Sets
– A set is a collection of clearly defined objects
– It is introduced in the work of George Cantor
(1845-1918), a German Mathematician.
Sets – denoted by capital letters of the English alphabet
Elements of the set – denoted by small letters
– The order of listing the elements of a set does not
affect the set itself.
– The empty set is considered subset of all sets.
– Any set is a subset of itself.
– A set with n number of elements has 2n total number of
distinct subsets.
∈ means ”is an element of ”
∉ means ”is not an element of ”
(. . .) means there are still more elements
{x : x is a (descriptive phrase)}
” : ” colon is read as ”such that”
”|” vertical is read as such that
{} or ∅ means an empty set
U means universal set
⊆, means "is a subset or equal to"
⊂, proper subset "is a subset of"
⊈, not a subset if is at least one that is not an element
∼, equivalent (same number of elements)
≁, not equivalent ( not same number of elements)
n(A), cardinality, number of elements of A
A ∪ B, union (combine)
A ∩ B, intersection (subtract)
A’ or Ac ,complement
A \ B, difference
A × B, cartesian product, multiply each element
For any set A,A ∪ ∅ = A, A ∪ U = U and A ∪ A = A
For any set A, A ∩ ∅ = ∅, A ∩ U = A and A ∩ A = A
For any universal set U, Uc = ∅, ∅c = U
For any set A, A \ A = ∅, A \ ∅ = A.
Methods of Describing a Set
1) Roster Method
– It enumerates, lists, or tabulates distinct elements of a
set which are separated by a comma and enclosed by a
pair of braces {}.
Ex: A = {a, e, i, o, u}
2) Rule Method
– It uses a phrase that describes the property of the
elements of the set and enclosing it by a pair of braces.
– The rule method uses the set descriptive notation
{x : x is a (descriptive phrase)}.
– The letter x is a variable and is used to represent any
element of a set and may be replaced by any other
letter.
Ex: A = {x : x is a vowel of the English alphabet}
Empty Set
– An empty set or null set, denoted by {} or ∅, is a set
that does not contain any element.
Universal Set
– denoted by U, is a set containing all elements
included in a single discussion. It is a set from which all
other sets are derived.
Subset
– a set of which all the elements are contained in
another set.
– Set A is a subset of set B, denoted by A ⊆ B, if every
element of A is also an element of B.
1. The empty set is considered a subset of all sets.
2. Any set is a subset of itself.
3. A set with n number of elements has 2n total number
of distinct subsets.
Consider set E = {c, a,t}. Then E has 23 or 8 subsets
given as follows: ∅, {c}, {a}, {t}, {c, a}, {c,t}, {a,t}, {c, a,t}.
Two sets A and B are said to be equal, denoted by
A = B, if they have exactly the same elements.
one-to-one (1-1) correspondence
– if each element of A can be paired with exactly one
element of B and each element of B can be paired with
exactly one element of A.
Ex: The sets {x, y, z} and {c, a,t} are in 1-1
correspondence while {s, m, l} and {x, l} are not.
– Sets A and B are said to be equivalent, denoted by
A ∼ B, if there is a 1-1 correspondence between them.
Finite and Infinite Sets
– A set is said to be finite if it is empty or it is equivalent
to the set {1, 2, . . . , n} for some integer n. A set which
is not finite is called infinite.
Cardinality
– The cardinality of a finite set A, denoted by n(A), is the
number of elements of A..
Ex: n(A) = 5, n(B) = 86 and n(D) = 0
Venn diagram
– shows the relationships among sets and between
elements and sets. It is named after the English logician
James Venn(1834-1883).
– In a Venn diagram, the Universal set U is usually
represented by a rectangular, while the other sets that
are subsets of U are represented by circles, triangles,
and other closed geometric figures.
Operations on Sets
UNION
– combine or add up ( ang magbalik2 kas-a ra ibutang)
– The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is
the set of all elements that belong to either A or B, or
both A and B.
– In descriptive notation, A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
– For any set A,A ∪ ∅ = A, A ∪ U = U and A ∪ A = A.
Ex: Difference
A ∪ B = {a, c, e, 3, 5} ∪ {c, d, e, 4, 5, 6} – The set difference of sets A and B, denoted by A \ B,
= {a, c, e, 3, 5, d, 4, 6} is the set of all elements that are in A and not in B.
–In descriptive notation, A \ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈/ B}
– For any set A, A \ A = ∅, A \ ∅ = A.
Ex:
A \ B = {a, c, e, 3, 5} \ {c, d, e, 4, 5, 6} = {a, 3}
C’ \ A = {b, c, e, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} \ {a, c, e, 3, 5} = {b, 4, 6, 7}

Intersection
– subtract elements na dili pariha, mabilin ang same
– The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted A ∩ B,
is the set of all elements that belong to both A and B.
– In descriptive notation, A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
– For any set A, A ∩ ∅ = ∅, A ∩ U = A and A ∩ A = A.
Cartesian product
Ex:
– The Cartesian product of two nonempty sets A and B,
A ∩ B = {a, c, e, 3, 5} ∩ {c, d, e, 4, 5, 6} = {c, e, 5}
denoted by A × B, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b)
A∩B∩C=∅
where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.
– Descriptive notation,A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈
B}.
– For sets A and B, A × B 6= B × A, A × ∅ = ∅.
Ex:
Let A={1,2} and B = {a, b}.
Then A × B = {(1, a),(1, b),(2, a),(2, b)}
B × A = {(a, 1),(a, 2),(b, 1),(b, 2)}

Disjoint Properties of Set Operations

– sets whose intersection with each other results in a – Operations union ∪ and intersection ∩ are binary set
null set Ex: A ∩ B = ∅ operations while the complement ‘ is a unary operation.

Let A, B and C are sets.

Commutative Properties:
i) A ∪ B = B ∪ A ii) A ∩ B = B ∩ A

Idempotent Properties:
i) A ∪ A = A ii) A ∩ A = A

Complement
Associative Properties:
– complement of set A, denoted by A’ or Ac , is the set
i) A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
of all elements of the universal set U that do not belong
ii) A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C
to set A.
– In descriptive notation, we have A c = {x ∈ U : x ∈/
Distributive Properties:
A}
i) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
– For any universal set U, Uc = ∅, ∅c = U
ii) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
Ex: U = {a, b, c, d, e, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, A = {a, c, e, 3, 5},
B = {c, d, e, 4, 5, 6} and C = {a, d}.
De Morgan’s Laws:
Then A’ = {a, c, e, 3, 5}’ = {b, d, 4, 6, 7}
i) (A ∪ B)’ = A’ ∩ B’
(C ∩ A)’ = {a}’= {b, c, e, d, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
ii) (A ∩ B)’ = A’∪ B’
(A ∩ B)c ∪ C = {c, e, 5}c ∪ {a, d} = {a, b, d, 3, 4, 6, 7}
∪ {a, d} = {a, b, d, 3, 4, 6, 7}
Number Systems
Real numbers
Whole numbers – A real number is either a rational or an irrational
– denoted by W, is the set given by W = {0, 1, 2, . . . }. number. The set of real numbers is denoted by R.
– The number 0 is said to be unsigned, that is, it is
neither positive nor negative.

Natural numbers,
– denoted by N, is the set consisting of the positive
whole numbers. That is, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . }.
– also called a set of counting numbers or positive
integers.

Integers
– denoted by Z, is the set consisting of the natural, the
negative of natural numbers, and 0.
N = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }.
– The set N of natural numbers is a subset to the set Z
Q ∪ Q’ = R.
of integers, that is, N ⊆ Z
N⊆Z⊆Q⊆R
Factors and divisibility
– If a, b and c are nonzero integers, and ab = c, then a
and b are said to be factors or divisors of c. In this case,
c is said to be a multiple of a and b, and that c is said to
be divisible by a and b.

Prime numbers
– A prime number is an integer greater than 1 whose
only factors are 1 and the number itself.
That is, {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, . . . }

Even numbers
– An even number is an integer divisible by 2. That is, if
m is an even number then it is of the form m = 2n.
– The numbers −8, 44 and 0 are even numbers since
−8 = 2(−4), 44 = 2(22) and 0=2(0).

Odd numbers
– If m is an odd number then it is of the form m = 2n + 1
for some integer n.
– The numbers −11 and 101 are odd numbers since −11
= 2(−5) + 1 and 101 = 2(50) + 1.

Rational numbers
– The rational number is a number that can be written or
expressed as a fraction or a quotient of an integer m
and a nonzero integer n. The set of rational numbers is
denoted by Q, we write Q = { m n : m, n ∈ Z, n 6= 0}.
– The numbers −5 3 , 3 4 , 7 11, −10 and 0 are rational
numbers.
– Note that −5 3 = −1.6666 . . . , 3 4 = 0.75, 7 11 =
0.636363 . . . ,
– non-terminating and repeating and decimals

Irrational numbers
– is a number such that when it is expressed in decimal,
it is non-terminating and non-repeating. The set of
irrational numbers is denoted by Q’.
– The numbers √ 2, √3 5 and π are irrational numbers.
Note that √ 2 = 1.414213562 . . . ,
– The sets Q and Q’ are disjoint, that is, Q ∩ Q’ = ∅.
Fractals
- derived from the Latin word fractus' which means
fragmented or broken.
- “a rough or fragmented geometric shape that can be
split into parts, each of which (at least approximately) is
a reduced-size copy of the whole.” (Benoit Mandelbrot)
Characteristics
(1) Self-similarity
– parts have the same form or structures as the whole,
at least approximately, if not exactly. That is, part of the
object & magnified, looks like copy of the whole image.
Geometric Fractals
– Geometric fractals can be made by repeating simple
processes involving plane transformations.
– When a process is repeated over and over, each
repetition is called iteration.
(1) Cantor Set
– It was discovered in 1874 by Henry John Stephen
Smith and introduced by German mathematician Georg
Cantor in 1883.

(2) Fractal dimension

– The associated degree of complexity of shape,
structure and texture of fractals are quantified in terms
Each segment is replaced by two segments. Thus, N=3
of fractal dimension.
Each new segment is 1/3 of the segment length from
– a measure of the space-filling capacity of a pattern
the previous level, so s=1/3.Therefore, the dimension is
that tells how a fractal scales differently than the space
it is embedded in. In a rough sense, it measures"how
many points" lie in a given set
– does not have to be an integer. For self-similar (2) Sierpinski Triangle
object,the fractal dimension is given by – The Sierpinski triangle was named after the Polish
mathematician Waclaw Sierpinski who discovered and
investigated it in 1915

– For non-perfectly similar objects like coastlines,some

use the grid counting method or box-counting method at
different scales.

(3) Sierpinski Carpet

This is a famous fractal first described in 1916 by
WaclawSierpinski (1882-1969). This was used in
designing antennas in cell phones as the number of
scales allows for a wide range of receptions.
Note: The bigger the fractal dimension, the more rough
is the structure.
– A curve with a fractal dimension very near to1, say
1.10,behaves quite like an ordinary line, but a curve with
fractal dimension 1.9 winds convolutedly through space
very nearly like a surface.
– Similarly, a surface with a fractal dimension of 2.1 fills
space very much like an ordinary surface, but one with
a fractal dimension of 2.9 folds and flows to fill space – The original square is reduced to eight smaller
rather nearly like a volume. squares in the next level, so N=8. The Magnification
factor is 3 (or scaling factor is 1/3)because the side
Note: The value of D quantifies the pattern's inherent length of these squares can be multiplied by 3 to find
scaling, but does not uniquely describe nor provide the side length of the original shape, s = 1/3. Thus, its
enough information to reconstruct it. dimensions

(3) As a mathematical equation, a fractal is nowhere

differentiable.
An infinite fractal curve can be conceived of as winding
through space differently from an ordinary line–although
it is still 1-dimensional, its fractal dimension indicates
that it also resembles a surface.
(4) Menger Sponge
– - is a famous fractal solid that is the three-dimensional
equivalent of the one dimensional Cantor set and the
two-dimensional Sierpinski carpet.
– first described by Karl Menger in 1926 Fractals in Algebra
– Fractals can also be created algebraically by
repeatedly calculating a simple equation. Because the
calculations are done many times, computers are
necessary. Branching fractals are also observed in
algebraic fractals. It is a never-ending process called
bifurcation.

(1)The Mandelbrot Set

Step 1: Put 20 cubes – One of the most intricate and beautiful images in
together to form another mathematics is the Mandelbrot set, discovered by
cube with the center parts Benoit Mandelbrot in1980, also responsible for the
removed. development of fractal science.
Step 2: Using the same – The Mandelbrot set was discovered shortly after the
pattern, 20 step 1 cubes invention of the personal computer. The time when
can be put together to Mandelbrot began his research in IBM.
form a step 2 structure – It is a set of points in the complex plane, the boundary
with 20x20=400 cubes. of which forms a fractal. Mathematically, the Mandelbrot
Step 3: Twenty step 2 cubes form a step 3 cube with set can be generated using a very simple iterative
20x20x20=8,000 cubes. The cube is being emptied of formula, called the quadratic recurrence equation,
its volume. applied to points in complex plane

– At any stage k, there are cubes. Also, at each stage,

the edge-length of the last cubes is reduced by 1/3 and
replicated 20 times. Thus, N =20, s = 1/3 and D = log
20/log 3=2.73.

(5) Koch Snowflake

– first appeared in a paper published by the Swedish
mathematician Niels Fabian Helge von Koch in 1906.

(2) Julia Sets

– Julia sets, discovered by Gaston Maurice Julia, are
closely related to the Mandelbrot set. The iterative
function used to produce them is the same as that of the
Mandelbrot set. They differ only in the way the formula
Step 1 Start with a large equilateral is used.
triangle.
Step 2 Make a star. Divide one side of
the triangle into three parts and remove
the middle section. Replace it with two lines the same
length as the section you removed. Do this to all three
sides of the triangle.
Step 3 Repeat the process

In every Mandelbrot, there is an infinite number of

Julia sets.

Applications of Fractals
– galaxy, lungs, pixels, Solving Chromosomes' Structure
Each segment is replaced by the motif that has 4
Fractals, genes,
pieces, so N = 4.
– snowflake, unfurling fern, nautilus shell, gecko’s foot,
Each new segment is 1/3 of
frost crystal, angelica flowerhead, lightning, romanesco
the segment length from the
broccoli,
previous level s = 1/3. Thus,
– Most people are extremely familiar with fractals
D=log4/ log3=1.26
because they are seen throughout the natural world.
Here are some of the most stunning examples of
fractals in nature.
TESSELLATION Irregular Tessellation
– A tiling or tessellation of a plane is the covering of a – can be formed from almost any kind of geometric
plane using one or more geometric shapes,called tiles, shapes. Ex: Jigsaw Puzzle
with no overlaps and no gaps. – M. C. Escher, a Dutch artist, is famous for making
– It is derived from the Latin word “tessella” - a small tessellations with irregular interlocking tiles, shaped like
cubical piece of clay, stone or glass used to make animals and other natural objects.
mosaics. It means “small square”.
– The word “tessares” in Greek means four
– It is a pattern in which geometric figures repeat and
the repeated figures fit perfectly together.
– They form a pattern that can stretch in every direction
on the coordinate plane.

Tessellations are also called:

Pavings - outdoor floor, superficial surface covering.
Parquetings - flooring composed of wooden blocks
“We adore chaos because we love to produce order.”
arranged in a geometric pattern.
– Maurits Cornelis Escher
Mosaics - piece art made of small pieces of materials.
Tessellations in Nature
Regular Tessellation
– honeycomb, mud crack, pineapple, turtle shell,
– a tessellation formed by only one type of regular
colchicum flower, prickly pear cactus
polygon. Example: honeycomb
– Shapes that form regular tessellations are:
Tessellations in Art

– Shapes that will not tessellate are:

– In order for a regular polygon to be tileable, its interior

angle must divide evenly into 360°. The interior angle of
a regular polygon with sides is

Where to Find Tessellations?

– The first houses, churches and castles were built by
broken stones which made up random tessellations
– In Gothic architecture, window-panes (mosaics with
colored glass pieces connected by leadstrips) have
occurred.
– Different sorts of parquetings, complicated covering of
Semi-regular Tessellation
ceilings or room's walls by tiles, or pavings of paths and
– a tessellation made from two or more polygons
places are samples of tessellations documenting human
– also called Archimedian tessellation
creativity. Al Hambra Palace in Spain

Tessellations in Architecture
– Al Hambra Palace in Spain
– Ravensbourne College in London
– Bond Architectural University in Australia
– Hazrate-Masomeh’s Mosque, Iran
– Museum of Modern Art in Warsaw
– Tiled floor in the Archeological Museum of Seville,
Spain, using square, triangle and hexagon prototiles
Tessellations in Weaving Designs
– Basket Weave Tessellation
– Woven Fabric from Bhutan (malong pd)
– Knitted Fish Blanket

Tessellations in Board Games

– Carrom board & Chess board

Make a Tessellation
Exploit symmetries
– translation, rotation, reflection
Start with a regular tessellation
– Square, triangle, hexagon
Apply transformations

Make a Tessellation (Translation)

1. Draw square on a blank piece of paper and cut it out.
2. Draw a curve joining two consecutive vertices.
3. Cut along the curve you have drawn and slide the
cutout piece to the opposite side of the square.
4. Repeat this with 2 other opposite sides of the square.