ,
“The third reason is…………”, “In conclusion……….”
e) Summaries given at the end of lecture.
f) Reviews given at the beginning of lecture.
3. You should develop your own method of taking notes. However,

You may find the following suggestions helpful:
a) Make your notes brief.
1. Never use a sentence where you can use a phrase. Never use a
phrase where you can use a word.
2. Use abbreviations and symbols but ensure that you are consistent
in your use of your chosen abbreviations and symbols.
b) Ensure putting most notes in your own words. Nonetheless, the
following should be noted exactly:
1. Formulas
2. Definitions
3. Specific facts
c) Use an outline form and/or a numbering system. Indention
helps you with distinguishing major points from minor ones.
d) If you miss a statement, write down key words, skip a few
Spaces and get the information later.
e) Avoid using every space on the page so that you leave room for
coordinating notes with the text after the lecture. You may want
to list key terms in the margin or make a summary of the contents
of the page.
f) Date your notes. You may perhaps number the pages.
33
Note-making
Learning to make notes effectively will help you to remember important
information, improve your study and work habits. You and every other
students are more often than not mislead into believing that because you
understand everything that is said in a particular lecture you will therefore
remember it. Unfortunately, this is hardly the case. So please write it
down!
The advantage of making notes is that you will at the same time develop
the skill of selecting important material and abandoning unimportant
material. Practice is the key to developing this skill. You should
constantly check your result and make every effort to improve. Notes are
useful as they make it possible for you to hold on to important facts and
data and also enable you to develop an accurate way of arranging
necessary information.
Below are some hints on note-making:
1. Avoid writing down everything that you read or hear. Be

watchful and attentive so that you pick out the main points.
2. Ensure your notes consist of key words or very short sentences. If
a speaker deviates from the topic it is possible to go back and add
further information.
3. Make sure you take accurate notes. You should as a rule use your
own word but try not to change the meaning. If you quote
directly from an author, quote correctly.
4. Before you start making notes think a minute about your
material. Don’t take notes just for the sake of it. Take notes that
will be of real worth to you when you look over them afterwards.
5. Be certain to have a consistent system of punctuation and
abbreviation that will make sense to you. Use a framework
outline and show importance by indenting. Leave some space for
possible later additions.
6. Leave out descriptions and full explanations. Keep your notes
brief and to the point. Compact your material so that you can
grasp it quickly.
7. If you miss a point don’t let it bother you.
8. Make sure that you keep your notes neatly, in order and in one
place.
34
9. Soon after you have made your notes, go over them and revise
them by adding extra points and spelling out unclear items.
Remember, we forget rapidly. Plan and make time for this
important step just as you do for the class itself.
10. It is important that you review your notes regularly because this
is the only way to achieving lasting memory.
Note-making from written Text
As a university student it is crucial to develop effective note-making

skills so that you are certain of getting the most out of the time you spend
reading. The skill of good note-making will help you organise your ideas
and keep you focused on your reading. It will also help you to keep a
record of your reading and help you find information. There is nothing
more demanding than having to waste time searching for information that
you have in the past read and now need for an assignment.
Writing down notes on a particular reading in the margins and/or

highlighting important sections can assist you with better understanding
of a text to some length. However, as your reading requirements become
more extensive as it is expected, it is advisable that you spend time to
write effective notes that will save you the time as you walk down the
research/writing path.
Below is a suggested method of organising effective notes for
academic writing.
The following is what is called the split-page method of organising

effective notes for academic writing. This method may prove useful in
helping you to organise your notes and in assisting you to develop some
skills of note-making that are necessary for successful academic writing.
Bibliographic Details
Make it a point to note down all appropriate bibliographic details. These
may include the author’s surname and initial, the title of book/article, the
title of the journal, the publisher, the place of publication, the page
numbers of the article, where applicable internet site details including the
web address etc. you are also well advised to include the library call
number so that you can without difficulty find a particular text especially
when there is need to review parts of the text again.
35
Page Layout
Divide your page into three columns. Use column 1 to note down all your
notes based on the reading. This part of your page may include
paraphrased information from the original text; or direct quotes.
Ideally, a large part of your note-making ought to be paraphrasing or
summarising of the main ideas of the author(s). Use direct quotes
carefully in assignments and only in circumstances where they seem to be
the most suitable way of putting something across.
Column 2 will be used for the page number on which you have found a
particular piece of information. This is important for two reasons. To
begin with; when you are quoting directly you must acknowledge the
page number (s) on which to find information. Secondly, when you need
to clarify your notes you simply and quickly locate the information by
referring to the noted page numbers.
Use column 3 for your comments on the text. This is important for
effective note-making.
Your remarks or observations are important because this is where you
connect what you are reading to the different ideas that you are trying to
develop. You recognize similarities and differences with other authors
and identify where your knowledge needs further developing.
In this section you are:
 Encouraged to think critically about your text
 To question what the author is saying
 To examine the strengths and weaknesses of the author’s ideas
 To start making associations between the various authors that you
have read
 To consider where and how your ideas are positioned in the
research and how they may be authenticated or questioned.
Here is an outline for setting out and writing effective notes from a
reading:
Remember use a new page for each new reading
Bibliography
- Notes
- Page number
Comments on information
- Paraphrase notes
36
Summaries of important information

- Direct quotes
- Always include the page number
- How does this information relate to other texts that I
have read
- What important associations can be made to the
topic/other research?
- How is the information relevant? (if it isn’t related or
significant, should I be pursuing it at this time?)
- Does the author say anything new or particularly
interesting?
- Is there anything that I don’t understand that I need to
follow up?
- Is the author saying anything that I disagree with and
why do I disagree with it?
- Is the author saying anything that say the opposite to the
findings/opinions of the other authors?
- What conclusions can you make from the points being
made?
Unit summary
 In this unit you learned:
 Importance of note-taking and note-making skills which are necessary
for you as a university student wishing to pursue your studies
Summary efficiently, effectively and successfully throughout your chosen
programme.
 To describe and apply note-taking/note-making techniques so as to
accurately record information from oral and /or written sources
 To understand the difference between n note-taking and note-making.
 To recognise that there are different ways of taking effective notes
from an oral source or a written text.
37
Assignment
Assignment
Assessment
Assessment
38
ary
tion
Lastly summarizing will help you to see an overview of a total given topic by the end of it. Summary
is a useful tool when it comes to helping you retain information, giving you the material to base your
revision on or in guiding you to further reading. Your ability to summarizing will also help you to
concentrate on what is being said or read, and in your being active, rather than passive. If you are not
actively engaged you can be easily distracted.
 Use summary skills for effective and efficient university study.

 Apply summary methods suited to a particular subject or topic .
 Present main points or argument, of any given piece of work in your
comes own words.
 Explain the way books and other publications in the library are
organized.
 Choose books and publications in the library without difficulty.
Summary: A presentation of the main points or argument, of

any given piece of work in your own words.
Call Number: A number consisting of three parts: a classification

nology number, a cutter number or book number.
1
Summary skills and summary strategies are skills and approaches applied to learning. They are by and
large important to success in university and are regard as necessary for acquiring desired grades and
are useful for learning throughout one’s life, in support of career and personal interests.
A summary is a presentation of the main points or argument, of any particular piece of work in your
own words. You can summarize a newspaper article, a class lecture, a book etc. this may initially
sound demanding, however most of us summarize on a daily basis without a moments thought about
it. When we watch a movie (film) we like or a broadcast documentary that we then share with a friend
by telling them what happened at the beginning, middle and end, and go on to share our feelings about
what we saw…..we are summarizing. Therefore, we all have plenty of practice summarizing.
However, the challenge or task now is for us to apply this practice of summarizing that appears
somewhat natural to summarizing assignments in a lecture.
Summarizing an academic article or chapter is similar to summarizing that film or documentary you
saw and shared with a friend, the only difference being that you will now be sharing with your
lecturer. In your academic summary you will include the main thesis statement or argument made in
the article or chapter. Thereafter, you will include the main points that the author introduces which
support this statement or argument, and then you will give your opinion about whether this argument
was convincing to you and why it was, or why it was not convincing. A summary assignment should
be seen like an academic opportunity to describe what you understood and thought of a particular
reading.
You may ask, why summarize? Well, the advantages of summary assignments are that they allow you
to develop key skills namely; reading comprehension and writing clarity with precision which will be
useful when it comes to reading or writing for another course or on the job. Put otherwise, these are
skills you will need during your academic career.
In addition, summarizing gives you the chance to really think about what you have just read and the
information that you learned from it. The act of summarizing enables you to filter all of the detail in
reading down to its real meaning, picking out the most important points that you believe the author
wants you to remember.
How to Summarize
To start your summary, you first must read the article, book or chapter you have been assigned to
summarize. During your first reading, your main aim is to find out what the author is saying. Once you
have read for the first time, if time and length of the reading allows, read again as you at the same time
keep specific questions in mind. The following should be some of the questions you should ask
yourself and answer: 1) what is the author trying to say in this reading, 2) how has the author
supported their point and, 3) How successful, in my judgment has the author been in making this
point?
The technique of asking yourself what the author is trying to say in the reading leads you to
discovering what the thesis statement/argument is in the reading you intend to summarize. Knowing
the author’s thesis statement or argument is part of what you should add to your written summary. The
thesis statement/argument is generally found at the beginning or end of the first paragraph of a shorter
reading, but mind you it can appear almost anywhere in some readings. Ideally, in an academic
reading the thesis statement/argument is the main point the author is trying to make and it is this
statement that the writer will dwell on for the rest of the paper/chapter/book trying to prove to the
reader.
2
In asking yourself how the author supported their point you begin to pick out the ideas the author
draws on to support their thesis statement/argument. By asking this question you give yourself the
opportunity to neat a story, or narrative, of the way the author props up their point. For example you
may decide that in a communications studies reading you are about to summarize that the author’s
thesis statement, in your own words, is: “There are cultural differences in Non-verbal
Communication” You may then decide that the author supports this argument by giving example of
the noted cultural differences in the interpretation of the following actions:
-Bowing (not done, criticized, or affected in US: shows rank in Japan)
-Hands in pocket (disrespectful in Zambia and Turkey)
-Sitting with legs crossed (offensive in Ghana, Turkey)
-Arabic cultures make prolonged eye-contact-----believe it shows interest and helps them understand
truthfulness of the other person. (a person who doesn’t reciprocate is seen as untrustworthy)
-Japan, Africa, Latin American, Caribbean….. avoid eye contact to show respect.
-Pointing: US, Zambia with index finger; Germany with little finger; Japanese with entire hand (most
Asians consider pointing with index finger to be rude)
However, a statement or argument supported with information does not necessarily imply that it
should be accepted without thought. This is why you should ask your self “How successful in my
opinion, has the author been in making this point?” Answering the question will allow you to state
how much you agree or disagree with the author’s argument and your reason for your opinion. This
final step is important in any summary and should therefore not be left out as it will give you the
opportunity to scrutinize your own ideas about the subject presented in the reading and will also allow
you to think of other ways that the particular subject might have been discussed. Nevertheless, giving
your own studied opinion regarding the argument does not mean you should dismiss the reading
because you dislike what it says or how it is being said. To a certain extent you are expected to
acknowledge what the author writes as possible also including your own ideas in relation to the subject
being presented.
Summary Check list
-Read the article, chapter or book twice

-After reading, note down the answers to the following questions:
 What is the author’s purpose for writing this?
 Has the author satisfied that purpose?
-Read all chapter summaries and assess yourself with chapter questions.
-Write your own summaries and questions.
-Write down unfamiliar words and define them from the reading or in a
dictionary.
-Create a double-entry scholarly diary while you read.
-Write down your reactions to a reading while you read. Ask yourself:
 Do I agree with this? Do I disagree?
3
 Does this make me feel (angry, sad, surprised, happy, etc)?
 What don’t I understand? What do I understand?
 Does this bring to mind something that happened to me or someone I know?
-Lastly, write down the questions you have during a reading and ask your
lecturer (where possible) to help you answer them.
e Library and Information Resources

This unit will help you to:
-Find your way round the library and its facilities
-Locate the text or books you need
-Do some basic research.
In the course of your studies you will probably become a frequent visitor to the library. Being able to
find your way around the library is an important and useful skill to acquire. By and large, at least one
course you take will require you to use library materials in an assignment. Therefore it is of the
essence that you learn how to use the library in the most competent and useful way possible. The
library is a rich source of information. Your ability to use it effectively, knowing the general layout
and understanding how to get access to the information that you want cannot be over emphasized.
Finding Your Way Round the Library and its Facilities.

The library offers many information sources than just simply books. In addition to the many books
you will also find the following available:
 Journals, Magazines- these sources have original and review articles. Filed alphabetically by
title, current issues are on display, back issues underneath. Back copies may be borrowed for
period of one week. You may ask library staff for a full alphabetical listing.
 Study space- you will find quiet study space facilities within the library.
4
 Staff support-library staff is there to support you in all aspects of your work.
 Reference Resources-an extensive range of reference books including encyclopedias, year
books, subject dictionaries etc are available.
 Online Resources-we now live in the age of information technology therefore you will also
have access to a number of online data bases covering many useful resources to support your
university work.
Learning How to use the Library

The following you need to k now about the library:
 Library Layout- it is important to find out where resources are located, i.e. the main lending
and reference stock, journals, special collection, etc.
 Using the services- ensure that you are a member of the library before you can use the
facilities. Ask the library staff at the library counter for membership forms. You may also find
out about the photocopying, how to borrow items, loan periods, and overdue policies etc.
The Organization of the Library
Generally, the organization of the library regardless of size is the same. Libraries, as earlier mentioned
contain books, newspapers, journals, etc which are all classified into two groups:
 The first group is made up of books which can be borrowed by members of that particular
library. Books belonging to this group can be borrowed and can be taken out of the library and
only returned after a pre determined period.
 The second group is made up of books that are for reference purposes within the library i.e.
books that can only be used for reference and cannot be taken out of the library. In this group
you will find encyclopedias, year books, dictionaries, bibliographies, handbooks.
Books in the library are classified using either the Dewey Decimal System of Classification or the
American Congress System. Generally, older materials in the library system are classified with Dewey
Numbers while newer materials (post-1970s) are classed using the Library of Congress Call Numbers.
The Dewey Decimal System of classification is an arrangement that breaks subjects down by
numbers and assigns numbers to subjects. It uses 10 broad classes of subjects for the main branches of
knowledge, e.g.
000-099: General Works
100-199: Philosophy
200-299: Religion
300-399: Social Sciences
400-499: Language
500-599: Pure Science
600-699: Technology
700-799: Arts and recreation
800-899: Literature
5
900-999: History and Geography
The above main classes are each further broken down into secondary classes. For example; the main
class of Literature (800) is broken down into:
810: American literature in English
820: English and Old English literatures
830: German and related literatures
840: French and related literatures
850: Italian, Romanian and related literatures
860: Spanish and Portuguese literatures
870: Latin and Italic literatures
880: Classical and modern Greek literatures
890: Other literatures
Tips for finding books using Dewey Decimal System:
 The number before the decimal point is always treated as a whole number.
 The numbers following the decimal point are treated as decimals.
 If another letter appears after the decimal number, it is also arranged first by letter and then by
decimal number.
The following books are in the correct order.
813.04 813.04 813.13 813.13

O38 O4 I32 B35
The American Library of Congress System of classification is a system used by most research
and academic libraries in the United States and many other countries. This system divides subjects into
broad classes using letters of the alphabet and divides the various fields of knowledge into twenty
categories as follows:
A: General Works B: Philosophy, Psychology and Religion
C: Auxiliary Sciences of History D: General and Old World History
The system also uses Arabic numerals to subdivide the fields into other divisions and subdivisions.
How to read Library of Congress Call Numbers
The Library of Congress system uses letters and/or numbers referred to as call numbers, to arrange
the books so that books on the same topic are grouped together.
Library of Congress call numbers are made up of three parts.
6
DS
First two lines
559.45
.H35
Third line
1986
Last line
The above is the call number for a book titled: Uncensored War: The Media and Vietnam
Author: Daniel C. Hallin
Call Number: DS559.46 .H35 1986
The first two lines describe the subject of the book. DS559.45=Vietnamese Conflict
The third line represents the author’s last name. H=Hallin
The last line represents the date of publication.
Read call numbers line by line. The label on the spine of the book gives the information regarding the
book’s classification.
Available online at www.hcc.hawaii.edu
7
Call numbers can begin with one or two, (or sometimes three) letters
[Add topic text here]
Sample call number QE534.2.B64.

The first letter represents one of the 21 major divisions of the LC System. In the example, the subject
"Q" is Science.
The second letter "E" represents a subdivision of the sciences, Geology. All books in the QE's are
primarily about Geology.
For most of the subject areas, the single letter represents books of a general nature for that subject area
(i.e. Q - General Science or D - General World History)
Numbers after letters.
The first set of numbers relates to a book's subject.
"534.2" in the example tells us more about the subject. The range QE 500-625 are books about
"Dynamic and Structural Geology."
Books with numbers QE534.2 are "Earthquakes, Seismology - General Works - 1970 to Present"
One of the most frequently used numbers in call numbers is "1“, often used for general periodicals in a
given subject area.
For example, Q1.S3 is the call number for the journal Science.
Cutter Number
The cutter number is a code for the author or organization's name or the title of the work (also known
as the "Main Entry" in library-language).
Charles Cutter first developed cutter numbers using a two-number table.
A three-number table was developed in 1969.
In our above example, QE534.2.B64, the B64 is taken from the two-number table and represents the
author's last name, Bruce A. Bolt.
The book is Earthquakes.
Shelving and Locating
8
Items are shelved by call numbers - in both alphabetical and numerical order. The letters at the
beginning of the call number are alphabetical. The numbers immediately following are in basic
numerical order.

Dates, volume and issue numbers, copy numbers, and other annotations are like an additional cutter
number but are shelved in alphabetical order.
Read call numbers line by line.

LB
Read the first line in alphabetical order.
A, B, BF, C, D…L, LA, LB, LC, M, ML….
2395
Read the second line as a whole number:
1, 2, 3, 45,100, 101, 1000, 2000, 2430…
.C65
The third line is a combination of a letter and numbers. Read the letter alphabetically. Read the
number as a decimal, for example; .C65= .65 .C724=.724
1990
The last line is the year the book was published. Read in chronological order: 1985, 1991, 1992……
See above illustration
Finding Books and Other Publications in the Library
9
Regardless of which system the library uses, be it the Dewey or the American Congress Classification;
you can find information on books and other source materials by using catalogues found in the
library.
You will find the following four types of catalogues:

1. Index of Subject Headings:
The cards for the catalogue are arranged according to the subject titles. For example;
Communication will be found under C; Finance under F and so on…..
Within each section books are arranged alphabetically according to authors. Other details
provided as well are publisher and date of publication.
2. Author Catalogue
Here you will find each book listed according to the author.
3. Title Catalogue
The title catalogue is usually incorporate included in the author catalogue. In this case, the
arrangement of book is by the first letter in the title. The information provided on the card is
the same as that provided on the author catalogue.
4. Index Books and CD ROM

Index books are books that contain information on published articles in each year. They also
point to journals where the articles were published and when.
CD ROM is short for Compact Disc-Read-Only Memory. It is a type of optical disk capable
of storing large amounts of data—up to 1GB. In the library it is used for storing information
on all published articles. A CD ROM will provide you with information on published articles
by subject areas and by authors.
10
mmary
In this unit you learned the various ways information can be located in
the library. You have also learned about the Dewey Decimal system and
the American Congress Library system of classification.
mmary
ment
gnment
sment
ssment
sentation Skills
A major aspect of university assessment is the oral presentation or seminar. This may be prepared in a
group or individually. The time frame is usually between 5 – 20 minutes depending on the task.
11
 Demonstrate an understanding of how to effectively present

information, either individual or as a group, to an audience using oral
communication skills;
comes  Describe the strategies which can be used to prepare, structure and
deliver an oral presentation;
 Demonstrate an understanding of how graphic communication, such
as tables, charts and graphs, can be used to add impact in oral and/or
written presentations;
 Explain how visual aids can be used to enhance, add interest and assist
understanding in oral presentations;
 Use suitable visual aids such as power point, whiteboards, overhead
projectors, handouts, posters etc, to deliver an oral presentation;.
 Describe the strategies which can be used to cope with nerves during
oral presentations;
 Apply effective oral communication skills to deliver a short individual
presentation and longer group presentation on a nominated topic.
nology
Oral Presentations
10 steps to success
When making an oral presentation in class, you must know your subject well and convince your
audience that they have something to gain from listening to you. Here are some things you can do to
make an effective oral presentation.
1. Analyse your purpose. Is it to?
Inform
Persuade
12
Inspire or motivate
Entertain
Or is it a combination e.g. to inform and entertain?
2. Analyse your audience by asking yourself the following questions:

Who will be listening?
What do they already know about your topic?
What is their age group and background?
You will need to adjust your language, content and
method of delivery to suit your audience.
3. Analyse and brainstorm your topic

Try to select a topic you are interested in
or know something about.
Look for key words in the topic.
Complete this sentence to check your understanding
“My presentation has to discuss………”
Ask your lecturer if you don’t understand your topic.
4. Prepare an outline.
a) Introduction
b) Body: Argument/Point 1 – explain, support
Argument/Point 2 – explain, support
Argument/Point 3 – explain, support
etc.
c) Conclusion
5. Research your topic. Your time limit will determine
how much information you need. Do you need to
define any words in the topic? Do you need to do any
13
primary research? E.g. a questionnaire, survey, case
study?
What secondary sources will you use? Books,
databases?
Start your research early!!!
6. Organise your material

Gather your notes and compare with your outline.
Do you have enough information for each point or
section of your presentation?
Write out your notes under the outline headings.
7. Prepare a draft of your presentation from this.
8. Summarise your draft into points

You cannot read your presentation.
Put your main points and examples/evidence on to
palm cards in the order you will discuss Number your
cards.
Do not try to memorise all of the presentation.
9. Plan and prepare your visual aids.

Do you need charts or posters? Such as maps,
Diagrams, tables, graphs and objects that relate to your
topic? Will you provide handouts at the end of your
presentation?
10. Rehearse your presentation

Time the presentation, it is common for
students to talk more quickly.
Practise in front of an audience.
Check the venue and the equipment to be
used.
Practise! Practise! Practise!
14
Oral Presentations- Structure:
Introduction
1. Get your listeners’ attention:
Begin with:-
 a question
 a story or anecdote (often from personal experience)
 a startling comment
 a relevant quotation from a famous person
GET THE AUDIENCE INTERESTED!
2. State your purpose; for example:

‘I’m going to talk about...’
‘This morning I want to explain…’
3. Provide a preview of your talk; for example:

‘I will focus on the following points: Firstly… …Then…
This will lead to… And finally…’
The Body
Present your main points one by one in logical order. E.g. make your point, explain, illustrate.
Provide signposts when you move to your next argument. For example:
‘Another important point is ...’
Use clear examples to illustrate your points.
Use visual aids to make your presentation more interesting.
Conclusion
Summarize the main points again, e.g. “To sum up…” or “In conclusion…”
Provide a signal that you are concluding your presentation
End with a strong point as this is the last thing your audience will hear.
Thank the audience, and invite questions:
‘Thank you. Are there any questions?’
Delivery
Talk to your audience.
Do not read your notes word for word.
Maintain eye contact with your audience.
15
Emphasize your main points.
Use hand and facial gestures to aid meaning.
Your voice
Project your voice
Speak slowly and clearly.
Nervousness causes speakers to speed up.
Practise the pronunciation of key words.
Vary your voice volume and pitch to add interest.
Slow down for key points.
Use pauses—don't be afraid of stopping briefly to gather your thoughts.
Avoid distracting voice mannerisms e.g. um, ah, ok.
Physical Presence
Stand up straight and naturally. Avoid too much moving around.
Make eye-contact with members of the audience, not just the lecturer.
Don't turn your back on the audience! If you need to read from the slides, turn side on.
Avoid distracting mannerisms e.g. playing with your hair, touching your face etc.
Question Time
Questions are a positive indication that your audience has been listening. Encourage them!
Repeat questions asked so everyone knows the question
If you don’t know the answer, be honest, admit it.
Ask if other members of the audience know the answer. Offer to find out the answer.
Be prepared if no questions are asked.
What can you do?
Visual Aids
Visual aids enhance your presentation. They add interest and assist understanding.
Consider:
Power point presentations,
Charts, posters, tables, graphs
Using the whiteboard
Objects that can illustrate your points.
16
Slides
Use a plain typeface, and a minimum of size 18 font
Use only a few points on each overhead
Avoid too much detail and crowding
Make sure your audience can see the screen
Using colour, pictures and graphs can make your slides more interesting
Keep it simple for success. The KISS principle applies
Power point
Remember that PowerPoint may look great, but if the technology goes wrong you may be very
embarrassed. It's a good idea to print out a handout, or have some overheads as a backup just in
case.
Sometimes students are tempted to spend more time on producing PowerPoint graphics than on
the actual talk. Remember—if your talk is poor, no amount of fancy graphics will save it!
Coping with nervousness

It is normal to feel nervous.
Once you begin, you will find you will relax more
The audience realizes you are in a stressful
situation and empathises with you.
Smile and take a deep breath!
Practise giving your talk and be prepared
Be organised. If you are well organised, your
presentation will run smoothly. Slow down! When
people are nervous, they tend to speak quickly. Use
pauses to gather your thoughts if necessary
Don’t apologise if you have left something out or
make a mistake. The audience probably hasn’t even
noticed!
Tips for Group Presentations

Allocate sections of the presentation between group
17
members so there is a balance between the
contribution of all members. Make use of the skills of
each member where possible.
Try to vary your method of presentation so it is more
interactive.
Consider adding interest to your presentation by

 sharing a variety of visual aids
 doing role plays if appropriate
 conducting interviews if appropriate
 involving other members of the team by asking them questions
 changing the order of each member when you present
 making use of other group members while you deliver your part.
In your introduction, introduce your group and your group members by name and state the role each
group member will play in your presentation.
As you complete your section introduce the next speaker.
As you begin your section thank the previous member for introducing you.
mmary
In this unit you learned how to effectively present information orally
either individually or as a group; how to use visual aids to enhance, add
interest and assist understanding in oral presentation. In addition, you
mmary have also learned the use of strategies which help cope with nerves during
oral presentation. Lastly, you now know how to apply effective oral
communication skills to deliver a short individual presentation and longer
group presentations on any given topic.
18
ment
gnment
sment
ssment
Additional Reference:
Dwyer, J (2002) Communication in Business – 2nd
19
Contents
About this Module 1
How this Module is structured ...................................................................................... 1
Course overview 3
Welcome to Communication and Study Skills II: Academic Writing ....................... 3
Communication and Study Skills II: Academic Writing __ is this course for you? 3
Course outcomes: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..3
Timeframe: ...................................................................................................................... 4
Study skills ....................................................................................................................... 4
Need help? ....................................................................................................................... 5
Assignments ..................................................................................................................... 6
Assessments ..................................................................................................................... 6
Getting around this MODULE 7

Margin icons .................................................................................................................... 7
Unit 1 9
Reading for Required Information
Introduction 9
Topic one: Locating sources of information ................................................... 10

Topic two: Efficient reading .............................................................................. 15
Unit summary ................................................................................................................ 15
Assignment .................................................................................................................... 15
Assessment ..................................................................................................................... 16
Unit 2 19
The Paragraph ...................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 19
Topic one: Methods of paragraph development ...Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic two: Achieving cohesion and coherence .....Error! Bookmark not defined.
Unit summary ................................................................................................................ 26
Assignment .................................................................................................................... 26
Assessment ..................................................................................................................... 27
Unit 3 31
The Essay ............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Introduction
Topic one: Features of an essay......................................................................... 31
Topic two: Writing the essay. .................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Unit summary ................................................................................................................ 37
Assignment .................................................................................................................... 38
Assessment ..................................................................................................................... 38
Unit 4 1
Citations, Style and Orthographic conventions ..............Error! Bookmark not defined.
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
Topic one: Writing Citations ..................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Topic two: Style and Orthographic conventions ..Error! Bookmark not defined.
Unit summary .................................................................................................................. 8
Assignment .................................................................................................................... 11
Assessment ..................................................................................................................... 11
About this MODULE

Communication and Study Skills: Academic Writing has been produced
by the Institute of Distance Education. All Modules produced by the
Institute of Distance Education are structured in the same way, as
outlined below.
How this Module is structured

The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
 Where to get help.
 Course assignments and assessments.
 Activity icons.
 Units.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.
The course content

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
 An introduction to the unit content.
 Unit outcomes.
 New terminology.
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
 A unit summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
Resources
1
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of this Module: these may be
books, articles or web sites.
Your comments
After completing COMMUNICATION AND STUDY SKILLS:
Academic Writing, we would appreciate it if you would take a few
moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this course. Your
feedback might include comments on:
 Course content and structure.
 Course reading materials and resources.
 Course assignments.
 Course assessments.
 Course duration.
 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this
course.
2
Course overview
Welcome to Communication and

Study Skills II: Academic Writing
For your writing to be acceptable in academia, it must follow the
conventions of academic writing. Some of these requirements are that
your work should: have a clear structure, be unified, and be logically
presented with fully developed ideas, which should be expressed in
flawless language presented in acceptable style. In addition, the ideas
which you present in this type of writing should be well supported by the
findings of other scholars in the field; and these should be properly
acknowledged.
The purpose of this module, therefore, is to take you through the features
and conventions of academic writing so as to help you reach the
acceptable levels of performance and competence in your studies.
Communication and Study Skills:

Academic Writing—is this course
for you?
This course is intended for First year (add the word ‘the’ between for
& first and the word ‘first’ should start with a small letter f ) degree
students who are in their Second Semester to ground them in academic
writing.
Pre-requisite: Communication and Study Skills I.
Course outcomes
3
 Read efficiently for required information.

 Produce an acceptable academic essay
 Use appropriate language in an academic essay
Outcomes
 Use correctly, a variety of punctuation marks.
Timeframe
You are expected to take six (6) months to complete this module.
You require at least four(4) hours formal study time per week in order to
successfully complete this module.
How long? It is recommended that you spend at least three hours of self-study per
week.
Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-
study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
 http://www.how-to-study.com/
4
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.

You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.
 http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).
 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar.
Need help?
Your lecturer’s name for this module is Mrs Estella Mulenda – Chali M.
at Mulungushi University, Main Campus; Great North Road, P.O. Box
Help 80415, Kabwe.
Phone Number: 0977 689630
E-mail: estella_mulenda@yahoo.com
If you face any problems related to your studies, you should contact your
Academic Advisors.
5
Assignments
There is one assignment in this module.
The assignment should be submitted to:
The Director
Assignments Institute of Distance Education

Mulungushi University, Town Campus
P.O. Box 80415
KABWE
Assessments
There are four activities for self-assessments in this module, one at the
end of each unit. You do not need to submit them for marking.
However, take them seriously as they are meant for practicing the skills
Assessments taught in each unit.
However, there is one assignment attached to this module at the end. Pull
it out and submit it before the due date indicated at the end of the
assignment.
This assignment and the other one which you will submit in module IV
will constitute your 40 per cent Continuous Assessment.
6
Getting around this module 1
Margin icons
While working through this module 1 you will notice the frequent use of
margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a
new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this module 1.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize
yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Assessment Assignment Case study
Discussion Group activity Help Note it!
Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills
Summary Terminology Time Tip
7
Unit 1
Reading for Required

Information
Introduction
Academic writing is preceded by reading for the information
required to address a specific topic or assignment. Reading is
itself the process of recognizing and understanding the
meanings of written or printed words in order to arrive at the
author’s message. It is the visual means of acquiring and
retaining information. This unit will help you to develop
skills in locating sources of information and in reading
efficiently.
 Locate appropriate information sources for your required reading.

 Read efficiently for required information.
Outcomes
Skimming: Reading quickly through a text in order to get its

overview.
Scanning: Reading quickly through a text while skipping

Terminology some text, in order to locate specific information.
Adding extra rows to the
Table graphicRemoving
rows from the table graphic
9
Topic one: Locating Sources of Information
To read for particular information, you need to locate sources of

information from which you can select the particular information, which
you require to support your thesis. These include: primary and secondary
sources.
Primary sources of information are actual thoughts, findings, and

words/ideas from the actual or original source such as interviews, diaries
and technical reports. Secondary sources of information, on the other
hand, are commentary or critique on other’s ideas written by someone
else. Examples include articles, books, doctoral dissertations etc.
Begin with the major works. Major works on a topic are those in which a
subject or a topic has been discussed extensively. For example, a whole
text or a chapter can be dedicated to a subject or a topic. Major works on
your course have been listed in the course outlines. However, you are
advised to search for extra information from other sources where
possible.
Concentrate on more recent publications because they will present

updated information. Although an author of a recent publication will
present new information on a subject, it will just be an additional piece to
what is already known about it. Therefore, in most cases, they will first
outline what is already known about a subject before presenting new
information. This means that it is not always necessary to locate earlier
publications unless you are dealing with historical aspects of a subject.
Use credible sources. Publishing companies differ in terms of

orientation. For this reason, you are advised to concentrate on
educational sources because their interests, aims and emphasis are most
suited to such academic requirements as accuracy of information,
formality of language etc. Examples of credible publisher include the
university press. As a matter of fact, the university library should be your
major source as the collection there in is carefully selected from credible
publishers
You can also use the internet as your source of information. The internet
is an enormous network connecting computers at tens of thousands of
educational, scientific, government and commercial agencies around the
world. Websites can be checked for relevance and credibility from the
following clues in their endings:
 .com is an abbreviation for commercial
 .edu ends the address of educational institutions
10
 .org for nonprofit organizations

 .gov for government agencies
 .net for internet service providers
To find articles on your topic, use online sources. The common ones
include:
 The electronic library where you will find magazines and

newspaper articles, book chapters, television and radio
transcriptions. The address for this is
www.elibrary.com
 Search engines. A search engine is a tool that combs
through the vast amount of information on the web for
sites or articles that match your research needs.
 Type in a word or phrase that tells the engine what to
look for.
 It then provides you with a list of ‘hints’ or links to
websites where your key word is found.
 It also provides a brief description of each site.
You can then select the most likely sites to read the
material provided.
 Yahoo! This is a web whose address is www.yahoo.com
 It is a search directory for it organizes websites
by categories and this helps you to discover a
narrowed topic you may want to research.
You may also use a search directory ‘My Virtual
Reference Desk’
www.refdesk
Having located appropriate study material from the right source, you are
ready for the actual reading. However, studying requires that you read
efficiently. So, the next section highlights the basics of this manner of
reading.
Topic two: Efficient Reading
The Need to Read Extensively and Intensively
11
Given that knowledge on any subject matter is dynamic and

infinite, you must admit that it is not a preserve of one individual
or a group of individuals. Various people continue researching
for new insights on various issues in order to explain, examine,
and verify etc., the existing knowledge which is needed to solve
particular problems in the lives of people. Any new conclusion
recorded on any issue adds to the existing repertoire of
knowledge. In addition, new knowledge is generated through
discoveries, inventions, innovations etc. Fortunately, the
conclusions from the findings resulting from these and other
similar activities are shared with the public through various types
of publications including text books and professional journals.
You are therefore expected to do a great deal of reading to gain

knowledge from the wealth of information that has been
generated on particular subjects and topics. This is what will
make you an expert in your chosen field of study. In addition to
the reading lists which you have received in the course outlines,
and which you are required to read intensively, you are also
expected to read other relevant materials in order to widen your
scope of understanding. However, in order for you to make
optimum use of study materials, you need to read efficiently.
What is Efficient Reading?
Efficient reading is the ability to read for required understanding

at acceptable speed. You achieve efficiency in reading when you
adapt the manner of reading to the nature of the material you are
reading and the purpose for which you are reading.
The Purpose for Reading.

It should read The Purpose of Reading
Your purpose for reading determines your manner of reading.

For academic writing, the purpose for reading is studying. This
is reading to gain knowledge and to then demonstrate how well
the knowledge has been mastered. Studying often entails
analyzing and assimilating complex material and this requires a
high level of concentration. When you are reading for studying,
you are engaged in intensive reading. This is different from
reading for enjoyment or for general information [extensive
reading], in which the level of concentration is not much because
the reader mainly wants to follow the main stages in a text to get
to the conclusion.
Efficient Reading Requires Speed.
You need to read at a high speed in order to cope with the
amount of reading you are required to do as a university
student. Many scholars have found that there is a direct link
12
between one’s reading speed and the expected level of

understanding. Often the faster you read, the higher your
level of understanding. This is so because fast readers
quickly discover the central or controlling idea about the
topic they are reading and are then able to explore the details
that help build up this ideas. Fast readers can be liked to
navigators who upon being attracted to a roof- like structure
as they pass through a jungle, quickly try to establish whether
the structure they have seen is a hut or an ant-hill. After
establishing that it is a hut, they then get closer to get the
details of the hut – its structure, the materials used to build
the walls, floors etc.
Speed is therefore crucial to efficient reading and as a

university student; you should aim at reaching the reading
speed of 600 words per minute. Reading speed is calculated
by dividing the total number of words you read by the actual
minutes it takes you to read them. If your reading speed is
below 300 words per minute, you should seriously consider
improving it by getting rid of possible impediments.
Hindrances to Efficient Reading
The habits which affect reading speed and consequently

contribute to low comprehension levels include faults in both
the mental and the mechanical reading processes as explained
below.
i. Faults in the mental process
Reading is a mental process in which the words which are

used to present ideas or information are presented in a linear
order. (It needs to be explained) Therefore, you need to
read and understand this linear string of words.
The most common faults in this process are:
 Failure to adapt the reading procedure to appropriate
linguistic level of the text and the purpose for reading.
(Use skimming and scanning skills to get around this
problem).
 Failure to relate reading content to previous experience.
The inability to use your own experience and knowledge
to evaluate the content of what is being read as you read
makes it difficult to decide which parts of a text can be
skimmed quickly because it is familiar and which ones
require close attention because it is new. Without this, it
becomes difficult for a reader to make sense of the text.
13
You can overcome this by recollecting what you know

about the topic at hand before embarking on reading.
This will help you to relate new information to
information you already know.
ii. Faults in the mechanical process
As well as being a mental process, reading is a mechanical

process in which we see words in groups upon which eyes
fix. The fewer the fixations you make per line of print, the
faster you will read. On the average you should make two to
three fixations per line of print. When you are skimming a
page, one to two fixationS (Add s for plural) per line is
recommended. Hindrances to making fewer fixations per
line of print include the following:
 Pointing at words as you read regardless of what you
are using to lead your eyes to the word (e.g. fingers,
pencil, ruler etc.}, is a bad habit which prevents
reading in meaningful units as you are forcing a
fixation per word. It means that if a line of print has
ten words, you will make ten fixations to read it!
This seriously hinders understanding and causes slow
reading.
 Vocalizing, which involves saying the words aloud to
yourself, especially unfamiliar words, as you read,
slows down reading too. Unfamiliar words are best
related to context for meaning.
 Sub-vocalizing includes saying words under your
breath or making tongue and larynx movements as
you read. Like vocalizing, this habit also slows
down reading.
 Reading each line of print word for word is slow and
unhelpful for understanding the meaning of a
passage. Rather, read in phrases.
The key to overcoming these faults is to practice good

reading habits and to aim at an understanding of the text
to the extent that suits your purpose.
Strategies for Efficient Reading

You are advised to use the following strategies in addition to all the
other ones you know, in order to read efficiently.
Understand the way the material is organized in a text book
14
A text book is structured for easy comprehension and therefore

contains the following reading aid for locating required
information quicky:
 A table of contents offers you a quick overview of the
book.
 The preface or introduction states the author’s purpose
for writing the book and may give suggestions for using
it.
 The index lists all the topics covered in a book in
alphabetical order thereby making it possible to locate
information quickly. (Replace the word with Quickie)
 A glossary gives alphabetical list of all the specialized
terms used in the book and defines them. Therefore, this
aid can be used for quick definitions.
 An appendix acts as a reference source and included
charts, lists, documents, maps etc.
 A bibliography lists books and articles that the author has
used or referred to in writing the book. This can be used
for follow-up study or research projects.
Understand the way the ideas or concepts are developed.
You need to have a general understanding of the techniques

authors us to develop ideas. This will help you to understand
what you read and to recognize how ideas are organized and
developed. In fact, you will be required to apply these same
techniques in your own writing. Below are some of these
techniques. They are applied at a stage where the author is
explaining the main point of each paragraph which is expressed
in a topic sentence.
 Definition
A definition is included in the topic sentence if the author
feels that the reader may not understand the meaning of a
particular word used in the sentence. In this case, the
specific word under consideration is immediately
followed by the definition which is placed between the
commas.
Notice how this is done in the following example:
It is difficult for a lecturer to mark the students’ work

quickly because it takes a lot of time to decipher,
make sense of, their handwriting.
The part in italics is the definition.
15
If on the other hand the reader understands the meaning

of decipher, it can be eliminated (skipped) without
changing the meaning of the sentence.
Another way of presenting definitions is to use a

defining relative close.
Example: The scientist who discovered mercury has

been honourned.
Note that the defining relative clause (in italics) is not

separated by commas because it is essential to the full
identification of which scientist is being referred to.
 Repetition
Repetition is used to clarify and stress the idea the author

is trying to convey. When the idea is first stated, it is
followed immediately by a repetition or a rephrase in the
next sentence using such phrases as ’in other words’ or
‘that is to say’ (i.e.) or an explicit repeat of the word(s)
used in the earlier sentence.
Example:
The purpose of examinations is to assess students’
performance in specific subjects. The aim of
examinations is to help the instructor to assess the
student’s level of understanding in a particular
subject.
Here, sentence (2) repeats the idea of the

preceding sentence and can be eliminated without
altering the meaning of sentence (a). (These are
usually the parts which you would eliminate if you
were writing a summary of a text).
 Examples and illustrations
These are used to clarify and expand a point. They are

repetitive and can therefore be eliminated without changing
the meaning.
Example: Garbage should be disposed of in recommended
places. (For example) Municipal garbage dumping cites are
suitable for most refuse.
 Justification
16
Supporting reasons or justifying statements are often used to

develop an idea. They often convey essential information and
should therefore not be eliminated. However, they could be
eliminated if the reason conveyed is easily understood from the
preceding sentence.
Follow an appropriate reading system
Ensure that your reading is done systematically. There are a
number of reading systems suggested by many scholars. One
such system is the SQ3R, which was first developed by Professor
Francis Robinson in 1941(Ferret 2000). It is explained as
follows:
 S stands for survey. You first survey the material by
skimming it before reading it. This helps you to
determine the relevance of the material and also to
become familiar with the special features in each chapter.
 Q stands for question. Locate the main points of the text
and ask questions regarding its contribution to the
general theme and its accuracy.
 The first R stands for read. You are then required to read
the material section by section or part by part in order to
find the answers to your questions.
 The second R stands for recite. After reading,
summarize the main ideas and the key points in your own
words. Make sure that your summary answers your
questions.
 The third R stands for review. Review the material
carefully ensuring that you can recall your original
questions and answers. If you cannot recall what you
have read, go back and re-read the relevant section. In
addition to your own questions, also review questions at
the end of a chapter if they have been included.
Other scholars recommend a fourth R which stands for record.

This is the phase before review and requires that you take notes
of main points. Many other reading systems are variations of
Professor Robinson’s suggested reading system.
Take notes as you read
Study reading requires that you remember and apply what you
are reading later. For this reason, you are expected to take notes
from what you are reading.
 Use a new card for notes for each source (e.g. book,
journal) you get information from. On this card, record
details of publications and all direct quotations you get
from it with their page numbers. You will use these to
support your ideas.
17
 Separately record your thoughts about what you are

reading.
 Paraphrase the text where necessary.
 Form an outline of what you are reading or use a mind
map. This will show you at a glance the component parts
of a text and their relationship to each other the text.
Apply critical reading techniques
Reading critically is a process by which you analyze the

information you receive, draw conclusions, and make the
judgments necessary to evaluate what you read. You should
develop the tendency of reading critically in order to question,
analyze and evaluate what you read. Here, you need to employ
critical thinking skills such as:
 Inductive reasoning in which you move from specific
facts to conclusions.
 Deductive reasoning where you move from the general to
the specific.
 Cause and effect where you need to establish if one event
results from an earlier event.
 Analogizing where you make a comparison of two things
which are similar in some ways but are essentially
different.
In order for you to read critically, suspend judgment until you

have gathered enough facts to make an informed decision.
Additionally, try to ask questions in order to determine the
meaning of what you are reading. You can test the question
about meaning by using methods of logic and reasoned thinking.
Finally, evaluate the meaning of what you read based on
reasoned thinking and personal experience.
Apply Skimming and Scanning techniques
Skimming
To be a good reader you need to skim over material rapidly in
order to get a general overview of it before reading it more
carefully for specific details. Try reading quickly through the
table of contents, the preface and the index then select relevant
chapter headings to read. You can then read the first and last
paragraphs of a chapter. It is expected that the first paragraph
will introduce the chapter by specifying what will be covered
under it and that the last chapter will summarize the main points
in the chapter. You may then read the first and last sentences of
each of the other paragraphs in the chapter. Check all the
illustrations given (e.g. charts, maps etc.) to clarify your
understanding.
18
Through effective skimming, you are expected to get at least 50

per cent of the meaning of a text/chapter and are better able to
judge whether you need to read the text in detail.
Scanning
Having determined the relevance of the material to your purpose
or task, you can now scan material rapidly to find specific facts.
Identify key expressions which will alert you to the fact that your
subject is being covered. You can run your eyes down the page,
in chapter headings or sub-headings - looking for these
expressions. You can also check for these phrases in the index.
However, you should note that the skimming and scanning skills
can be combined for optimum effect. This is applicable in
detailed reading such as required in law subjects and others.
Unit summary
In this unit you learned that there is a direct relationship between study
reading and academic writing, which is that academic writing begins
(Add a comma between the words writing and begins)
Summary with reading for required information. You also learnt how to
read for required information the first step being locating the
correct sources of information. You then learnt the main
features of, and the strategies for efficient reading.
Assignment
There is no assignment at this stage.
Assignment
19
Assessment
Assessment
Self - assessment
Activity one
1. Distinguish primary sources of information from secondary
sources of information.
Go online, then, using a search engine, key in the phrase ’How to

study’. Select and record the details of two websites which you
feel are key to your study on this topic. Click on these websites
to read on this given topic.
2. Using the formula for reading speed which has been given under
this section, calculate your own reading speed.
If your reading speed is below 400 words per minute, identify the
causes for this and get rid of them to improve.
20
Unit 2
The Paragraph
Introduction
Welcome to this unit! This unit is about the paragraph, which is a major
unit of discourse through which you can express a thought about a central
idea or theme under consideration in a discourse such as an academic
essay. To come up with a full essay, you need to present a number of
paragraphs each of which should be fully developed and with all the ideas
in each, unified. In addition, all the ideas expressed in a paragraph
should flow smoothly. The suggestions in this unit therefore, aim at
helping you to achieve paragraph unit, develop the ideas in a paragraph
fully, and to maintain a smooth flow of ideas.
 Write a unified paragraph .

 Present a fully developed paragraph.
 Use cohesive ties to ensure a smooth flow of ideas in a paragraph.
Outcomes
Cohesion: Unity of various ideas/sentences within a text.
Coherence: Logical and smooth flow of ideas in a text.
Terminology Add (Paragraph/

unit)
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Topic one: Methods of paragraph Development
What is a Paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of sentences all of which express one

main idea about a central idea (or theme) of an essay or any other
type of discourse. It is the largest unit of discourse, the smaller
units being the word and the sentence. Since it is sentences
which make up a paragraph, it is important that these sentences
are unified so that they can clearly present the main point of a
paragraph. The next section deals with this important issue of
paragraph unit.
As it has been pointed out earlier, you need to adequately

develop the controlling idea of a paragraph. This means that you
have to explain or clarify the idea fully for the reader to
appreciate the point you are making. The primary and secondary
supports are developmental sentences which should adequately
explain, clarify, and define etc the topic sentence. A good topic
sentence generally implies a particular method or methods
appropriate for use. To develop your controlling ideas
effectively, you can use various methods. Some of these are
explained below.
Example and illustration
As a method of paragraph development, you can use examples to

support your controlling idea. For example, if the controlling idea
is ‘Trees support a healthy environment’, examples of the various
aspects of the environment that are enhanced by trees can be
given to develop the controlling idea. It means that each example
(one aspect) is stated as primary support which could further
have secondary supports.
However consider the following when you are using this
method:
a) Use appropriate examples which are key to the control
idea.(delete the word control)
b) Use specific examples, which are concrete and clear.
c) Use sufficient examples to convince the reader.
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Cause and Effect
These are means of communicating relationships and one implies

the other. In using this method, you show why an event has
occurred by examining its causes or, you show what happens as a
result of the event by examining its effects. To use this method
effectively;
a) Cite the most important and convincing causes or effects. This
means that you carefully select the effects or causes that are
clearly and directly related to the issue/event under consideration.
b) Ensure that you do not mistake conditions for active causes and
effects.
c)
Process Analysis
This method of paragraph development is suitable when the

controlling idea implies a process. It has various, uses (1)
instructions, directions etc. Generally, you consider a series of
steps towards a specific end, which take place in a certain order.
You should present a series of steps that are either necessarily or
customarily involved in bringing about a certain result that
present all the steps in the order in which they normally occur.
Definition
This method of paragraph development is used to thoroughly

explain the meaning of a word, phrase, term, or concept, for the
reader. This is not done in a single sentence but in a number of
sentences in order to fully bring out all the features of what is
being defined. A definition can be either formal or informal. A
formal definition places the term being defined into a class or
category and then lists the traits that distinguish that item from
other items in the same class. A dictionary or other reference
books can be used for formal definition. The informal definition
will basically attribute general features to the term under
consideration. As a method of paragraph development, formal
definition is applicable to academic writing. A formal definition
of a term may form the basis of a paragraph. It may be used to
clarify the controlling idea or a paragraph and the rest of the
paragraph supports the controlling idea by showing that the
definition sites the topic under discussion.
Comparison and Contrast
Like cause and effect, comparison and contrast may be regarded

as two sides of the same coin. You can use comparison to
23
consider the likeness between two items while you can use
contrast to consider the differences between two items. In the
same question that asks you to compare, you can address the
similarities and the differences. Like definition, comparison and
contrast can be either formal or informal. Here, we are more
concerned with the formal comparison. To develop your
paragraph adequately:
a) Ensure that you compare or contrast items in the same class.
b) Identify a class sufficiently narrow for comparison or contrast to
be meaningful.
c) Make the basis/bases for your comparison or contrast clear.
Clarification/Analysis
In developing a paragraph by classification, the writer examines

an object or idea by analysing the parts of which it is composed.
For you to do so effectively in a formal classification;
1) Select a basis or bases for classification e.g. chronological (time),
spatial (space/geographical location). Formulate those bases
precisely before you begin writing. Show how these sub-
divisions are related to each other to form a whole.
2) When you are classifying, your categories must be mutually
exclusive; if one item fits into more than one category, your
categories are faulty.
3) Ensure that you clearly show the relationship of the parts to each
other and to the whole.
Factual Detail
You can also use factual details and statistics to support your
controlling idea. In this case you may first state the topic
sentence then support it with facts or statistics or you may present
factual information first then place the topic sentence at the end
of the paragraph as the logical conclusion to be drawn from the
evidence.
Topic two: Achieving cohesion and coherence

Paragraph Unity/ cohesion
In a paragraph which is unified a controlling idea is clearly presented and
then all the supporting sentences back up the controlling idea. The reader
is presented with the information which directly contributes to the
controlling idea and not any that does not belong. A paragraph presents
one key point which you, the writer are making about the theme (thesis or
central idea) of the whole essay. This key point becomes the controlling
24
idea of a paragraph. The particular sentence in which the controlling idea

is stated is called the topic sentence. You should therefore ensure that the
controlling idea is specific enough to be stated as one sentence. In terms
of positioning the topic sentence, it is usually the first sentence of a
paragraph. However, it may also be placed in the middle or at the end of
a paragraph. For our purposes, we prefer that, as much as possible, you
present the topic sentence in the initial position of the paragraph when
you are writing.
After the controlling idea of a paragraph, you should ensure that the rest
of the sentences in a paragraph serve to explain and illustrate this point.
Thus, these sentences are called primary and secondary supports. A
primary support will present one main explanation about the controlling
idea and the secondary support will exemplify or illustrate it. In some
cases, one primary support may have a number of secondary supports. In
order for you to fully develop your paragraph, you will need to use as
many primary and secondary supports as possible. Three primary
supports could be taken as the minimum per paragraph. Below is an
example of a unified paragraph.
Example
The municipal councils in the first republic of Zambia used to
provide citizens with housing free of charge. The size of the
house depended on the size of the family. For example, houses
were given on the basis of one bedroom per adult resident and a
bedroom each for each child for a couple, up to two children. The
rent, together with payments for electricity, water and sewerage
did not, as a rule, exceed one third of a family budget. These
payments did not cover the state expenditures on housing
constructions – what was more; they did not meet even all the
expenditures on maintenance of the residential buildings. The
remaining costs were borne by the state and paid out of the social
security funds.
In this example,
Sentence 1 is the topic sentence

Sentence 2 states the criterion for awarding housing sizes.
Sentence 3 explains the sizes of houses awarded.
Sentence 4 explains the per cent cost of rent and other services
for family budget.
Sentence 5 tells us that the payment for these services did not
cover the state expenditures on housing constructions nor did
they meet the expenditures for maintenance of the housing units.
Sentence 6 informs us that after funds from rent and communal
services the remaining costs for construction and maintenance
25
were borne by the state and paid out of social security funds
(section support).
As you can see, the paragraph deals with one topic, namely free
housing in the 1st Republic of Zambia.
Decide which of these sentences discussed above are primary
and which are secondary supports .

Paragraph Coherence
In the preceding sections, we have seen that a good paragraph is

one which, is unified (all sentences support the controlling idea)
and adequately developed. But these two features alone can not
make a paragraph effectively convey your thoughts to your
reader; you need a third key feature, which is coherence.
The word ‘coherence’ means sticking together. It is the smooth

flow of information in a paragraph. In a coherent paragraph, a
reader moves from one sentence to the next without losing the
writer’s train of thought. You can help establish a smooth flow
of information by: a logical order of presenting your material; use
of transitional devices where necessary, and combining closely
related thoughts in clearly developed sentences.
Logical organisation of material
You are required to think about the order in which your

supporting sentences are arranged. Your task is to come up with
a well organised paragraph in which the ideas and events it
considers are presented in the order which best shows the
relationship between them. You have already learnt about the
various patterns of arranging your material and here, a few of
them will be highlighted.
 Time order
Time order is also referred to as chronological order. In this

order, you should arrange all the events being considered in a
paragraph, in the order in which they occurred or in the order in
which the reader would expect them to occur.
 Spatial Order
Here, the writer organises the support in the paragraph according

to a spatial arrangement or pattern. Space order enables the
26
reader to visualise what is being described. For example, if you

want to write about sales in Shoprite chain supermarket in
Zambia during the Christmas festive season, you may talk about
the sales recorded province by province. This would be a spatial
order. Spatial and time order may be used together depending on
the topic.
 Order of Importance
This method is mostly used when your (replace with

you’re)writing require building evidence to support your point of
view and to be convincing. Here, you order your support in such
a way that you begin with what you consider to be the least
important idea, then the next etc, until you end the paragraph
with the most important. In some cases, You (small letter ‘y’)
may also begin with the most important idea then work down and
end with the least important.
 Level of Complexity
Another way of ordering your support is by presenting your ideas

according to their level of complexity. Begin with a simple idea
which your reader will understand easily the present the next idea
which may be more complex until you end with the most
complex.
These then are some of the most common logical ways of

arranging your support so that your work is coherent.
Cohesive Ties
Cohesive ties include: reference, ellipsis, substitution,
conjunctions and repetition of key words and phrases. These
devices add coherence to a paragraph by linking the ideas in one
sentence with those in the next. They remind the reader of what
preceded and signal what is to follow.
conjunctions (Big letter ‘C’)
Apart from linking ideas, such transitional devices as
conjunctions also help the reader to establish the relationship
between ideas. This relationship between ideas is semantic and
may be that of:
 Addition
E.g. and, also, furthermore, first, second, besides, moreover,
again,
finally, in addition, what is more, as well etc
 Comparison
27
E.g. similarly, likewise, like, as, at the same time, in the same
way, in like manner etc.
 Contrast
E.g.: but, however, yet, or, nevertheless, whereas, still,
nonetheless, conversely, nor rather, though, on the one hand, on
the other hand, on the contrary, by contrast, in contrast, even
though, at the same time.
 Concession
E.g.: doubtless, surely, certainly, naturally, granted that,
although this may be true, no doubt, I concede, I admit etc.
 Example
E.g.: occasionally, usually, often, frequently, especially,
specifically, principally, mainly, significantly, indeed, for
example, for instance, first of all, for one thing, most important,
to illustrate, in particular, in general etc.
 Result
E.g.: then, therefore, thus, hence, so, consequently, as a result, all
in all.
 Conclusion
E.g.: finally, then, thus, hence, so, therefore, in conclusion, to
sum up, to summarise, to conclude, in short.
 Time
E.g.: before, earlier, formerly, afterward, latter, subsequently,
presently, soon, shortly, meanwhile, simultaneously, now, then,
after a while, at last, at that time, in the mean time, in the past,
until now etc.
 Place
E.g. : here, there, elsewhere, above, below, behind, beyond,
nearly, adjacent to, farther on, in the background, opposite to, to
the right etc.
In addition to establishing relationships between ideas,

conjunctions also help to join short sentence. This helps you to
provide longer and better developed sentences. Too many short
sentences make your work sound choppy and abrupt.
For example: Mary is tired. Mary had a long journey.
You may see the relationship between the ideas expressed in

these two sentences as that of reason or result and so you may use
a conjunction ‘because’ to join them in one sentence as follows:
Mary is tired because she had a long journey. (Reason)

Or
Mary had a long journey, so she is tired. (Result)
28
By combining shorter sentences, you produce clearer and better

developed sentences and this adds to coherence.
Apart from conjunctions, the rest of the cohesive ties are briefly
discussed based on the assumption that you already have
sufficient knowledge about (these were taught as various aspects
of grammar at secondary school). However, it should be clear
that in writing, they function as unifying elements of a text and
can therefore be used to achieve text coherence. They are as
explained below.
Reference
This is a cohesive feature which you can use when you want to
point out your object of discussion. Greater reliance is placed on
pronouns such as personal pronouns (he, she, it, they etc),
possessive pronouns (theirs, hers, his, it’ etc), demonstrative
pronouns (here, there, this, that etc), relative pronouns (who,
what, which, that, where, when, whom etc). Ensure that you use
these pronouns correctly so that they can be easily related to the
referent (object, person or idea) under discussion.
Reference can be backward pointing (anaphoric) or forward

pointing (cataphoric). This means that the particular pronoun
used can be related to a referent which has already been
mentioned or to one which is yet to be mentioned, respectively.
For example:
John was awarded the prize for outstanding performance. He

received three million kwacha. (Anaphoric: he points back to
John)
Please understand this. I need to rest! (cataphoric: (Capital C )

(& change the word) this (to these) points forward to the whole
second sentence).
Besides creating unity, reference also helps you to avoid

unnecessary repetition. (Delete unnecessary )
Ellipsis
This is the deliberate omission of a word, phrase or clause because
you feel that the part that has been omitted is easily recoverable from
the text. Ellipsis also helps you to avoid unnecessary repetition and
therefore contributes to precision of expression.
For example:
Student: Sir, will you be in the office tomorrow?
29
Lecturer: Yes.
Here, the ellipsis occurs on the entire question from the student which
should have been included in the lecturer’s full response (I
will be in the office tomorrow).
Substitution
Substitution is similar to ellipsis in that a part of the sentence is
omitted. However, unlike ellipsis, the omitted part is replaced by,
usually a more general term. (Delete usually )
For example:
John: I am missing a book. Could it be the one you are reading?

James: Yes, it is the one.
Here, one in both instances substitutes book.
Repetition
Repeating key words or phrases that emphasise the controlling
idea can help you to achieve coherence in your paragraphs.
(Also see ‘Repetition’ under 1.5.2: Concept development). To
repeat key words or phrases, you may use the original words,
related forms or synonyms. However, ensure that such repetition
is not over done but only used when it is essential. Repetition
adds coherence to a paragraph by drawing the reader’s attention
to the controlling idea of the paragraph.
Grammatical Consistency
The logical ordering of information and the use of various
cohesive ties are not the only ways of achieving coherence in
your paragraphs. (Delete your) You can also establish
grammatical
consistency through consistent use of verb tense and pronoun
person.
Consistent Verb Tense
30
There are three main tenses, time, in the English language. These
are: present, past and future. When you write, you must place the
event you are writing about in the appropriate time context in
which it occurred e.g. now, today, last year in the year to come
etc.
The three main tenses
Tense Example
1. Present I work.
2. Past I worked.
3. Future I will work.
When you begin writing your paragraph, decide on what tense

you are going to use and stick to it throughout the paragraph.
However, you may change to another tense if a given context
logically requires the use of a different tense. Sometimes certain
tenses are used to present particular types of information. For
example, when you are reporting factual information, it is
preferable to use the present tense. But when you are reporting
some event as a third party, you are expected to use the past
tense. Even then, ensure that you minimize tense switching to
make your work flow and easy to follow.
Consistent Pronoun Person
The phrase ‘pronoun person’ refers to words which substitute for

persons or things.
For example:
Pronoun Subject Object

First person I, We Me, We
Second person you you
Third person he, she, it, one, they him, her, it, one, them
31
When you are writing, you should be consistent with the pronoun
of the person you use. Your choice of pronoun will be
determined by the tone you want to create in your writing and
also the point of view from which you want your reader to
understand your text.
For example, you can use the first person pronouns I and We, if
you wish to create a personal tone and you want your reader to
view the information from your own point of view as a writer.
The first personal pronouns are informal and personal and not
usually acceptable in academic writing because they render your
work subjective. If , however, you want to remain more detached
in your presentation of facts and ideas, you should use he third
personal pronouns because they create distance between you and
your audience and give your reader the feeling that you are
writing from an objective stance. Lastly, you may also use the
second –person pronoun, you, sparingly, in instances where you
are writing to a clearly defined audience.
This module, for example, has been written in the second person
pronoun ‘you’ because this lecturer is speaking to directly to you
her students. You may also use this pronoun in process analysis
paragraphs that give instructions or directions.
All in all, you are advised to be consistent in your use of verb

tenses and personal pronouns in academic writing unless it is
inevitable and logical that you switch to another tense. This is
what will make your writing clear and coherent.
Unit summary
In this unit you learned that a paragraph is the largest unit of
discourse in which a writer presents one main point about the
overall theme of the essay. Consequently, a paragraph
should be unified, fully developed and coherent. You have
Summary been taken through the various ways of achieving these three
key features of a paragraph. If you follow these consistently,
you will be able to write good essays because, after all,
essays are composed of paragraphs. The next unit will look
at the whole essay with special reference to its structure.
32
Assignment
Assignment
Assessment
Assessment
Activity two
1a) Select a paragraph from any of the text books in any of your
Courses. Analyse the paragraph sentence by sentence for the
controlling idea, the main points and examples, which are used to
develop the paragraph.
b) Isolate ideas if any, that you feel do not belong to the paragraph.
State your bases for disqualifying them.
c) What method has been used to develop this paragraph?
d) In your opinion, is this method appropriate or not. Give reasons
for answer.
e) Is your paragraph coherent? If so, what features have been used
to achieve coherence?
33
34
Unit 3
The Essay
Introduction
From unit 2, you have learnt how to unify, develop, and achieve
coherence in a paragraph. However, most of academic work is
expository and expository work requires that you the writer
inform, explain and clarify ideas. Exposition goes beyond
description to help your reader understand your ideas and
thoughts. All these requirements need not one (It should
ready All these requirements not only require one ) paragraph
but a number of well coordinated paragraphs for them to be
expressed fully. It is such paragraphs which constitute a
discourse called an essay. This chapter will, therefore, guide you
in writing an essay based on the concepts you have learnt in unit
2.
 Write a well structured essay.

 Write a properly unified essay.
 Interpret Directional words in an essay question.
Outcomes
Terminology
35
Discourse writing involving detailed explanation of ideas or processes, and

is meant to clarify ideas or inform the re reader
Expository writing
A long and serious piece of writing on a particular subject.
Thesis
An idea, opinion or theory that is used to explain the essay
topic. It is the writer’s position on a topic.
Topic one: Features of an essay
What is an Essay?
An academic essay is usually an expository discourse which contains a

limited number of main points. These points are used to develop the
central idea of the whole essay. At the undergraduate level, you can
derive the central idea from a topic or an essay question which lecturers
will assign to you from time to time, and this will form part of your
assessment.
However, the short essay as described above, will not be the only type
you will be required to write. As you advance in your studies, you will
be required to produce an extended essay in which a topic will have to be
examined in greater detail. Examples of the long essay include project
and research papers, Although the features of a long essay are similar to
those of a short one, the structure differs in a number of aspects. For
example, whereas a short essay usually presents alll (delete one L)
aspects of the introduction in one paragraph , the extended essay will
present each of these aspects under separate sub-headings. In the long
essay, even the readings readings (delete one) done on similar studies
are reported under a separate sub-heading as literature review. The
conclusions of an extended essay are reported and/or discussed as salient
features or trends based on the section on findings, but in the short essay,
the conclusion is usually a paragraph that brings an essay to an end.
However, the full details of the extended essay will be further dealt with
in your research courses since various fields of study may require
36
specific presentation formats. Even then, you will still need to apply the
same principles wich will be taught in this course. For now, the focus of
this unit is the short essay: the one you will use to present your
assignments.
The starting points when writing an essay give direction to the essay and
include: the topic and the direction words in an essay question.
The Topic
The topic for an essay will usually be assigned to you by your lecturer,
although in some cases you may be required to come up with your own.
Your lecturers will usually base the assignment on one of the topics in the
course outline where they feel you need to study such topics thoroughly
well. However, whether you will chose your own topic or one will be
assigned to you; will require that you limit the topic so that it is neither
too broad nor too specific. Consider the following example:
Question/Topic: Write about HIV/AIDS in relation to cross-
border trading.
This question is too broad , therefore, you will need to limit it.
You may limit it by deciding which:
 aspects (Capital A) of HIV/AIDS you want to focus on e.g.
prevention, treatment /or care of those infected etc).
 category (Capital C) of cross-border traders you want to focus
on(e.g. truck drivers, male of female traders or both.
With these considerations in mind, you may then come up with a
limited topic as follows:
Causes and prevention of HIV/AIDS among truck drivers in
cross-border trading.
Such a topic will be easy to write about because there is a clear
direction established about it and it is neither too broad nor too
narrow.
Direction words in an essay question
(For further discussion on this topic refer to unit 2 on 'Methods of
paragraph development')
Most essay questions are presented as statements although few
are presented as explicit questions. Whichever the case, both
types include a direction word which tells you what you should
do in your answering of the question. In order for you to write
an effective essay, you need to fully understand what each of the
following common direction words tells you to do.
Direction word and required response
Discuss Evaluate(see 'evaluate') the topic and then present your
own logical conclusions on the strength of the points presented.
E.g.: Discuss the impact of civil society in Zambia, on
democratic governance.
37
Summarize Present the main points about a topic.

E.g.: Summarize how the civil society in Zambia has
helped advance democratic governance.
Trace Present the order in which something happened.

E.g.: Trace the major activities of the civil society in
Zambia from 1991 to 2008
Justify Provide reasons and facts in support of the topic.
E.g.: Justify the need for civil society in Zambia.
Evaluate Present the positive as well as the negative aspects of a topic.
E.g.: Evaluate the impact of civil society in Zambia.
Define Explain the meaning of some concept, in some detail.
E.g.: Define 'civil society'.
Analyze Break something down into its constituent parts then show how
the parts relate to each other to make whole.
Compare Show how two or more things are both similar and different.
E.g.: Compare the civil society in Zambia to that of
Malawi.
Contrast Show how two or more things are different.
E.g.: Contrast the civil society with the opposition
political parties.
Outline Present the most important information about something in a
carefully organized manner.(Delete manner )
E.g.: Outline what is needed to run a successful civil
society in Zambia.
Explain Provide facts and reasons to make the topic understandable.
E.g.: Explain why the civil society is weak in Zambia.
List Present information about something as a series of briefly
numbered points.
E.g.: List the characteristics of a strong civil society.
Describe Present a full and detailed picture of important
characteristics and qualities of an issue in a topic.
E.g.: Describe what it is like to run a civil society in

Zambia.
In order for you to organize your essay well, carefully select an
appropriate method of development.
38
Topic Two: Writing the Essay
The Structure os (of) an Essay
An essay has three main parts namely: an introduction, the body

and the conclusion.
The Introductory Paragraph
To be thorough and effective, an introduction should include: a

general statement, the thesis, aim and method.
The General Statement

You should present a general statement about the topic. The general
statement may briefly inform the reader about the background of the topic
in a variety of ways. It might: define the topic, (add the word ‘and’
here ) state some general assumptions about it, refer to historical
occurrence(s), state the problem facing the subject matter. The general
statement may take any position in the introductory paragraph as long as
it does not disturb the flow of information.
The Thesis
Having limited the topic, you are now ready to state your position, belief
or opinion about the topic of discussion. The sentence in which you state
this opinion is called a thesis statement and, so, your position is what is
called a 'thesis'. For you to be able to write a thesis statement, you need to
clearly define your attitude toward the topic and to express it in a
coherent complex or compound sentence. The thesis marks the point of
departure with what you will concentrate on in your essay. By your
thesis, you establish a contract with the reader: for your part, you will
endeavor to convince your reader that your stance is valid. The reader's
part of the bargain is to try and understand your reasoning and to judge
your ideas within the framework you have presented in the thesis.
The Aim
Apart from presenting your thesis, you need to tell the reader exactly
what will be examined, investigated or discussed in the essay. You may
also give the scope of the essay by stating clearly what aspects will be
discussed in the essay.
The Method
39
Here, you are going to explain to the reader how you conducted the
research on your topic (e.g. reviewing literature on the topic), in order to
develop your discussion through the variables stated in the aim, at the
same time rendering support to the thesis
All these aspects of the introduction should be presented in a well
coordinated paragraph.
The Body
After you have written out the introduction, you should follow it up with
a sufficient number of paragraphs which will provide sufficient
information about each of the aspects mentioned in the aim. These
paragraphs should be interrelated and should all support the thesis.
Remember to follow strictly all the aspects of a good paragraph as
discussed earlier in unit 2.
The Concluding Paragraph
When all the variables stated in the aim have been thoroughly explained,
you are now ready to close your essay. Present a statement which will
show that you are about to express your closing remarks. Stress your
position about the topic and close. This way of concluding is more
effective than the traditional one of using signal phrases such as ‘in
conclusion…’, ‘to conclude…’ followed by a summary of the main
points.
Revising/Editing the Essay

When you have finished writing your essay check that all the aspects of a
good essay have been followed. Apart from the obvious issues such as
spellings, also check for the other features mentioned earlier.
Ensure that unity has been maintained throughout your essay, maintain
text unity. Use the features for achieving text cohesion and coherence as
discussed in unit 2. Furthermore, use a transition sentence at the end of
each paragraph to introduce the next main idea to follow, as well as
establishing the relationship to the idea of the next paragraph.
Also, revise your work at paragraph level by checking for focus, unity,
(add and) method of development and the logical flow of information.
Then revise the whole essay by checking that all the necessary aspects in
the introduction, main body and the conclusion are properly presented as
discussed in this unit. Ensure that you have used appropriate transitions
from one paragraph to the next and that all paragraphs are interrelated
and contribute to the thesis.
40
Unit summary
In this unit you learned how to present a good essay. You have learnt
how to narrow the essay topic and to interpret direction words in an essay
question. You have also learnt how to write each of the three parts in the
Summary essay structure and to finally revise your work when you have finished.
In the next unit, you will learn how to write citations, use appropriate
linguistic style and correctly punctuate your work.
Assignment
Assignment
Assessment
Self- assessment
Activity 3
41
Write an essay based on the following thesis statement: Economics is a

very difficult but rewarding career.
Assessment
Then answer the following questions:
1. What method of paragraph development did you use?
2. Now edit and revise your work as discussed in this unit.
3. Give a copy of your essay to a colleague or any teacher in your
community and ask them to edit your work. Now compare with
your own editing and revision: What did you or your colleague
leave out and why.
Write out the final draft which should comply with all the requirements of
a good essay.
42
Unit 4
Writing Citations; Style and

Orthographic conventions
Introduction
You have learnt how to write a good essay- from reading for required
information to organizing your ideas in a well coordinated essay.
However, in an academic essay, you need to include citations: This is a
special feature in this type of writing and so you need to develop the skill
in this area. Apart from citation, you should express yourself in
appropriate language by using a suitable style and following orthographic
conventions. In this unit, therefore, you will learn how to deal with each
of these three important aspects.
 Use correctly, different types of citations in academic writing.

 Use the correct variety of the English Language according to a
particular subject matter, mode and style of discourse.
Outcomes
 Use a variety of punctuation marks correctly in writing.
Orthography: Punctuation marks which are used in writing.
Citations: Acknowledgement for using another person’s

work in your own work, as expressed within and at
Terminology the end of a text.
43
Topic one: Writing Citations

Definition
Citations are words, phrases or sentences that writers ‘borrow’ from the
work of other authors and include in their own works in order to support
and strengthen the argument at hand. These include the ideas borrowed,
paraphrased or direct quotation, as well as acknowledgements, including
references lists and bibliographies. In this unit, you will learn how to
write citations.
Uses for Citations
In the academic field, citations are a way of giving credit to the owner of
the ideas you have used to support your own work. As already alluded
to, citations are included within the text as references, quotations and
footnotes; and at the end of the text as bibliography and or references.
Thody (2006, p.186) presents six uses for citations, and five of these are
presented below.
Defensive: To show that your research is justified by other works in the
field, that the sources cited are not imaginary and that you have used
appropriate works from varied sources.
Archival: To record the sources used for your own future reference.
Altruistic: To provide readers or listeners who want to research the same
area as yourself with accurate and effective directions to the sources you
used.
Promotional; [ In some countries and for scholars] To gain grades in
national research assessment exercises which rate you according to how
many times your work is cited. [As a student; they c an help you to earn
higher grades in assignments].
Protective: To avoid plagiarism by giving credit to the authorities whose
work you have used.
[Note: Plagiarism, taking someone else’s work, ideas or words and using
the (delete the & add it) as though they were your own words, is a
serious offence in academia. At its worst, you may even be prosecuted
for an infringement on copyrights.]
Citation Systems
There are about 400 assorted systems for formatting citations, and ‘they
each achieve the objectives of standardization as an aid to understanding
44
and accessing references and of saving you the trouble of devising your
own.’ (Thody 2006, P. 188).
Before you submit any assignment, find out what particular system is
recommended by your course lecturer or in some cases, your school.
Then you can obtain a guide on a particular system from websites or an
educational library. Follow the system consistently in all your work in
that particular course. The details for each of these systems are too
numerous to be discussed, therefore you are encouraged to come up with
these details from a guide. For this course (BCM152), you are advised to
use the Harvard system. Below are six of the major systems or their
recommended variants. Closely note how the different elements are
written and the order in which they appear for each system .
Elements include: Author’s surname and first name, commas, full stops,
brackets, use of italics, use of capital letters, initials, year of publication,
place of publication, publishers, etc.
1. APA (American Psychological Association)
This system is mostly used in the fields of psychology and social
sciences.
E.g.: Book
Kvale, Steinar (1996). Interviews. London: SAGE Publications, Inc.
E.g.: Article
Mishler, E.G. (1991). Representing discourse: The rhetoric of
transcription Journal of Narrative and Life History, 1,255-280
2. Harvard
This citation system is most usual in social sciences, some humanities
and journalism.
E.g.: Book
Kvale, S., (1996). Interviews, SAGE Publications, Inc, London.
E.g.: Article
Mishler, E.G., (1991). “Representing discourse: the rhetoric of
transcription,” Journal of Narrative and Life History, Vol1, pp.255-280.
3. Chicago
This system is most usual in natural and social sciences,
technology, humanities and law.
E.g.: Book
Kvale, Steinar.1996 Interviews. London: SAGE Publications, Inc.
E.g.: Article
Mishler, E.G., “Representing discourse: the rhetoric of transcription,”
Journal of Narrative and Life History (1991): 1, 255-280.
4. British Standards
This system can be used in any field.
E.g.: Book
45
KVALE, Steinar,1996. Interviews. London: SAGE Publications, Inc.

E.g.: Article
MISHLER, E.G., 1991. Representing discourse: the rhetoric of
transcription, Journal of Narrative and Life History, 1, 255-280.
5. Oxford
The system is used in British law and some humanities.
E.g.: Book
S. Kvale, Interviews, SAGE Publications, Inc., London, 1996.
E.g.: Article
E.G.MISHLER, “Representing discourse: the rhetoric of transcription.”
Journal of Narrative and Life History, Vol. 1, pp. 255-280.
6. MLA (Modern Languages Association of America)
This system is used in Languages and humanities.
E.g.: Book
Kvale, Steinar. Interviews. London: SAGE Publications, Inc., 1996.
E.g.: Article
MISHLER, E.G., “Representing discourse: the rhetoric of
transcription.” Journal of Narrative and Life History, 1(1991): 255-280.
In-text Citations
These are actual quotations or paraphrases used in the text.
There are two main ways of doing this:
Footnote/End note system
 Here, all quotations and references are numbered using small
raised numerals at the end of the citation.
 Then a footnote is recorded at the bottom of each page where
they have been used.
 Footnotes record: the numeral referred to and the full reference
using the selected citation system.
 When you finish your work, you must have a list of all the
footnotes following the small numeral numbering; then write the
bibliography or references
Quoting from the Web
When you are quoting from the web, ensure that you include the
full web address that appears with the article or book and also the
date when you accessed the article. This is because information
on the web is regularly up dated and so, some of the old
information is removed to create space for new ones.
E.g.: Book
46
Mill,J.S.(1859) On Liberty,
http://www.bartleby.com/130/index.html (accessed 13 June
2005).
E.g.: Online journal/periodical article
Crawford,G.and Gosling, V.(2005) “Toys for Boys? women’s
marginalization and participation as digital gamers”, Sociological
Research
Online,vol.10,no1,pp.http://www.socresonline.org.uk/10/1/crowf
ord.html(accessed 1 June 2005).
General guide on in-text citations
 Keep quotations minimal. Normally, the length of your quotation
should be from one up to three lines. Remember to put them in
quotation marks
 If the quotation is longer than 60 words, indent from the text with
a line space above and below. In thois (this) case, do not use
inverted commas.
 Do not uses quotations the length of a paragraph unless it is
really vital!
 Quote exactly and cite the sources.
 If you want to adjust the quotation to make it fit in with your
work, put any new material in square brackets [ ].
 Use ellipsis or three dots(…) without brackets to show where
words have been omitted.
 Do not over use quotations: one or two per page is enough.
End – of – text citations
Bibliography/Sources
 A bibliography is presented at the end of a text as the last item in
the essay, except for the research report where the appendices
section may appears at the end.
 It is a list of all the works you cited in the text including those
that you used but did not quote or paraphrase.
 These works are arranged in alphabetical order by the author’s
surname.
 Websites usually appear last.
 Do not number the works in the bibliography.
References / Works Cited
 This page contains a list of all the works you have quoted or
referred to in your text and is written on a fresh page after your
text. In compiling it, follow the same guideline for the
bibliography. You could choose to use the references alone, but
you could also present both the bibliography and the references,
on separate pages starting with the references page.
 Stick to the citation system required by your particular lecturer.
47
Topic two: Language in an Academic

Essay
Introduction
You have so far learnt how to read for required
information, how to write paragraphs, an essay and
citations. In this unit, you will learn how to use the
English Language correctly in academic writing so that
your work is presented in an appropriate style.
Register and Style
Register
Register is the term used to distinguish varieties of

language according to their use. Any text, whether
written or spoke, belongs to a particular register.
The distinction between varieties operates according to

three variables: field, mode, and style of discourse.
The field of discourse
Here, you are expected to use language which is

appropriate to the subject matter (what is being
discussed). For example, registers such as law,
economics, management, marketing (especially
advertising) can be recognised on this basis.
The mode of discourse
A text can either be presented as written or spoken

discourse. And in each of these media, you can
recognise the register of a particular type. For example,
in the spoken text, you can easily recognise the register
of advertising, conversation, business meeting,
interviews etc. In the written medium, you can recognise
in business writing, the registers of a contract of sale, a
business report, an invoice etc.
The style of discourse or tenor
Style is how you put words together in units of thought

(sentences) and then blend them together in the larger
units of paragraphs. The tone of your text is also
48
conveyed through style. Tone is your attitude toward the

material and the speaker. (For tone, see Also unit 3). So,
the style of discourse is the type of relationship between
the speaker/writer and the listener/reader. We speak in
different styles according to the relationship between the
speaker and the listener. Examples of styles and the
appropriate audience with which it can be used is (delete
‘is’ & add ‘are’) given below.
Colloquial style equals/colleagues
Polite/formal style subordinate with superior
A good dictionary of English will guide you on this –

consult it when you are in doubt.
Levels of Style
Style may be described as pain, simple, objective,

elaborate, sober etc. However, your may concern should
be with levels of formality. In this classification, there
are three main levels: formal, plain and informal. Your
choice of style will be determined by its suitability to
your purpose for writing. It is recommended that you use
the pain style because it is the style appropriate to
objective argument and the conveying of information.
You should avoid the extreme of either the formal or
informal.
Below are highlights of some of the distinguishing features between the

various levels of style.
 Formal Style
This style is mostly used in writing and is appropriate to formal
situations such as business reports, legal documents and
government papers.
Vocabulary
In terms of vocabulary the common features include polysyllabic
and elevated words and phrases e.g. domicile, for ‘house;
consists of not ‘is made up of’etc.
- Use of words which are not commonly used e.g.:
‘credulous’
49
- Use of intellectually fashionable words (e.g (e.g.)

conjure, innovate, charisma etc).
-
Structure
In terms of structure, the common features include impersonal
and passive constructions; emphasis on grammatical correctness
and completeness; reliance on parallelism, pre-modification and
subordination.
Rhythm and pattern
- variety (Capital V) of sentence structures; balance and

harmony; qualifiers before, between and after subject
verb.
 The Plain Style

The plain style is a balance between the formal and the informal
style. It is appropriate for conveying objective argument and
conveying information
Vocabulary
Commonly used in this style are in single words for conciseness,
figurative idioms, and phrasal verbs and single verbs, (delete
verbs) a mixture of polysyllabic and monosyllabic. In addition
emphasis is placed on simplicity and clarity and so jargon is
avoided.
Structure
Both the impersonal and personal constructions are used side by
side, active and passive verb used. As in formal style, there is
emphasis on grammatical correctness and premodification,
parallelism and subordination.
Rhythm and pattern

- variety of sentence structure, balance and control etc.
The major concerns are conciseness and precision.
50
 Informal Style
This style is mainly used in oral (spoken) medium but is also
common in written texts such as a speech, dialogue etc.
Vocabulary
The following are commonly used monosyllabic and
Anglo – soxon – e.g. ‘rich’ not affluent
Phrasal verbs and figurative idioms e.g (e.g.) ‘the door burst
open’.
Conventional interpolations e.g. ‘funny enough…..’ you know
…..’ etc.
Structure
Personal and loose grammatical constructing (E.g (e.g.) I didn’t
agree)
Ellipsis and repetition etc

Rhythm Pattern
- Loose and random; random and directional, and not
orchestrated and balance.
Topic three: Orthographic Conventions

Academic writing also requires that you use punctuation marks
correctly. This unit briefly discusses the common uses of various
punctuation marks (including capitalized) It however, it does not
go into greater details go into greater capitalized but only
discusses the basics.
Punctuation marks and their uses
51
The Full Stop (or period) (.) Ensure that you place a full stop at
the end of every statement sentence. You may also place this
mark at the end of an abbreviated word.
The Question Mark (?)
You can indicate this mark at the end of a direct question. E.g
What (small w) are the entry requirements for Mulungushi
University?
The Comma(,)
This mark has a number of uses such as;
- To separate items in a list
- To mark off an interruption in the normal structure of a
sentence e.g He had come, I am told, when you were
away.
- To mark off the additional information from the
essential, in a none defining clause. E.g (e.g.) Our Dean,
Professor Bonger, wants a word with you.
- To separate a subordinate clause from the main clause
especially if the subordinate clause comes first. E.g If
you boil water to a hundred degrees, it evaporates.
- To separate participial phrases
e.g Having received the module, the student embarked on
serious study.
The Semi Colon (;)
This mark is stronger than the comma but a little weaker than a
full stop. It is often used in place of a conjunction etc. e.g The
(small t) lecturer was yawning throughout the session; obviously
he had not slept much the previous night.
The Colon (:)

This mark is used to:
- Introduce a list
- To introduce speech or a direct quotation
- In front of a phrase or clause that explains or expands the
previous idea.
The apostrophe (’)
52
This mark is used as follows:

- To show omission of one or more letters. E.g don’t (do
not) here the under lined letter has been omitted.
- With nouns to indicate possessive cause. E.g the girl’s
parents (Singular girl) The (small t) girls’ parents
(plural). If the noun already ends in ‘s’ indicate the
apostrophe as follows: Jonas’ or Jonas’s
The Hyphen (-)
Uses of this mark include:
Showing a compound word in some cases e.g brother – in – law.
Note that compounds may be written as loose words (e.g

common sense) as a block word (e.g tomorrow) or hyphenated as
in ‘ mother-in-law. (add invented comma)
- To cut a long word that continues on the next line.
However, this is not advisable and should only be used if
it is absolutely inevitable.
Inverted Commas (‘ ‘) or double (“ ’’) These are used to :
indicate speech. Remember to include in the inverted commas,
all the punctuation marks which are part of the actual wordsw
spoken. E.g. “I will visit you at the hospital.”
- And also to record quotations, titles and certain
unfamiliar or technical expressions. E.g.:He was singing
‘Rock of Ages’.
The dash (-) This (small letter ‘t’) mark is used;
- To introduce an afterthought. E.g.: I was angry – or so I
thought at the time.
- To mark off an important interruption in the main theme
of thought . E.g. He protested – it was obviously
hopeless – that he was innocent.
The Exclamation
The mark is used to indicate strong feeling such as anger, fear;
surprise etc. E.g. He thought Livingstone was still the capital
city of Zambia!
The colon and dash (:-)
53
It is used in a similar way as the colon although, unlike the colon,

it is only used in the end position of a sentence.
Capital letters
Use a capital letter to:
- Indicate the beginning of a sentence
- “ proper names and titles.
In this topic , you have been reminded of the common uses of
punctuation and capitalization. Use these in your writing to make
the meaning of your work clearer.
Unit summary
In this unit you learned that correctly written citations help you to
strengthen your argument and prove the validity of your research. You
Summary have also learnt some of the common uses of punctuation and
capitalization. Use these in your writing to make the meaning of your
work clearer. Lastly, you learnt that language, spoken or written, has a
register which you can use according to your purpose for writing; and that
register is based on the field, mode and style of discourse. Further, you
have learnt the three levels of style you can choose from depending on
your purpose for writing. You have, also been advised to use the plain
style in all your writing because it is appropriate to objective argument
and the conveying of information: and this is what is required in
academic writing.
54
Assignment
There is no assignment for this unit. See the one which is attached at the
end of this module.
Assignment
Assessment
Self assessment
Assessment
Activity 4
1. Why is it important to use punctuations in your academic

writing?
2. Outline the differences between in-text citations, quotations,

references and bibliographies.
55
Sources
Afolayan, A.(Prof.), and Newsum, H.E.(Dr.), (1983). The Use of

English: Communicative skills for university students,
Longman Nigeria, Ikeja.
Ellis, R. AND Tomlinson, B., (1980). Teaching Secondary English,
Longman, Essex.
Ferret, K.S., (2000). Peak Performance 3rd ed., Glencoe/Mac Graw Hill,
New York.
Langman,J., (2003). College Writing Skills, Media Edition 5th ed.,
Mc Graw Hill, New York.
Mark, L., (2008). Introductions to Behavioral Research Methods 5th
ed.,Pearson Education, Boston.
Montgomery, M., (1982). Study Skills, Longman, Essex.
Redman, p., (2006). Good Essay Writing 3rd ed., Sage, London.
Raygor, A.L., (1979). Reading for the Main Idea, Mc Graw-Hill, New
York.
Roberts, E.V. AND Jacobs, H.E., (1992). Literature An Introduction to
Reading and Writing, Prentice Hall, London.
Thody, A., (2006). Writing and Presenting Research, Sage Publications
Ltd, London.
56
(Including all the web-site sources cited in the section ‘Study Skills
on page 5 of this document).
Assignment
Outline the features of an academic essay.
Due date: February month end
Length: Four printed pages in double line spacing.
57

BCS151 - Communication Study Skills-1

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ACADEMIC DOCUMENT

COMMUNICATION AND STUDY SKILLS

COMMUNICATION AND STUDY SKILLS

Rex Lumpombwe Sampa

Getting around this [Module] 7

Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 37

About this Module

How this Module is structured

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

The course content

Welcome to Communication and

Communication & Study Skills.

 1. Develop personal skills of goal setting, time management and

Outcomes  2. Practice essential communication skills and establish proper

study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of

Getting around this Module

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group activity Help Note it!

Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

Unit 1 Study Skills

 Develop personal skills of goal setting, time management and

Adding extra rows to the

Basically we all have 24 hours in a day, 168 hours in a week to use as we

What is time management?

Time management is the most efficient use of time available to complete

How to Organise Your Time

4. You build confidence as a student, and enjoy the work more.

5. You enjoy your leisure time more.

Planning Your Time

Do you waste time?

Eating/cooking Socializing / Playing Sport

Watching television Making telephone calls

Using the internet Shopping

Doing housework Traveling

Working Going to lectures/Studying

Time Saving Tips

Do you meet assignment deadlines?

Do you begin working on semester long projects early in

Do you write a daily "to do" list?

Do you prevent social activities from interfering with

Do you have a job that requires fewer than 10 hours a

Do you set specific goals for each study period?

Do you begin your study time with your most difficult

Do you complete most of your studying during your

Do you think of being a full-time student as you would a

Time Management Test 2

Activity---Hours per week

Now answer the following questions:

Listening & Learning Styles

 Analyse and increase understanding of the techniques of effective

Active Listening: This is where you make a conscious effort to hear

Considering the amount we spend listening, one would expect each

Without a doubt, listening is a skill that we can all benefit from

effectiveness as regards study, productivity, as well as your ability

For you to be a good communicator it is necessary to have a high

The only way to become a better listener is to practice “active

You cannot allow yourself to become distracted by what else may

Barriers to Active Listening

Internal – e.g. boredom, emotions, motivation, stress

If you're finding it particularly difficult to concentrate on what the

Strategies for Effective Listening

a) b) c) __