Fault Analysis Using PSS®E

PSS®E Training 1
 DISCLAIMER
The material and the information contained
herein is prepared by Panacean Energy Solution
Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai solely for the purpose of
providing comprehensive training to MSETCL
Personnel. Information provided in this
document must not be reproduced, published,
re-sold or otherwise distributed in any medium
without prior permission of Panacean Energy
Solution Pvt. Ltd.

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 CONTENT
 Introduction to Fault Analysis
 Brief Introduction of Fault Analysis
 Objective of Fault Analysis

 Importance of Fault Analysis Studies

 Types of Faults
 Fault MVA Calculation
 Example on Fault MVA Calculation
 Sequence Networks (+ve, -ve and Zero)

 Processing Activities to Perform Fault Analysis using PSS®E

 Read Sequence Data File (Activity RESQ)
 Write Sequence Data File (Activity RWSQ)
 Data Format in Sequence Data File
 Setup Network for Unbalance Solution (Activity SEQD)
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 Contents Continue…

 Processing Activities to Perform Contingency Study using

PSS®E Solution
 Solve Network with Unbalances (Activity SCMU)
 Unbalance Network Tabular Output (Activity SCOP)
 Calculating Automatic Sequence Fault (Activity ASCC)
 Listing Sequence Data (Activity SQLI)
 Setup for Fault Calculation (Activity FLAT)
 Separate Pole Circuit Breaker (Activity SPCB)
 Calculating Fault Currents to ANSI Standard (Activity ANSI)
 Procedure to Perform Fault Analysis
 Miscellaneous
 Fault Level Calculation
 Important Points
 Rules must be observed in applying Unbalances

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 Introduction to Fault Analysis
 Power flow : Evaluate normal operating conditions
 Fault Analysis: Evaluate abnormal operating conditions
 In an electric power system, a fault is any abnormal electric current.
For example, a short circuit is a fault in which current bypasses the
normal load.
 A fault in a circuit is any failure that interferes with the normal
system operation.
 Lighting strokes cause most faults on high voltage transmission lines
producing a very high transient that greatly exceeds the rated
voltage of the line.
 This voltage usually causes flashover between the phases and/or
the ground creating an arc.

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 Introduction Continue…

 Faults involving ionized current paths are also called transient

faults. They usually clear if power is removed from the line for a
short time and then restored.

 Fault analysis is usually carried out in per-unit quantities (similar to

percentage quantities) as they give solutions which are somewhat
consistent over different voltage and power ratings, and operate on
values of the order of unity. The main reason to carry out in per-
unit quantities is existing of transformer in the power system, which
changes the voltage level.

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 Importance of Fault Analysis Study
 Electric systems occasionally experience short circuits.
 This results in abnormally high currents.
 Overcurrent protective devices should isolate faults at a given
location safely, with minimal damage
 The fault analysis of a power system is required in order to provide
information for the selection of switchgear, setting of relays and
stability of system operation
 If one, or two, or all three phases break or if insulators break due to
fatigue or inclement weather, this fault is called a permanent fault
since it will remain after a quick power removing.
 Knowing the magnitude of the fault current is important when
selecting protection equipment (type, size, etc..)

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 Importance Continue…
 There are three periods of time:
 Sub-transient period: first cycle or so after the fault – AC
current is very large and falls rapidly;
 Transient period: current falls at a slower rate;
 Steady-state period: current reaches its steady value.

Symmetrical AC Component of Fault Current

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Types of Faults

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 Types of Faults Continue…
 There are two main types of faults
 Symmetric faults: System remains balanced; these faults are relatively
rare, but are the easiest to analyze.
 Un-symmetric faults: System is no longer balanced; very common, but
more difficult to analyze

 The most common type of fault on a three phase system by far is the
single line-to-ground (SLG), followed by the line-to-line faults (LL),
double line-to-ground (DLG) faults, and balanced three phase faults.

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Fault Analysis results used for:
 Specifying rating for circuit breakers and fuses
 Protective replay settings
 Specifying the impedance of transformers and generators

Magnitude of fault currents depend on:

 The impedance of the network
 The internal impedance of the generators
 The resistance of the fault ( arc resistance)

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 Fault MVA Calculations
 In a power system, the maximum fault current (or fault MVA)
that can flow into a zero impedance fault is necessary to be
known for switch gear solution. This can either be the
balanced three phase value or the value at an asymmetrical
condition. The Fault Level defines the value for the
symmetrical condition. The fault level is usually expressed in
MVA (or corresponding per-unit value), with the maximum
fault current value being converted using the nominal voltage
rating.

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 Fault Level Calculation Continue…

𝑀𝑉𝐴𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 3 . 𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐾𝑉 . 𝐼𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐾𝐴

𝑀𝑉𝐴𝐹𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 3 . 𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐾𝑉 . 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝐾𝐴
Where
MVAFault : Fault Level at a given point in MVA
Ibase: Rated or base line current
Isc: Short circuit line current flowing in to a fault

The per unit value of the Fault Level may thus be written as
3 . 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒. 𝐼𝑆𝐶 3 𝐼𝑠𝑐 𝑉𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙.𝑃𝑢
𝐹𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = = = 𝐼𝑠𝑐.𝑝𝑢 =
3 . 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 . 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 3 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑍𝑝𝑢

The per unit voltage for nominal value is unity, so that

1
𝐹𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑢 =
𝑍𝑝𝑢
𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐹𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑀𝑉𝐴 = 𝐹𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑢 . 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
𝑍𝑝𝑢

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Example:
Given Data: Pre-fault Voltage = 11KV/11KV=1.0p.u

Xn= 0.05 X 11KV

30MVA L-G fault

X(+ve)= 0.15, X(-ve) = 0.12 and X(zero) = 0.08

Note: R is neglected in the fault analysis as it is small.

X(+ve) > X(-ve) > X(zero)

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 Positive Sequence
1 pu
~ X(+ve)=0.15

Xth(+ve) =0.15

Negative Sequence

X(+ve)=0.12

Xth(-ve) =0.12

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 Zero Sequence
X(+ve)=0.08

3Xn=0.15
Xth(Zero) =0.23

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 3𝑉
 Fault Current 𝐼𝑓 = 3𝐼𝑅 = 𝑋 𝑡ℎ +𝑣𝑒 +𝑋 𝑡ℎ −𝑣𝑒 +𝑋 𝑡ℎ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
3∗1
=
0.15+0.12+0.23
= 6 𝑝𝑢 𝑎𝑡 −900
3
𝐼𝑓 = 6 𝐾𝐴 = 9.4𝐾𝐴
3∗11
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑉𝐴
Fault MVA =
𝑋 𝑡ℎ +𝑣𝑒 +𝑋 𝑡ℎ −𝑣𝑒 +𝑋 𝑡ℎ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜

30
=
0.15 + 0.12 + 0.23

= 60 𝑀𝑉𝐴

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Interconnection Of Sequence Network

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FAULT CURRENT FORMULAE

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Depends on type of fault
 Three phase fault.
 Only Positive Sequence Data. Negative, Zero sequence Network not
excited.
 SLG fault
 Positive, Negative, Zero sequence Data.
 Typical fault study
 SLG ( 70%)
Fault current can range in utility systems from a few percent to
possibly 125% of the three phase fault value.
 Three phase (5%)
In industrial systems line to ground fault current of more than three
phase value is rare.
 LL (15%)
fault currents are approximately 87% of three-phase fault
current
 LLG (10%)

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 Processing Activities to Perform Fault
Analysis in PSS®E
Read Sequence Data (Activity RESQ)
File>Open…
Read sequence data file (*.seq file) for fault analysis. The requirement
of working case should be Positive sequence network where sequence
data is to be read must be resent in the working case.

Other way to append the .SEQ file is directly typing on command line
input as RESQ and it will asks you to enter the file name of .SEQ, enter
the name and press ENTER. It will display the activities entered. But, in
general the first approach is the best approach to perform.

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 Processing Activities Continue…

Writing Sequence Data (Activity RWSQ)

File > Save…

 The Sequence Data File output activity RWSQ writes the sequence
data contained in the working case in the form of a Sequence Data
File. That is, when directed to a file, the data records written by
activity RWSQ are in a format suitable for input to activity RESQ.

 Activity RWSQ is accessible from the Sequence Data tab of the Save
Network Data dialog as shown below.

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 Processing Activities Continue…

Save Network Data Dialog, Sequence Data

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 Data format in the Sequence Data File
(*.seq file)
 POSITIVE SEQ. MACHINE IMPEDANCE DATA, it will update in
machine tab

Bus R-POS X-POS

ID
Number (PU) (PU)

 NEGATIVE SEQ. MACHINE IMPEDANCE DATA, it will update in

machine tab
Bus R-NEG X-NEG
ID
Number (PU) (PU)

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 Data Format Continue…

 ZERO SEQ. MACHINE IMPEDANCE DATA, it will update in

machine tab
Note: Xg+>= Xg- > Xg0

Bus R-ZERO
ID X-ZERO (PU)
Number (PU)

 NEGATIVE SEQ. SHUNT DATA, it will update in bus tab

G-NEG
Bus Number B-NEG (PU)
(PU)

 ZERO SEQ. SHUNT DATA, it will update in bus tab

G-ZERO
Bus Number B-ZERO (PU)
(PU)

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 Data Format Continue…

 ZERO SEQ. NON-TRANSFORMER BRANCH DATA, it will update

in branch tab
ZERO ZERO ZERO ZERO
FROM TO X-ZERO B-ZERO SEQ G SEQ B SEQ G SEQ B
ID R-ZERO (PU)
BUS BUS (PU) (PU) (FROM) (TO) (TO) (FROM)
(PU) (PU) (PU) (PU)
Note: Here, only zero sequence data is provided because in the transmission
line both positive and negative sequence impedance are equal and in the LF
data the positive sequence data is already available.

 ZERO SEQ. MUTUAL DATA, it will update in the Mutual

Coupling tab

Mutual Mutual
From To Bus From To
ID ID Impeda Impeda BIJ1 BIJ2 BKL1 BKL2
Bus 1 1 Bus 2 Bus 2
nce nce

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 Data Format Continue…

 ZERO SEQ. TRANSFORMER DATA, it will updated in the 2

winding transformer tab.
Note: Id is CKT Id.

G- G- R- X-
FROM TO Impedan CONNEC
ID RESIST REACT ZERO ZERO
BUS BUS ce Table T CODE
(PU) (PU) (PU) (PU)

 ZERO SEQ. SWITCHED SHUNT DATA, it will update in

BUS
NUMBER

Note: Presently not known how many columns are required.

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 Data Format Continue…
 The Example .SEQ file
0, 33 / PSS(R)E-33.2 THU, APR 25 2013 19:34
1,'1 ', 2.50000E-03, 2.50000E-01, 3.00000E-01, 1.80000E+00, 2.50000E-03, 2.50000E-01, 1.25000E-03, 1.25000E-01,1, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
2,'1 ', 2.50000E-03, 2.50000E-01, 3.00000E-01, 1.80000E+00, 2.50000E-03, 2.50000E-01, 1.25000E-03, 1.25000E-01,1, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
3,'1 ', 2.50000E-03, 2.50000E-01, 3.00000E-01, 1.80000E+00, 2.50000E-03, 2.50000E-01, 1.25000E-03, 1.25000E-01,1, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
4,'1 ', 2.50000E-03, 2.50000E-01, 3.00000E-01, 1.80000E+00, 2.50000E-03, 2.50000E-01, 1.25000E-03, 1.25000E-01,1, 0.00000E+00, 0.00000E+00
0 / END OF MACHINE IMPEDANCE DATA, BEGIN LOAD DATA
0 / END OF LOAD DATA, BEGIN ZERO SEQ. NON-TRANSFORMER BRANCH DATA
5, 6,'1 ', 7.37500E-3, 8.25000E-2, 0.02625, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0,0
6, 7,'1 ', 2.95000E-3, 3.30000E-2, 0.01050, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0,0
7, 8,'1 ', 3.24500E-2, 3.63000E-1, 0.11550, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0,0
7, 8,'2 ', 3.24500E-2, 3.63000E-1, 0.11550, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0,0
8, 9,'1 ', 3.24500E-2, 3.63000E-1, 0.11550, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0,0
8, 9,'2 ', 3.24500E-2, 3.63000E-1, 0.11550, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0,0
9, 10,'1 ', 2.95000E-3, 3.30000E-2, 0.01050, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0,0
10, 11,'1 ', 7.37500E-3, 8.25000E-2, 0.02625, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0,0
0 / END OF ZERO SEQ. NON-TRANSFORMER BRANCH DATA, BEGIN ZERO SEQ. MUTUAL DATA
0 / END OF ZERO SEQ. MUTUAL DATA, BEGIN ZERO SEQ. TRANSFORMER DATA
1, 5, 0,'1 ',1,1, 4, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 1.66000E-2, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 1.66000E-2, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0
2, 6, 0,'1 ',1,1, 4, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 1.66000E-2, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 1.66000E-2, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0
3, 11, 0,'1 ',1,1, 4, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 1.66000E-2, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 1.66000E-2, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0
4, 10, 0,'1 ',1,1, 4, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 1.66000E-2, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0, 1.66000E-2, 0.00000E+0, 0.00000E+0
0 / END OF ZERO SEQ. TRANSFORMER DATA, BEGIN ZERO SEQ. SWITCHED SHUNT DATA
0 / END OF ZERO SEQ. SWITCHED SHUNT DATA, BEGIN ZERO SEQ. FIXED SHUNT DATA
0 / END OF ZERO SEQ. FIXED SHUNT DATA, BEGIN INDUCTION MACHINE DATA
0 / END OF INDUCTION MACHINE DATA

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 Processing Activities Continue…
Setup Network for Unbalance Solution
(Activity SEQD)
Fault > Setup network for unbalanced solution (SEQD)…

 The sequence network set up activity SEQD prepares the

working case for the unbalanced network solution activity
SCMU or the separate pole circuit breaker duty activity SPCB.
This process involves taking the positive sequence network
(that is, the power flow case) and the various sequence data
arrays defining the negative and zero sequence networks, and
setting up the SEQD temporary file in the form required by
activities SCMU and SPCB. Activity SEQD does not modify the
contents of the working case itself.

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 Processing Activities Continue…

 If sequence data has not been read into the working case
by running activity RESQ, an appropriate error message is
printed and activity SEQD ends.

Setup Network for Unbalanced Solution Dialog

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 Processing Activities Continue…
Solve Network with unbalances (Activity
SCMU)
Fault > Solve and report network with unbalances (SCMU/SCOP)…

 The multiple unbalanced network solution activity SCMU

allows the user to apply simultaneously, at any bus, on any
phase, any or all of the following unbalances or faults:
 Two single-line-to-ground faults (L-G) with specified fault
impedances.
 Two line-to-line (L-L) or double-line-to-ground (L-L-G) faults with
specified fault impedances.
 Single phase, with specified impedance, closed between a pair of
buses.
 Two phases, with equal specified impedance, closed between a
pair of buses.
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 Processing Activities Continue…

Solve and Report Network with Unbalance

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 Processing Activities Continue…
Unbalance network tabular output
(Activity SCOP)
Fault > Unbalanced network tabular output (SCOP)…

 The Multiple Unbalanced Solution Output dialog (below

Figure) requires Branch quantity desired to be expressed as
one of the following:
 Currents
 Apparent impedances
 Apparent admittances

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 Processing Activities Continue…

Multiple Unbalanced Solution Output Dialog

Basically it will generate output file according to requirement of branch

quantity. The unbalanced network solution output activity SCOP
tabulates the results of activity SCMU. It allows the user to obtain output
of all bus voltages and either branch currents, apparent impedances or
apparent admittances

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 Processing Activities Continue…
Calculating Automatic Sequence Fault
(Activity ASCC)
Fault > Automatic sequence fault calculation (ASCC)…

 The automatic sequencing short circuit calculation activity ASCC allows

the user to apply a series of single faults at various locations in the
working case. If sequence data has not been read into the working
case by running activity RESQ, an appropriate error message is printed
and activity ASCC ends.
 The first data request for activity ASCC includes the following four data
items, for which the default values are zeros:

ENTER : [1 FOR] , [ 1 FOR ] , [ 1 FOR ] , [1 FOR FLAT]

[L - G] [LINE OUT] [LINE END] [CONDITIONS]

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 Processing Activities Continue…

 If a 1 is entered for the first data item (1 FOR L - G), both a three
phase fault and a phase A to ground fault are applied at each fault
location. Otherwise, only three phase faults are applied.

 If a 1 is entered for the second data item (1 FOR LINE OUT), the
applied fault calculations are repeated at each home bus ‘n’
additional times: once with each of its ‘n’ connected branches
placed out-of-service.

 If a 1 is entered for the third data item (1 FOR LINE END), the applied
fault calculations are repeated for each home bus at least ‘n’
additional times: once (twice for any three-winding transformer that
has all its windings in-service) with each of its ‘n’ connected
branches opened at the far end, with the fault located at the line
end position.
 If a response of one is entered for the final data item (1 FOR FLAT
CONDITIONS), classical fault analysis conditions are assumed for the
network in the working case.
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 Processing Activities Continue…
 If the flat conditions option is not enabled, the level of network
modeling and the bus boundary conditions used by activity ASCC as
the pre-fault network condition are as specified in the working case
at the time activity ASCC is run.

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 Processing Activities Continue…

 At the time of it ask ENTER FILENAME in the process, you can press
ENTER key without entering file name.

 Activity ASCC then builds and factorizes the sequence admittance

matrices, reporting its progress in the same manner as activity SEQD.

 Activity ASCC is can run without suffix or with suffix, it is user define.

 Click [ … ] to open the selection window for a Fault Control Data file
(*.fcd). A Relay Output Data file (*.rel) and a Short Circuit Output file
(*.sc) may be specified to save the model data. Click [Go] to perform
the activity

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 Processing Activities Continue…

Listing Sequence Data (Activity SQLI)

Power Flow > List Data…

 SQLI is used to list data from the working case for selected buses or
all buses. It will contain all data including sequence parameters for
bus, branch, and generator etc. data.

 Activity SQLI is accessible from the Sequence data radio button of

the List Data dialog (below Figure). The data category to be
tabulated is selected from the drop down list next to the Sequence
data radio button on the dialog

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 Processing Activities Continue…

List Data
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 Processing Activities Continue…

Separate Pole Circuit Breaker (Activity SPCB)

Fault > Separate pole circuit breaker (SPCB)…

The separate pole circuit breaker activity SPCB calculates the positive
sequence pi-equivalent corresponding to a single transmission line
unbalance. This equivalent may subsequently be used in dynamic
simulations to model the branch unbalance.
 Prior to entering activity SPCB, the PSSE working case and the SEQD
temporary file must be set up in the form required by activity SPCB.
The procedure is as follows:
• Solve the working case in the pre-unbalance condition.
• Place the transmission line that is to be subjected to the
unbalance, out-of-service by running activity CHNG.
• Ensure that the fault analysis modeling option setting is
placed in the normal three phase mode.
• Apply activity SEQD.
• Then apply activity SPCB.
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 Processing Activities Continue…

 Activity SPCB then calculates the

columns of the three sequence
impedance matrices
corresponding to the specified
buses. These are then tabulated
in sub matrix form.

 The Separate Pole Circuit

Breaker dialog (above Figure)
requires specification of the
Out-of-service branch for
unbalance. Click Select to
display the Branch Selection
dialog, from which the out-of-
service branch must be selected.
Separate Pole Circuit Breaker Dialog
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 Processing Activities Continue…

 The in-line fault option may be further specified as:

• Line-to-ground (with impedance filter)
• Line-line-to-ground (with impedance filters)
• Three phase
 Click Go to perform the activity. A summary is routed to the
Progress tab (below Figure), and the report is routed to the
Report tab by default.

Example of Separate Pole Circuit Breaker Activity Output

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 Procedure to Perform Fault Analysis
Step 1. Upload .SAV or .RAW file, and perform load flow.
Step 2. Upload .SEQ file
Step 3. Perform SEQD activity; it will set the data for unbalance study.
Step 4. Perform the SCMU activity; activity SCMU allows the user to
apply one or more faults; SCMU has option to select the above
step in the SCMU window, so that above step can be eliminated.
MiscChange Program Setting (OPTN)
Step 5. After performing the SCMU activity the output will display on
the window which contains, thevenin’s sequence impedances at
faulted bus, voltages in PU and branch currents which are
connected to the faulted bus in PU, sum of contribution of the
these branch currents and shunt + load currents and fault current
in PU and positive sequence admittance. The values are in
rectangular format with Real and Imaginary.
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 Procedure Continue…

Step 6. To change PU option to actual values, for this go to OPTN activity.

Step 7. To list sequence data by category use the activity SQLI

Step 8. To get display output use the activity SCOP

Step 9. One can change remove the shunt while performing the fault
analysis; it is done by the activity SQCH.

Step 10. FLAT,CL is the activity can be used when data for LF not
available completely, This will sets voltage to 1 PU and angles to
zero and loads to zero and transformer zero sequence
impedance to zero.

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Results

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Activity SCOP for display output

SCOP activity 1 of 5
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SCOP activity 2 of 5
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SCOP activity 3 of 5
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SCOP activity 4 of 5
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SCOP activity 5 of 5
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 Miscellaneous
Important Points
 If the fault analysis is to be based on full power flow detail, the
working case should be solved by SCMU before SEQD is run. The
results calculated by SCMU for instant t+ will show both fault
current and load current that continues to flow in unfaulted parts of
the system.

 When fault analysis is based on a lesser level of detail, or where the

pre-event power flow situation is unknown, the voltages in the
working case should normally be set uniformly to (1 + j0) before
SEQD is run. The conditioning of pre-event conditions is handled by
Activity FLAT, CL.

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The default action of FLAT, CL is to set

a) All bus voltages to (1 + j0),

b) All generator outputs, (PGEN + j QGEN), to zero
c) All transformer phase-shift angles to zero.
d) All loads to zero
e) This action causes SEQD to see all generators as if they are at
rated voltage with zero current just prior to the disturbance,
and to set all internal source voltages to (1 + j0).

Consequently, fault calculations made after execution of FLAT, CL ignore

load currents in both pre-event and post event solutions.

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 In addition to setting the power system to flat-start conditions and

deleting all loads, FLAT, CL gives the option of setting all transformer
ratios to nominal value, of ignoring all line-charging capacitance, and
ignoring all other shunt elements in the positive and negative
sequences. When deleting shunts, FLAT, CL does not delete shunts
from the zero sequence networks. The system should not be solved
between execution of FLAT, CL and SEQD.

 The impedances specified for all unbalances may range from zero to
infinity; judicious choice of impedances and unbalances allows
SCMU to handle a wide variety of fault, unbalanced load, and other
abnormal system conditions.

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 The connection code column in the 2 winding transformer tab is

given as follow

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Transformer Sequence Network Equivalents Produced Automatically by PSS®E

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Rules must be observed in applying unbalances
 For L-L fault, ZG=999+j*999
 Three phase fault --> L-G + L-L-G
 L-G (or) L-L-G unbalance may be placed in transmission line. SCMU
automatically assign a dummy bus, number 99999, to the fault
location.
 The line or branch, where a line-end or in line unbalance will be
applied, must be in service in the power flow case before SEQD is
run.
 The single-phase and double-phase closed unbalances place new
unbalanced branches in parallel with those already present in the
power flow case in the working file. Setting up a case with one or
two phases of a system component opened (or closed) requires
that component be out-of-service in the power flow case before
execution of SEQD.

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 The single- and double-phase closed unbalances are applicable

to isolated phase devices such as series capacitors, series
inductors, and grounded wye transformer windings, but are
not applicable to transmission lines.

 All unbalances applied in an execution of SCMU remain in

effect through subsequent executions of SCOP. Each execution
of SCMU or SEQD clears all previously applied unbalances, and
deletes the dummy bus 99999 from the system.

 For in-line unbalances, the user is required to enter a distance

factor specifying the distance of the fault from the from bus
end of the line. The factor enter is in per unit manner of total
line length and user is cautioned against the use of factors very
close to zero or unity because these can give very low
impedances between the from or to bus and the fault.

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