Professional Documents
Culture Documents
050003 (2013)
www.papersinphysics.org
M. N. Kuperman
1, 2 ∗
Since its rst formulations almost a century ago, mathematical models for disease spreading
contributed to understand, evaluate and control the epidemic processes. They promoted a
dramatic change in how epidemiologists thought of the propagation of infectious diseases.
In the last decade, when the traditional epidemiological models seemed to be exhausted,
new types of models were developed. These new models incorporated concepts from graph
theory to describe and model the underlying social structure. Many of these works merely
produced a more detailed extension of the previous results, but some others triggered a
completely new paradigm in the mathematical study of epidemic processes. In this review,
we will introduce the basic concepts of epidemiology, epidemic modeling and networks, to
nally provide a brief description of the most relevant results in the eld.
∗ E-mail:
zae bacteria. Several other attempts to develop
kuperman@cab.cnea.gov.ar
similar vaccines followed this initiative. However,
050003-1
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
050003-2
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
the model described by Eq. (1) infected individuals will develop the infection to be-
come infectious. After a dened period of time, the
ma2 bc infected individuals heal and remain permanently
R0 = . (2)
rµm immune. The interaction between any two individ-
uals of the population is considered as a stochas-
It is clear that the choice of the parameters aects
tic process with a dened probability of occurrence
R0 . The main result is that it is possible to re-
that most of the deterministic model translates into
duce R0 by increasing the mosquito mortality and
a contact rate.
reducing the biting rate. For his work on malaria,
Given a closed population and the number of in-
Ross was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1902.
dividuals in each state, the calculation of the evo-
Ross' pioneering work was later extended to
lution of the epidemics is straightforward. The epi-
include other ingredients and enhance the pre-
demic event is over when no infective individuals
dictability power of the original epidemiological
remain.
model [511].
While many classic deterministic epidemiologi-
Some years after Ross had proposed his model, a
cal models were having success at describing the
couple of seminal works established the basis of the
dynamics of an infectious disease in a population,
current trends in mathematical epidemiology. Both
it was noted that many involved processes could be
models consider the population divided into three
better described by stochastic considerations and
epidemiological groups or compartments: suscepti-
thus a new family of stochastic models was devel-
ble (S), infected (I) and recovered (R).
oped [1419]. Sometimes, deterministic models in-
On the one hand, Kermack and McKendrick [12]
troduce some colateral mistakes due to the contin-
proposed a SIR model that expanded Ross' set of
uous character of the involved quantities.An exam-
dierential equations. The model did not consider
ple of such a case is discussed in Ref. [20]. In Ref.
the existence of a vector, but a direct transmission
[21], the authors proposed a deterministic model
from an infected individual to a susceptible one.
to describe the prevalence of rabies among foxes in
A particular case of the original model, in which
England. They predicted a sharp decaying preva-
there is no age dependency of the transmission and
lence of the rabies up to negligible levels, followed
recovery rate, is the classical SIR model that will
by an unexpected new outbreak of infected foxes.
be explained later.
The spontaneous outbreak after the apparent dis-
On the other hand, Reed and Frost [13] devel-
appearing of the rabies is due to a ctitious very
oped a SIR discrete and stochastic epidemic model
low endemic level of infected foxes, as explained in
to describe the relationship between susceptible,
Ref. [20]. The former one is one among several ex-
infected and recovered immune individuals in a
amples of how stochastic models contributed to a
population. It is a chain binomial model of epi-
better understanding and explanation of some ob-
demic spread that was intended mainly for teach-
served phenomena but, as their predecessors, they
ing purposes, but that is the starting point of many
considered a mean eld scheme in the set of dier-
modern epidemiological studies. The model can
ential equations.
be mapped into a recurrence equation that denes
Traditional epidemiological models have success-
what will happen at a given moment depending on
fully describe the generalities of the time evolu-
what has happened in the previous one,
tion of epidemics, the dierential eect on each
It age group, and some other relevant aspects of an
It+1 = St (1 − (1 − ρ) ), (3)
epidemiological event. But all of them are based
where It is the number of cases at time t, St is the on a fully-mixing approximation, proposing that
number of susceptible individuals at time t and ρ each individual has the same probability of getting
is the probability of contagion. in touch with any other individual in the popula-
The basic assumption of these SIR models, which tion. The real underlying pattern of social contacts
is present in almost any epidemiological work, is shows that each individual has a nite set of ac-
that the infection is spread directly from infectious quaintances that serve as channels to promote the
individuals to susceptible ones after a certain type contagion. While the fully mixed approximation al-
of interaction between them. In turn, these newly lows for writing down a set of dierential equations
050003-3
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
and a further exploitation of a powerful analytic has not been aected by the disease but may be in-
set of tools, a better description of the structure fected in case of contact with a sick person. The
of the social network provides the models with the I group corresponds to those individuals already
capacity to compute the epidemic dynamics at the infected and who are also responsible for the trans-
population scale from the individual-level behavior mission of the disease to the susceptible group. The
of infections, with a more accurate representation removed group R includes those individuals recov-
of the actual contact pattern. This, in turn, reects ered from the disease who have temporary or per-
some emergent behavior that cannot be reproduced manent immunity or, eventually, those who have
with a system based on a set of dierential equa- died from the illness and not from other causes.
tion under the fully mixing assumption. One of These models may or may not include the vital dy-
the most representative examples of this behavior namics, associated with birth and death processes.
is the so called herd immunity, a form of immunity Its inclusion depends on the length of time over
that occurs when the vaccination of a signicant which the spread of the disease is studied.
portion of the population is enough to block the
advance of the infection on other non vaccinated
i. The SIR Model
individuals. Additionally, some network models al-
low also for an analytic study of the described pro- As mentioned before, in 1927, Kermack and McK-
cess. It is not surprising then that during the last endrick [12] developed a mathematical model in
decade, a new tendency in epidemiological model- which they considered a constant population di-
ing emerged together with the inclusion of complex vided into three epidemiological groups : suscep-
networks as the underlying social topology in any tible, infected and recovered. The equations of a
epidemic event. This new approach proves to con- SIR model are
tribute with a further understanding of the dynam-
ics of an epidemics and unveils the crucial eect of
dS
the social architecture in the propagation of any = −βSI
infectious disease.
dt
dI
In the following section, we will introduce some = βSI − γI (4)
dt
generalities about traditional epidemiological mod-
dR
els. In section III, we will present the most com- = γI,
monly used complex networks when formulating an
dt
epidemiological model. In section IV, we will de- where the involved quantities are the proportion
scribe the most relevant results obtained by mod- of individuals in each group. As the population is
eling epidemiological processes using complex net- constant,
works to describe the social topology. Next, we will
introduce the concept of herd protection or immu- S(t) + I(t) + R(t) = 1. (5)
nity and a discussion of some of the works that treat
this phenomenon. The SIR model is used when the disease under
study confers permanent immunity to infected in-
dividuals after recovery or, in extreme cases, it kills
II. Basic Epidemiological Models them. After the contagious period, the infected in-
dividual recovers and is included in the R group.
Two main groups can be singled out among the These models are suitable to describe the behav-
deterministic models for the spread of infectious ior of epidemics produced by virus agent diseases
diseases which are transmitted through person-to- (measles, chickenpox, mumps, HIV, poliomyelitis)
person contact: the SIR and the SIS. The names [22].
of these models are related to the dierent groups The model formulated through Eq. (4) assumes
considered as components of the population or epi- that all the individuals in the population have the
demiological compartments: S corresponds to sus- same probability of contracting the disease with
ceptible, I to infected and R to removed. The S a rate of β, the contact rate. The number of in-
group represents the portion of the population that fected increases proportionally to both the number
050003-4
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
Proportion
of infection and recovery are much faster than the
0.4
characteristic times associated to births and deaths.
Usually, the initial conditions are set as Infected
0.2
dI
= I(0)(βS(0) − γ), (7) Figure 2: Temporal behavior of the proportion of
dt t=0 individuals in each of the three compartments of
and that the sign of the derivative depends on the the SIR model.
γ
value of Sc =
β . When S(t) > Sc , the derivative
is positive and the number of infected individuals
any case, all these generalizations only introduce
increases. When S(t) goes below this threshold, the some slight changes on the steady states of the sys-
epidemic starts to fade out.
tem, or in the case of spatially extended models,
A rather non intuitive result can be obtained
travelling waves [26].
from Eq. 4. We can write
Figure 2 displays the typical behavior of the den-
sity of individuals in each of the epidemiological
dS S compartments described by Eq. (4). Compare this
= −
dR ρ with the pattern shown in Fig. 1.
050003-5
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
γ C exp[(γ − β)t]
I(t) = (1 − ) , (13)
β 1 + C exp[(γ − β)t]
where C is dened by the initial conditions as
Figure 3: Transfer diagram for a SEIRS models.
βi0 Taken from Ref. [27].
C= . (14)
β(1 − i0 ) − γ
If I0 is small and β > γ, the solution is a logistic
lot of possibilities to dene the compartment struc-
growth that saturates before the whole population
β−γ ture. Usually, this structure is represented as a
is infected, the stationary value is Is =
β . It can transfer chart indicating the ow between the com-
be shown that R0 = β/γ . This sets the condition partments and the external contributions. Figure 3
for the epidemic to persist.
shows an example of a diagram for a SEIRS model,
taken from Ref. [27].
iii. Other models Horizontal incidence refers to a contagion due to
a contact between a susceptible and infectious indi-
The literature on epidemiological models includes
vidual, vertical incidence account for the possibility
several generalizations about the previous ones to
for the ospring of infected parents to be born in-
adapt the description to the particularities of a spe-
fected, such as with AIDS, hepatitis B, Chlamydia,
cic infectious disease [27]. One possibility is to
etc.
increase the number of compartments to describe
Many of the previous models have been ex-
dierent stages of the state of an individual during
panded, including stochastic terms. One of the
the epidemic spread. Among these models, we can
most relevant dierences between the deterministic
mention the SIRS, a simple extension of the SIR
and stochastic models is their asymptotic behavior.
that does not confer a permanent immunity to re-
A stochastic model can show a solution converg-
covered individuals and after some time they rejoin
ing to the disease-free state when the deterministic
the susceptible group,
counterpart predicts an endemic equilibrium. The
results obtained from the stochastic models are gen-
dS erally expressed in terms of the probability of an
= −βSI + +λR
dt outbreak and of its size and duration distribution
dI [1419].
= βSI − γI (15)
dt
dR
= γI − λR. III. Complex Networks
dt
Other models include more epidemiological A graph or network is a mathematical represen-
groups or compartments, such as the SEIS and tation of a set of objects that may be connected
SEIR model, that take into consideration the ex- between them through links. The interconnected
posed or latent period of the disease, by dening objects are represented by the nodes (or vertices) of
an additional compartment E. the graph while the connecting links are associated
There are several diseases in which there is a to the edges of the graph. Networks can be char-
vertical transient immunity transmission from a acterized by several topological properties, some of
mother to her newborn. Then, each individual is which will be introduced later. Social links are pre-
born with a passive immunity acquired from the ponderantly non directional (symmetric), though
mother. To indicate this, an additional group P is there are some cases of social directed networks.
added. The set of nodes attached to a given node through
The range of possibilities is rather extended, and these links is called its neighborhood. The size of
this is reected in the title of Ref. [27]: A thou- the neighborhood is the degree of the node.
sand and one epidemiological models. There are a While the study of graph theory dates back to the
050003-6
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
050003-7
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
SW networks, two magnitudes are calculated. The an example, analogous to the one shown in Fig. 5.
rst one, L(p), measures the mean topological dis-
tance between any pair of elements in the network,
that is, the shortest path between two vertices,
averaged over all pairs of vertices. Thus, an or-
dered lattice has L(0) ∼ N/K , while, for a ran-
dom network, L(1) ∼ ln(N )/ln(K). The second
one, C(p), measures the mean clustering of an ele-
ment's neighborhood. C(p) is dened in the follow-
ing way: Let us consider the element i, having ki
neighbors connected to it. We denote by ci (p) the
number of neighbors of element i that are neigh-
bors among themselves, normalized to the value Figure 7: Representation of several Small World
that this would have if all of them were connected Networks constructed according the algorithm pre-
to one another; namely, ki (ki − 1)/2. Now, C(p) is sented in Ref. [31]. As the disorder degree in-
the average, over the system, of the local clusteri- creases, three number of shortcuts as well as the
zation ci (p). Ordered lattices are highly clustered, number of total links grow.
0.2
[33], the authors propose a formalism based on the
generating function that permits to construct ran-
0.0
dom networks with arbitrary degree distribution.
-3 -2 -1 0
10 10 10 10
The mechanism of construction also allows for fur-
p
ther analytic studies on these networks. In partic-
ular, networks can be chosen to have a power law
Figure 6: In this gure, we show the mean values of degree distribution. This case will be presented in
the clustering coecient C and the path length L the next paragraphs.
as a function of the disorder parameter p. Note the Scale-free network. As mentioned before, one
fast decay of L and the presence of a region where of the most revealing measures of a network is its
the value adopted by L is similar to the one corre- degree of distribution, i.e., the distribution of the
sponding to total disorder, while the value adopted number of connections of the nodes. In most real
by C is close to the one corresponding to the or- networks, it is far from being homogeneous, with
dered case. highly connected individuals on one extreme and
almost isolated nodes on the other. Scale-free net-
Other procedures for developing similar social works provide a means of achieving such extreme
networks have been proposed in Ref. [31] where in- levels of heterogeneity.
stead of rewiring existing links to create shortcuts, Scale-free networks are constructed by adding
the procedure add links connecting two randomly new individuals to a core, with a connection mecha-
chosen nodes with probability p. In Fig. 7, we show nism that imitates the underlying process that rules
050003-8
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
Figure 8: This gure shows examples of (a) ER and is long enough, the social network will change and
(b) BA networks. The gure also displays the con- these changes will not be reected if the topology
nectivity distribution P (k), that follows a binomial remains xed. This is particularly important in
distribution for the ER networks and a power law small groups. The social dynamics, including the
050003-9
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
ing wave. After the initial transient, SIS, SIR and individuals as a function of the infectivity of infec-
SIRS models behave in dierent ways. The initially tious individuals. The inset displays the scaling of
local dynamics that can or cannot propagate to the the data with a power-like curve A|f − fc |α , with
whole system is what introduces a completely new α ≈ 0.5. Adapted from Ref. [42].
demics can just remain localized around the initial tible individuals as a function of the infectivity of
focus or turn into a pandemic, aecting the entire infectious individuals. The inset displays the scal-
population. The most dramatic examples of real ing of the data with a power-like curve A|f − fc |α ,
pandemic are the Black Plague between the 1300 with α ≈ 0.5. Adapted from Ref. [42].
050003-10
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
Random networks. Most of the models based show that shortcuts can dramatically increase the
on random graphs were previous to the renewed in- possibility of an epidemic event. The analysis is
terest on complex networks. A simple but eective based on bond percolation concepts. While the
idea for the study of the dynamics of diseases on result could be easily anticipated due to the long
random networks is the contact process proposed range propagative properties of shortcuts, the au-
in Ref. [46] that produces a branching phenomena thors nd an important analytic result. It was a
while the infection propagates. In Ref. [47], the study of a SIRS models that showed for the rst
authors use a E-R network with an approximately time the evidence of a dramatic change in the be-
Poisson degree distribution. A common feature to havior of an epidemic due to changes in the under-
all these models is that the rate of the initial tran- lying social topology [52]. By specically analyzing
sient growth is smaller than the corresponding to the eect of clustering on the dynamics of an epi-
similar models in fully-mixed populations. This ef- demics, the authors show that a SIRS model on a
fect can be easily understood noting that, on the SW network presents two distinct types of behav-
one hand, the degree of a given initially infected ior. As the rewiring parameter p increases, the sys-
node is typically small, thus having a limited num- tem transits from an endemic state, with a low level
ber of susceptible contacts. On the other hand, of infection to periodic oscillations in the number of
there is a self limiting process due to the fact that infected individuals, reecting an underlying syn-
the same infection propagation predates the local chronization phenomena. The transition from one
availability of susceptible targets. regime to the other is sharp and occurs at a nite
A dierent analytical approach to random net- value of p. The reason behind this phenomenon
works is presented in Ref. [48]. The author shows is still unknown. Figure 11 shows the temporal
that a family of variants of the SIR model can be behavior of the number of infected individuals for
solved exactly on random networks built by a gen- three values of the rewiring parameter p, as found
erating function method and appealing to the for- in Ref. [52].
malism of percolation models. The author analyzes
the propagation of a disease in networks with arbi-
trary degree distributions and heterogeneous infec-
0.2
the algorithm described in Ref. [30], produces un- infected individuals in three SW networks with dif-
expected macroscopic eects. By sharing topologi- ferent degrees of disorder p. The emergence of
cal properties from random and ordered networks, a synchronized pattern is evident in the bottom
050003-11
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
050003-12
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
050003-13
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
gree, produces a substantial improvement in dis- be very ecient, as targeting some of the super-
ease control. It is interesting to point out that this spreaders can be sucient to prevent an epidemic
improvement occurs even when the degree distri- [55, 67].
bution over small-world networks is relatively uni- The vaccination of a small fraction of these indi-
form, so that the best connected sites do not mo- viduals increases quite dramatically the global tol-
nopolize a disproportionately high number of links. erance to infections of the network.
Figure 13 shows an example of the results found in When comparing the uniform and the targeted
Ref. [63], where the author compare the amount of immunization procedures [67], the results indicate
non vaccinated individuals that are infected for dif- that while uniform immunization does not produce
ferent levels of vaccination, ρ, and dierent degrees any observable reduction of the infection preva-
of disorder of the SW network p, as dened in Ref. lence, the targeted immunization inhibits the prop-
[30]. agation of the infection even at very low immuniza-
tion levels. These conclusions are particularly rel-
evant when dealing with sexually transmitted dis-
eases, as the number of sexual partners of the in-
dividuals follows a distribution pattern close to a
power law.
Targeted immunization of the most highly con-
nected individuals [64, 65, 67] proves to be eective,
but requires global information about the architec-
ture of network that could be unavailable in many
cases. In Ref. [68], the authors proposed a dierent
immunization strategy that does not use informa-
tion about the degree of the nodes or other global
properties of the network but achieves the desired
pattern of immunization. The authors called it
acquaintance immunization as the targeted indi-
viduals are the acquaintances of randomly selected
Figure 13: Fraction r of the non-vaccinated popula- nodes. The procedure consists of choosing a ran-
tion that becomes infected during the disease prop- dom fraction pi of the nodes, selecting a random
agation, as a function of the disorder parameter p, acquaintance per node with whom they are in con-
for various levels of random immunization (upper) tact and vaccinating them. The strategy operates
and targeted immunization (bottom). Adapted at the local level. The fraction pi may be larger
from Ref. [63]. than 1, for a node might be chosen more than once,
but the fraction of immunized nodes is always less
In a scale-free network, the existence of individu- than 1. This strategy allows for a low vaccina-
als of an arbitrarily large degree implies that there tion level to achieve the immunization threshold.
is no level of uniform random vaccination that can The procedure is able to indirectly detect the most
prevent an epidemic propagation, even extremely connected individuals, as they are acquaintances of
high densities of randomly immunized individuals many nodes so the probability of being chosen for
can prevent a major epidemic outbreak. The dis- vaccination is higher.
cussed susceptibility of these networks to epidemic
hinders the implementation of a prevention strat-
egy dierent from the trivial immunization of all VI. Final remarks
the population [54, 55, 66].
Taking into account the inhomogeneous connec- The mathematical modeling of the propagation of
tivity properties of scale-free networks can help to infectious diseases transcends the academic inter-
develop successful immunization strategies. The est. Any action pointing to prevent a possible
obvious choice is to vaccinate individuals according pandemic situation or to optimize the vaccination
to their connectivity. A selective vaccination can strategies to achieve critical coverage are the core
050003-14
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
of any public health policy. The understanding of and Practice of Malariology, Eds. W Werns-
the behavior of epidemics showed a sharp improve- dorfer, Y McGregor, Churchill Livingston, Ed-
ment during the last century, boosted by the for- inburgh, Pag. 1091 (1988).
mulation of mathematical models. However, for a
long time, many important aspects regarding the
[9] J L Aron, Mathematical modeling of immunity
epidemic processes remained unexplained or out of
to malaria, Math. Biosci. 90, 385 (1988).
the scope of the traditional models. Perhaps, the [10] J A N Filipe, E M Riley, C J Darkeley, C J
most important one is the feedback mechanism that Sutherland, A C Ghani, Determination of the
develops between the social topology and the ad- processes driving the acquisition of immunity
vance of an infectious disease. The new types of to malaria using a mathematical transmission
models developed during the last decade made an model, PLoS Comp. Biol. 3, 2569 (2007).
important contribution to the eld by incorporat-
ing a mean of describing the eect of the social [11] D J Rodriguez, L Torres-Sorando, Models
pattern. While a quantitative analysis of a real sit- of infectious diseases in spatially heteroge-
uation still demands huge computational resources, neous environments, Bull. Math. Biol. 63, 547
the mathematical foundations to develop it are al- (2001).
[7] J L Aron, R M May, The population dynamics [19] H C Tuckwell, R J Williams, Some properties
of malaria, In: Population dynamics of infec- of a simple stochastic epidemic model of SIR
tious disease, Eds. R M Anderson, Chapman type, Math. Biosc. 208, 76 (2007).
and Hall, London, Pag. 139 (1982).
[20] D Mollison, Dependence of epidemic and pop-
[8] K Dietz,Mathematical models for transmis- ulation velocities on basic parameters, Math.
sion and control of malaria, In: Principles Biosc. 107, 255 (1991).
050003-15
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
[29] S Milgram, The small world problem, Psychol. [44] C J Rhodes, R M Anderson, Epidemic thresh-
Today 2, 60 (1967). olds and vaccination in a lattice model of
disease spread, Theor. Popul. Biol. 52, 101
[30] D J Watts, S H Strogatz Collective dynam- (1997).
ics of 'small-world' networks, Nature 393, 409
(1998). [45] C J Rhodes, H J Jensen, R M Anderson,
On the critical behaviour of simple epidemics,
[31] M E J Newman, D J Watts, Renormaliza- Proc. R. Soc. B 264, 1639 (1997).
tion group analysis of the small-world network
model, Physics Letters A 263, 341 (1999). [46] O Diekmann, J A P Heesterbeek, J A J Metz,
A deterministic epidemic model taking account
[32] M E J Newman, Networks: An introduction, of repeated contacts between the same individ-
Oxford University Press, New York (2010). uals, J. Appl. Prob. 35, 462 (1998).
[33] M E J Newman, S H Strogatz, D J Watts. [47] A Barbour, D Mollison, Epidemics and ran-
Random graphs with arbitrary degree distribu- dom graphs In: Stochastic processes in epi-
tions and their applications, Phys. Rev. E 64, demic theory, Eds. J P Gabriel, C Lefèvre, P
026118 (2001). Picard, Pag. 86, Springer, New York (1990).
050003-16
Papers in Physics, vol. 5, art. 050003 (2013) / M. N. Kuperman
[48] M E J Newman, Spread of epidemic disease on [59] L B Shaw, I B Schwartz, Fluctuating epidemics
networks, Phys Rev. E 66, 016128 (2002). on adaptive networks, Phys. Rev. E 77, 066101
(2008).
[49] D Mollison,Spatial contact models for ecologi-
cal and epidemic spread, J. Roy. Stat. Soc. 39, [60] D H Zanette, S Risau-Gusmán, Infection
283 (1977). spreading in a population with evolving con-
tacts, J. Biol. Phys. 34, 135 (2008)
[50] B T Grenfell, O N Bjornstad, J Kappey, Trav-
elling waves and spatial hierarchies in measles [61] S Risau-Gusmán, D H Zanette, Contact
epidemics, Nature 414, 716 (2001). switching as a control strategy for epidemic
outbreaks, J. Theor. Biol. 257, 52 (2009).
[51] C Moore, M E J Newman, Epidemics and per-
colation in small-world networks, Phys. Rev. [62] M C Bonnet, A Dutta, World wide experi-
E 61, 5678 (2000). ence with inactivated poliovirus vaccine, Vac-
cine 26, 4978 (2008).
[52] M N Kuperman, G Abramson, Small world ef-
fect in an epidemiological model, Phys. Rev. [63] D H Zanette, M Kuperman, Eects of immu-
Lett. 86, 2909 (2001). nization in small-world epidemics, Physica A
309, 445 (2002).
[53] H W Hethcote, J A Gonorrhea
Yorke,
transmission dynamics and control, Springer [64] R Albert, H Jeong, A L Barabási, Error and
Lecture Notes in Biomathematics, Springer, attack tolerance of complex networks, Nature
Berlin (1984). 406, 378 (2000).
050003-17