Name: Jennifer T.

Bactong Year/Section: BEE-IV

Professor: Dr. Rennie C. Saranza Date: November 5, 2021

Module 2, Topic 1-5

Topic 1: Speech Communities

Let’s Check

1. Explain the major factors that gave rise to the concept of speech communities.

- It was during the year of the 1960’s when the concept of ‘speech community’ as a
focus of linguistic analysis, was first established. William Labov’s pioneering work on the
studies of language variation in New York City and Martha‘s Vineyard in the United
States of America has been the main drive that helped laid the groundwork for
sociolinguistics as a social science. According to Labov’s studies, not only were class and
profession clearly related to language variation within a speech community, but that
socio-economic aspirations and mobility were also of great importance. The closest
linguistic field, prior to Labov’s studies includes dialectology, which studies linguistic
variation between different dialects. One major factor that I could think of which really
paved the way and gave rise to the concept of speech communities is because, there
was no framework when it comes to describing language variations in cities.

2. What are the opposing reasons against the concept of speech communities?

- The opposing reasons against the concept of speech communities comes from the
ideas of Gumperz (1968) Labov (1972;36) and Hudson (1996;58). According to Gumperz
(1968), a ‘speech community' is “any human aggregate characterized by regular and
frequent interaction by means of a shared body of verbal signs and set off from similar
aggregates by significant differences in language usage”. Gumperz argues for regular
relationships between language use and social structure. He states that “the speech
varieties employed within a speech community form a system because they are related
to a shared set of social norms‖ but may overlap language boundaries: e.g. Czech,
Austrian German, and Hungarian speakers may share norms for speech acts, topics,
conversational participation. Labov, on the other hand, explains that “the speech
community is not defined by any marked agreement in the use of language elements, so
much as by participation in a set of shared norms. These norms may be observed in
overt types of evaluative behavior, and by the uniformity of abstract patterns of
variation which are invariant in respect to particular levels of usage”.‖ Hudson, however,
 says that the term ‘speech community‘ misleads ―by implying the existence of ‘real
communities’ out there, which we could discover if we only knew how.

Topic 2: Speech Acts and Speech Events

Let’s Check

1. With concrete examples, explain the concepts of locution, illocution and perlocution in
speech acts.

- The concepts of locution, illocution and perlocution, are among the four important
categories of speech acts, a theory that was proposed by Austin (1962) and Searle (1969).
 Locutionary acts – the acts of uttering sounds, syllables, words, phrases, and sentences
from a language. For example, pupils being asked to read aloud the poem titled “All
Things Bright and Beautiful” without incorporating gestures, only pure reading aloud
and nothing more.
 Illocutionary acts - are performed in doing something with an utterance. Example is
when I utter the sentence “I am holding the glass”. It is an example of an
illocutionary act since I am only stating that I am holding a glass. Another is
when one’s mother threatens “You will be grounded for two weeks if you do not
finish your school works!”
 Perlocutionary acts - are performed by producing an effect on the hearer with an
utterance. Example is when one delivers an essay with an intention to persuade.
Another is when you are talking to someone you don’t like, you try to intimidate them
either with body language or through conversation such as telling your coworker how
incompetent they are when you are around other workers. This actually is very insulting
and should never be done by anyone, regardless of who they are.

2. Using a practical discourse as reference, describe the eight components of speech events.

- Two friends were talking over the phone about how their holidays went.
M: Hello, Amy. How is your trip to Boracay?
A: It was very good, Martha! The sand was very white and the water is as clear as the
blue sky!
M: Wow! What a fun holiday you had!
A: How about you, Martha? Where did you visit this time?
M: Oh, my family went to Paris and we took pictures of the Eiffel tower. It was very tall
and the French cuisine is something you’ll really love.
 A: Oh, great! I wish my family could go to France next year. Well, mom’s calling me,
Martha! I have to hang up the phone now. It’s really nice talking to you and I hope we
could meet soon. Bye, Martha!
M: Bye, Amy. See you soon!

Setting: At the respective homes of the two friends, Amy and Martha.
Participants: Amy and Martha.
Ends: To inquire about each others’ trips during the holiday season.
Act sequences: An oral communication between two friends over the phone. Since this
is only between friends, the communication inclines more to the informal side.
Keys: A discourse between two friends regarding their experiences on the holidays.
Instrumentalities: The code of communication was done through a mobile phone.
Norms: The friends were gay and excited upon sharing their experiences. The other was
hopeful and wishes that maybe next year, their family could visit France, too.
Genres: The genre is chat since the two were only having a friendly conversation.

Topic 3: Dialects, Idiolects, Sociolects

Let’s Check

1. Identify the basis for sociolects in societies.

- In linguistics, a sociolect is the variety of language characteristic of a social background

or status. It is a portmanteau term combining the morphemes ‘socio’, meaning social
and ‘lect’, meaning a variety of language. The basis for sociolects in societies are the
following:
a) Each social dialect is adequate as a functional and effective variety of English or other
languages
b) Each serves a communication function as well as a social solidarity function
c) Maintains the communication network and the social construct of the community of
speakers who use it.
d) Each is a symbolic representation of the historical, social, and cultural background of
the speakers.

2. Describe the characteristics of idiolects in sociolinguistic situations.

- An idiolect is a variety of a language unique to an individual. It is manifested by

patterns of word selection and grammar, or words, phrases, idioms, or pronunciations
 that are unique to that individual. Every individual has an idiolect; the grouping of words
and phrases is unique, rather than an individual using specific words that nobody else
uses. The characteristics of idiolects in sociolinguistic situations include:

a) Can easily evolve into an ‘ecolect‘– a dialect variant specific to a household.

b) Use idiolects to decide if a certain person did or did not produce a given piece of
writing (or transcribed speech).
c) Are immortalized in the form of nicknames.
d) Are derived from abstract, standardised language ideas, defended by ―authorities‖
(such as dictionary editors),
e) A base for investigating language evolution on a genetic model: the existence of the
species (individual language) is extrapolated from a multitude of organisms (idiolects)
with common features.
f) Change through contact with other idiolects, and change throughout their lifetime as
well as from generation to generation
g) Have such a large capacity for change, particularly in the current era, with increasing
contact between many different people, that the systematic aspects of language that
are the traditional arena of linguistic study are constantly in flux.

Topic 4: Code Mixing and Code Switching

Let’s Check

1. Explain the major differences between Code Switching and Code Mixing. Use practical
examples.

- I am of opinion that when we say code-switching it refers to how one uses or switches
to another language while speaking or uttering a sentence. One best example that I
could fit this into is what we call here in the Philippines, “taglish” where we switch to
using English words in the middle of our sentence or everytime we forgot the term in
the vernacular. For example “Hugasi na tong rice cooker kaw kay para maka lung-ag
nata’g start.” The sentence is an example of code-switching where in the middle of my
sentence; I inserted or switched to the English word ‘rice cooker’ and ‘start’ in conveying
my message. On the other hand, when we say code-mixing, it refers to the admixture of
linguistic elements of two or more language systems in the same utterance at various
levels. An example of code mixing is the sentence, “Didtoa man gud sila nibisita sa
Palawan gahapon. Shiela said they had fun time swimming at the beach there. Tapos
 pagkahuman nihapit daw sila sa Boracay. You know, to get the best out of their trip,
they said. Mao rato, share ko lang naman ang iyang giingon.”

2. Discuss the possible situations that could result in code switching and code mixing in the
Philippines.

- The Philippines has undergone many colonial rules from the earliest years of our
history. There was the Spaniards who colonized the Philippines for three hundred and
thirty-three years, the Americans and also the Japanese. Many of our words came from
the Spanish language, although the pronunciation may have been slightly changed as
the time passed, still many of our words are borrowed from the Spanish language. Some
examples include ‘lamesa’ or ‘mesa’, ‘kutsara’, ‘kusina’, ‘kumusta’, ‘ayuda’, ‘bakuna’ and
many others. But at present, English is more widely known and used here in our
country. In fact, it is our official second language and is used in many of our formal
documents. One example situation where we tend to use code-switching and code-
mixing in the Philippines is when we forget certain ‘terms’ in our own language.

Topic 5: Register, Style and Usage

Let’s Check

1. Explain the social determinants of an individual‘s language use.

- Our manner of speaking and choice of words may vary depending on the social
environment that we are in, or the people we interact with. For instance, we opt to be
more formal and speak professionally especially when we are inside the classroom and
talking to our peers and teachers. We tend to adapt to the environment that we are
interacting with so as to keep at par with the common usage of language and the
manner of speaking. But, when we are at home, and talking with friends or families, we
tend to be more informal with our conversation, unlike when we are in a professional
field such as work and school. One’s style is also another example of a social
determinant of an individual’s language use. In short, social determinants play an
important role on how individuals use language.

2. Some sociolinguists argue that style is a determinant of social situations. How viable is this
postulation?

- While it is possible that style can be considered as a determinant of social situation, it

is, however, important to take note that not only style can be strongly pushed as the
sole determinant of social situations, as there are in fact, many. As we have learned,
 style is personal and it includes the expected behavior associated with a particular
status. With this in mind, the postulation of some linguistics who argued that style is a
determinant of social situations may be considered as viable, but not highly. Our
language use may be greatly influenced by our style and also to that of the social
situation that we deal ourselves with.

3. Using real-life situations, explain field, tenor and mode in communication.

- An example of a real-life situation which incorporates field, tenor and mode in

communication is to that of a mother patiently and caringly disciplining her children.
Situation: Aling Maria’s sons namely, Jonathan and Gary argued about who should own
the new toy truck their father bought for them. Jonathan, being the eldest one took it
upon himself to automatically own the toy. Gary was very upset and was about to throw
a fit to his older brother when Aling Maria, their mother, suddenly arrived home from
her work at the office. Aling Maria then counsels her children about the importance of
valuing one another and the concept of sharing (field). The mother of the children is the
higher authority from which the audience, which refers to her sons, should listen to and
emulate, as someone they look up and give utmost respect (tenor). The mother calmly
and lovingly speaks to her children and discussed to them how important it is to be able
to understand each other since they are siblings and must love one another and be
there for each other no matter what happens (mode).