FM 101-Foundation Mathematics 1 2019

Lecture Notes 1: September 3, 2019

Lecturer: D.S Chikopela SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, CUZ.

1.1 SETS, RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

1.1.1 SETS

A set is a collection of well defined objects. The objects in a set are also called elements.

1.1.2 Standard Notation

• N: the set of natural numbers.
• W: the set of whole numbers.
• Z: the set of integers.
• Q: the set of rational numbers.
• I: the set of irrational numbers.
• R: the set of real numbers.
• C: the set of complex numbers.
• ∈: ’belongs to’.

Example 1.1 In the set of natural numbers N, we know that 1 is a natural number and −1 is not. We write
symbolically as 1 ∈ N and −1 ∈
/ N.

1.1.3 SET DESCRIPTION

There are essentially two methods of describing sets, namely

1.1.4 Roster Method:

In this method, a set is represented by listing all its elements while separating them using commas and
enclosing them in curly brackets.

Example 1.2

(a) If A is the set of natural numbers less than 10, then A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.
(b) If W is the set of vowels of the English alphabet, then W = {a, e, i, o, u}.

1-1
1-2 Lecture 1: September 3, 2019

(c) If M is the set of letters in the word ’mathematics’, then M = {m, a, t, h, e, i, c, s}.

Remark 1.3 When writing a set in Roster form, elements are not to be repeated. We say that a set contains
distinct elements. Check part (c) of the previous example where M is not given as M = {m, a, t, h, e, m, a, t, i, c, s}
but as M = {m, a, t, h, e, i, c, s}. That is the elements m, a, t are not to be repeated.

1.1.5 Set-Builder Method:

In this method, elements of a set are not listed but rather described by a common property.

Example 1.4

(a) If A is the set of natural numbers less than 10, then A = {x : x ∈ N and x < 10}.
(b) If W is the set of vowels of the English alphabet, then W = {x : x is a vowel of the English alphabet}.
(c) If M is the set of letters in the word ’mathematics’, then M = {x : x is a letter in the word mathematics}.

Note 1.5 The symbol 0 :0 or | is read as ’such that’.

Example 1.6 Write the following in set builder form:

(a) A = {−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.

(b) B = {3, 6, 9, 12}.
(c) C = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.

working

(a) A = {x : x ∈ Z and − 4 ≤ x ≤ 4}.

(b) B = {x : x = 3n, n ∈ N and n ≤ 4}.
(c) C = {x : x = 2n, n ∈ W and n ≤ 5}.

Example 1.7 Write the following in Roster form:

(a) A = {x : x ∈ N and 100 ≤ x < 109}.

(b) B = {x : x ∈ R and x + 3 = 2x − 4}.
(c) C = {x : x ∈ Z and x + 3 = 4x − 4}

working

(a) A = {100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108}.
Lecture 1: September 3, 2019 1-3

(b) Here we first solve the equation x + 3 = 2x − 4 to obtain x = 7 and thus A = {7}.

(c) Solving the equation x+3 = 4x−4 yields x = 2 13 . Note however that 2 31 is not an integer and therefore
our equation has no solution in the set of integers. We represent set C simply as C = {}.

1.1.6 SET CLASSES

• Infinite and Finite Sets: If A = {x : x is an integer} and B = {x : x ∈ Z and − 4 ≤ x ≤ 4}, then
A is an example of an infinite set while B is an example of a finite set. We therefore say that a set is
finite if its elements can be counted to the last one and infinite if it is not possible to count to the last
element.

• Empty (Null) Set: Consider the set C = {x : x ∈ Z and x + 3 = 4x − 4}. We saw that the equation
x + 3 = 4x − 4 has no solution in the set of integers and thus this set contains no elements. Such a set
is said to be an empty or null set. An empty or null set is denoted by {} or ∅.

• Singleton Set: Consider the following set A = {x : x is an even prime number}. Note that there
is only one even prime number and that is 2, therefore set A has only one element, A = {2}. A set
which has only one element is called a singleton set.

• Equal and Equivalent Sets: Consider the following sets

(i) A = {2, 3, 5, 1} and B = {1, 2, 3, 5}.

(ii) C = {a, b, c} and D = {1, 2, 3}.

In part (i), sets A and B are said to be equal, we write A = B. That is the elements in A are the same
as the elements in B and the elements in B are also the same as the elements in A. In part (ii), sets
C and D are said to be equivalent, we write C ≡ D since the two have an equal number of elements
but note that they are not the same elements. In fact equality implies equivalent and not vice versa.

• Disjoint Sets: Consider the sets A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {5, 6, 7, 8}. The two sets are disjoint since
they do not have any elements in common. Two sets are said to be disjoint if they do not have any
common elements.

Example 1.8 Which of the following sets are finite and which are infinite?

(a) Set of points on a straight line.

(b) Set of lines which are parallel to a given line.

(c) Set of natural numbers less than or equal to 40.

working

(a) Since we cannot count all the points on a straight line, this set is infinite.

(b) We equally cannot count the number of lines parallel to a given line. This set too is infinite.

(c) We can count the natural numbers from 1 to 40 in fact there are 40 of them. This set is finite.
1-4 Lecture 1: September 3, 2019

Example 1.9 Which of the following sets are null or singleton?

(a) A = {x : x ∈ Z and x is a solution of x-4=0}.

(b) B = {x : x ∈ R and x is a solution of x2 + 1 = 0}.

(c) C = {x : x ∈ Z and x is a solution of x2 − 3 = 0}.

working

(a) A = {x : x ∈ Z and x is a solution of x-4=0}. Since x − 4 = 0 =⇒ x = 4 and 4 is an integer, we

have that A = {4}. This is a singleton set.
√
(b) The equation x2 − 1 = 0 =⇒ x = ± −1 but this is not a real number thus B contains no elements
and it is null.
√
(c) The equation x2 − 3 = 0 =⇒ x = ± 3 but this is not an integer thus C contains no elements and it
is null.

Example 1.10 In the following check whether A = B or A ≡ B.

(a) A = {b} and B = {x : x is an even prime number}.

(b) A = {2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {x : x is a letter of the word guava}.

(c) A = {1, 2} and B = {x : x is a solution of the equation (x-1)(x-2)=0}.

working

(a) A = {b} and B = {2}. Hence A ≡ B.

(b) A = {2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {g, u, a, v}. Hence A ≡ B.

(c) The equation (x − 1)(x − 2) = 0 =⇒ x − 1 = 0 =⇒ x = 1, x − 2 = 0 =⇒ x = 2 and thus B = {1, 2}.

We have that A = B.

1.1.7 Subsets

Consider the two sets A = {a, e, i, o, u} and A = {a, b, e, i, o, u, f }. We see that every element of set A is an
element of set B and thus deduce that set A is a subset of set B. We use the notation ’⊂’ to mean proper
subset. Thus if A and B are any sets such that every element of set A is an element of set B then we write
A ⊂ B. In this case the number of elements is different otherwise we write A ⊆ B.

Remark 1.11

• Every set is a subset of itself, that is A ⊆ A,

Lecture 1: September 3, 2019 1-5

• ∅ ⊂ A for any set A,

• A = B ⇐⇒ A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A.

Example 1.12 Let A = {x : x is an odd number, 0 < x < 10} and

B = {x : x is a prime number, 2 < x < 10}. Then A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {3, 5, 7}. We conclude that
B ⊂ A.

1.1.8 Universal Set

This is the set containing all the sets under consideration. We denote it by U or E.

Example 1.13 Let A = {x : x ∈ Q},

B = {x : x ∈ Z} and C = {x : x ∈ R}. Then B ⊂ A ⊂ C and we take U = C.

1.1.9 Venn Diagram

The Venn diagram is a diagrammatical representation of sets due to a British mathematician Venn John
(1834−1883 AD). The universal set is represented by the interior of a rectangle and other sets are represented
by circles inside this rectangle. For instance, if A, B and C are sets with some common elements in a universal
set U , we have the Venn diagram:

1.1.10 Set Operations

We will look at four many operations on sets, namely

• Intersection: Let A and B be two sets. The intersection of A and B is given by

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

Thus the intersection of two sets contains elements which are common to both sets.

• Union: Let A and B be two sets. The union of A and B is given by

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

Thus the union of two sets contains elements which are in either set A or set B. They might even be
in both sets. Thus we get a collection of all the elements in sets A and B without repetition.

• Complement: Let A be any set. The complement of set A is given by

0
A = {x : x ∈
/ A}.

Thus the complement of set A contains elements which are not in set A.

• Difference of two Sets: Let A and B be two sets. The difference of set A and B is given by
0
A − B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B} = A ∩ B .
1-6 Lecture 1: September 3, 2019

• Symmetric Difference of two Sets: Let A and B be two sets. The symmetric difference of set A
and B is given by

A 4 B = {x : x ∈ (A − B) ∪ (B − A)} = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B).

Example 1.14 Given that U = {x : x ∈ Z and −1 < x ≤ 19}, A = {6, 8, 10, 12, 14}, B = {3, 8, 12, 15, 16, 17}
and C = {8, 15, 16, 19} . Find the following

(a) A ∩ B.
(b) A − B.
(c) B 4 C.

working

(a) By definition A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B} = {8, 12}.

(b) By definition A − B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B} = {6, 10, 14}.
(c) By definition B 4 C = (B − C) ∪ (C − B) = {3, 12, 17, 19}.

Example 1.15 Given that A, B and C are any sets, illustrate the following sets in a Venn digram

(a) A ∩ B.

(b) A − B.
(c) B 4 C.

working
Lecture 1: September 3, 2019 1-7

Parts (a) and (b) are left for the student. Part (c) is illustrated as below:

1.1.11 Set Laws

Here are the four set laws to help us carry out set operations successfully.

• Commutative Law: If A and B are any sets, then

(i) A ∩ B = B ∩ A,
(i) A ∪ B = B ∪ A.

• Associative Law: If A, B and C are any sets, then

(i) A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C,
(i) A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C.

• Distributive Law: If A, B and C are any sets, then

(i) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C),
(i) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

• De − Morgan0 s Laws: If A and B are any sets, then

0 0 0
(i) (A ∪ B) = A ∩ B ,
0 0 0
(i) (A ∩ B) = A ∪ B ,

0 0
Remark 1.16 Let U be a universal set, A and B be any sets. Then, A ∩ A = ∅, A ∪ A = U , A ∪ ∅ = A,
A ∩ ∅ = ∅, A ∪ U = U , A ∩ U = A and if A ⊂ B then A ∩ B = A, A ∪ B = B.

Example 1.17 Let X and Y be any sets. Simplify

0 0
(a) [(X ∩ Y ) ∪ X] .

(b) (X ∩ Y ) ∪ (X − Y ).

working

(a) We have the following:

0 0 0 0
[(X ∩ Y ) ∪ X] = [(X ∪ X) ∩ (Y ∪ X)] (Distributive Law)
0
= [U ∩ (Y ∪ X)]
0
= (Y ∪ X)
0 0
= Y ∩ X (De-Morgan’s Law)
1-8 Lecture 1: September 3, 2019

(b) We have the following:

0
(X ∩ Y ) ∪ (X − Y ) = (X ∩ Y ) ∪ (X ∩ Y )
0
= X ∩ (Y ∪ Y )
=X ∩U
=X

In the next Lecture, we will discuss Sets of Numbers, Power Sets, Relations and Functions. Here is an
exercise for this Lecture.

Exercise 1.18

(1) Write the following sets in Set Builder Form:

(a) A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12},

√ √
(b) B = { 3, − 3},
(c) C = {1, 2, −3}

(2) Let N be the universal set. Let A, B and C be subsets of N such that

(a) A = {x : x is an even natural number},

(b) B = {x : x ∈ N and x is a multiple of 3}
(c) B = {x : x ∈ N and x ≥ 6}

0 0 0
Find A , B and C .

(3) If A = {2, 4, 5, 7, 10, 13} and B = {1, 7, 13, 19, 20}, find the following

(a) A − B,
(b) B − A,
(c) A 4 B,
(d) B 4 A.

(4) Draw Venn Diagrams for each of the following

(a) B ∩ A given that A ⊂ B,

(b) B ∩ A given that A and B are neither subsets of each other nor disjoint sets,
(c) A − B, given that A ⊂ B,
(d) B − A, given that A ⊂ B,
(e) B − A given that A and B are neither subsets of each other nor disjoint sets,
Lecture 1: September 3, 2019 1-9

0
(5) Prove that A − B = A ∩ B .
0 0 0
(6) Prove that (A ∩ B) = A ∪ B .
(7) Let X and Y be any sets. Simplify
0 0
(a) [(X ∪ Y ) ∩ X] ,
0 0 0
(b) (X ∪ Y ) ∩ (X − Y ) ,
0 0
(c) [(X ∩ Y ) ∪ X] ,
(d) X ∪ ∅,
(e) X ∩ ∅,
0
(f ) X ∩ ∅ ,
0
(g) U ∩ Y