Translating Kinship Terms to Malay

by Radiah Yusoff
Abstract

In the Malay culture, the kinship term is used as one of the forms of address when speaking to
others, especially when speaking to family members and close, intimate friends. Using the
correct and proper choice of kinship term is of utmost importance in this culture. One can be
accused of being rude and be labeled as 'kurang ajar' in Malay, which is literally translated as
'insufficiently taught,' if one were to use an inappropriate choice. The kinship term has been
widely used in the Malay subtitles of movies and dramas shown on Malaysia TVs or at the
local cinemas. For this paper however, the writer will only look at some of the kinship terms
used in the Malay subtitles of selected Korean movies and dramas and show whether they are
appropriately or inappropriately used to reflect the culture of the targeted audience.

Introduction

allyu or 'Korean Wave' had started to arrive at the Malaysian shore after 'Winter
Sonata,' a serial drama with Choi Jin-woo and Bae Yong-joon as the main actors, was
shown by a local network. Since then, many Korean dramas and movies have been
shown on Malaysian TVs and at the local cinemas.

Since the invasion of the Korean Wave, Korean kinship terms and honorifics, such as 'oppa'
and 'onni' have crept into the vocabulary of local Malaysians, especially among the young ones.
(Look at Excerpt 1 and 2.) In the subtitle for the Korean dramas and movies, these terms are
sometimes correctly and sometimes incorrectly translated to Malay.

Excerpt 1

http://z13.invisionfree.com/Knock_Out/ar/t2205.htm

Excerpt 2

http://deathberry.blogspot.com/2003_10_01_deathberry_archive.html
Kinship Terms

Kinship terms are words that are used to designate a family member who is connected to other
family members by blood, marriage, adoption, or fostering (Biology-Online.org, 2007, Farlex,
2007, Schwimmer, 1998). For example, the English term 'aunt' (or more specifically a younger
or elder sister of one's father or mother) could be translated to 'Mak Long,' 'Mak Ngah,' 'Mak
Uda,' 'Mak Lang,' 'Mak Teh,' 'Mak Cik,' or 'Mak Su,' depending on several factors:

i. the birth order of the aunt with respect to the birth order of the mother or father
in their respective family with the first born female child being almost always
assigned as 'Mak Long' and the last born female child as 'Mak Su' - 'Long' is
usually a marker for first-born child in most Malay dialects, while 'Su' is a
marker for the last-born child;
ii. the total number of children in the respective family of the mother or father,
causing certain terms to be dropped if, for instance, the number of children in
the family is two;
iii. the dialect used in the respective family of the mother or father, causing certain
terms to have more than one ways of pronunciation, such as /maksu/, /ucu/,
/busu/, or /moksu/ for the last-born female child.

Figure 1 shows some of the Malay terms used for one's parents, one's parent's female or male
sibling, one's female or male older sibling, and one's female or male younger sibling. The terms
in parentheses are optional, while the terms in curly brackets are not exclusive, as there are
more terms available for one to choose. The choice is highly dependent on several
sociolinguistic factors, such as age, gender, formality, and location.

Figure 1

There is a generic term for the 'aunt,' which is 'mak cik.' Some families use this term with or
without the name of the person, such as 'Mak Cik Sofiah,' 'Mak Cik Sofi,' or 'Mak Cik Piah' if
the given name for the 'aunt' is 'Sofiah.'

Awang Sariyan (2007: 5) states that, in the Malay culture, a nephew or niece who is of the
same age as or older than the sister of one's parent should address the sister as 'mak cik' or any
other kinship terms that reflect the birth order of this particular sister as a mark of respect.

An aunt is placed higher in the family hierarchy than the nephew or niece, irrespective of the
nephew, niece, or aunt's age.

However, the usage of this 'mak cik' term can be ambiguous as it can also be used to refer to

i. any women who do not have any familial ties to the family,
 ii. any women who are of the same age as one's parents, such as a female neighbor
or a female family friend, or
iii. any women who is married to one's father
a. who practices a polygamous marriage or
b. who marries this/these woman/women after divorcing one's mother.

Thus, when 'mak cik' is used, an outsider has to figure out whether this 'mak cik' is a blood-
related person or merely a friend, a stranger, or a neighbor.

The Malay kinship terms are also used as the first and second substitutes when one is referring
to oneself or another person. For example, "Aku nak kau belikan aku DVD 'The Host' kat
Bukit Jambul" (literally: 'I want you to buy me 'The Host' DVD at Bukit Jambul') can be
substituted with "Along nak Angah belikan Along DVD 'The Host' kat Bukit Jambul." 'Aku' is
the first person pronoun which can be substituted with 'along' if 'aku' is the first-born child in
the family, and 'kau' is the second-person pronoun which can be substituted with 'Angah' if
'kau' is the second-born child.

The use of the kinship terms 'along' and 'angah' shows a relationship which is as close, intimate,
and personal as the one shown by 'aku-kau' between siblings in a family, but the use of 'along-
angah' has a higher degree of politeness and is much less 'vulgar' or 'rough' than 'aku-kau' (Nor
Hashimah Jalaluddin, 2005: 136).

Malay has two forms of address which can be categorized into two forms:

i. 'bentuk-bentuk halus atau hormat' (literally: refined/polite or respect forms),

such as 'saya' and 'awak' and
ii. 'bentuk-bentuk tidak hormat atau kasar' (literally: non-respect or vulgar/rough
forms) (Nik Safiah Karim, 1990: 95-97).

Kinship terms, such 'along' and 'angah' can be placed under the 'bentuk-bentuk halus atau
hormat' category, while the pronouns 'aku' and 'awak' under the 'bentuk-bentuk tidak hormat
atau kasar' category.

(The writer borrows the term 'respect' from Harrison (2001), 'non-respect' from Cheran (2004),
'vulgar' or 'rough' from Schonfeld (1999). These terms might or might not reflect the true nature
of what really exists in the Malay psyche when dealing with forms of address and kinship
terms. Nonetheless, the writer feels that the terms are much more acceptable than some other
choices given by the bilingual dictionary that the writer is currently using.)

Because of the complexity of the Malay kinship terms, a translator must carefully study the
system of this target language in order to ensure that she or he uses the most appropriate and
polite first or second person pronoun substitutes when translating into Malay.

Examples of Kinship Term Usage in Malay Subtitles

Basically, the translator of Malay subtitles manages to use the accurate and appropriate kinship
terms. We will look at four selected subtitles to show the accuracy and appropriateness of the
kinship term usage.

1. Pak Cik, ada yang tak kena ni! Apa? (My Little Bride. Disc 1)
(literally: 'Uncle, something is not right! What?)
2. Pak Cik Nam! # Kepala saya sakit betul. (Love, So Divine, Disc 1) (literally: 'Uncle
Nam! # My head really aches.')

'Pak Cik' in Subtitle 1 and 'Pak Cik Nam' in the Subtitle 2 are correctly selected by the
translator to match 'Samchon' and 'Samchon Nam' which are being used in the Korean
dialogue of their respective movies. 'Samchon' is 'uncle' or literally means 'one's father's
brother' in English (Leon of Leon's EFL Planet, 16 February 2007; Life in Asia, 1999-
2007).

In Malay, one can use the generic term 'Pak Cik' to refer to the younger or older brother
of one's father or mother. However if the birth order of the 'uncle' is clearly defined,
then terms, such as 'Pak Long,' 'Pak Ngah,' 'Pak Uda,' 'Pak Lang,' 'Pak Teh,' or 'Pak Su,'
can be used. And in some subcultures of Malay, one can add the name of the brother
after the kinship term 'pak cik,' such as ''Pak Cik Aziz' (Pakcik + name of brother). This
form can be seen in Subtitle 2 which has the name 'Nam' after 'Pak Cik.'

Coincidently, the addition of a name, like 'Nam' or 'Sofiah,' to a kinship term in Malay
is similar to that of the Korean, as Korean also places the name after the kinship term:
[kinship term + name], not [name + kinship]. Another coincidence is that both Malay
and Korean allow the use of generic kinship terms, such as 'pakcik,' 'makcik,' 'samchon,'
and 'harabeoji,' to be used to address a second person who is about the same age as one's
parent or grandparent (Leon of Leon's EFL Planet, 16 February 2007; Wikipedia, 6
December 2006)

'Harabeoji' is 'grandfather' or literally means 'one's parent's father' in English (Life in

Asia, 1999-2007; Wikipedia, 6 December 2006). The correct usage of Malay kinship
term is 'atuk,' which matches the literal meaning of 'harabeoji,' can be seen in Subtitle 3.
 

3. Atuk, Atuk! Bangun, Atuk !' (My Little Bride, Disc 1)

(literally: 'Grandpa, Grandpa! Wake up, Grandpa!')

It seems that the terms which refers to the literal meaning 'one's parent's father' is almost
always translated in most subtitles as 'atuk,' a clipped version of the standard form
'datuk.' And 'datuk' is almost always reserved for movie or drama characters who were
bestowed the datukship by the king, sultan, or the governor.

This can be seen in the English subtitle of Malay dramas or movies shown on the local
networks. It is also found that other Malay dialect kinship terms which are assigned to a
grandfather, such as 'wan,' 'tok ki,' 'tok ayah,' or 'pak tua,' are almost always never used
 in a Malay subtitle. (See Nor Hashimah Jalauddin, 2005: 46 for other kinship terms in
the Malay dialects for 'one's parent's father.')

In Subtitle 4 and 5, 'eomma' (literally: 'mother') is perfectly matched with 'ibu' and
'emak' respectively, two of the many terms assigned to 'one's female parent' (see Figure
1). However, in Subtitle 4, the second person pronoun 'kamu' (literally: 'you') is used to
address a mother. This is really inappropriate and impolite. In the Malay culture, one is
not allowed to 'kamu' (literally: address as 'you') one's parent. 'Kamu'-…. one's parent,
who is definitely older in age, does not show respect to the elderly. The most
appropriate and polite way is to use the kinship term 'ibu' as a substitute for the second
person pronoun 'kamu.' See 4a.

One could be accused of being 'biadap' (literally: 'rude') or 'kurang ajar' (literally:
'insufficiently taught') for using an inappropriate and improper form of address. And in
an oral communication, one will definitely be reprimanded for not showing some kind
of respect to the elders. This is not unique to the Malay culture only, as other cultures
too promote respect to the elders (Georgia Department of Education, 2005-2006;
Indianchild.com, 2001; KoreanWiz.Org, 2001-2007a; UNICEF)

4. Inappropriate:
Ibu...saya boleh dapat lelaki yang sesuai # saya sendiri, untuk berkahwin, // dan hidup
bahagia selama-lamanya // Saya takkan hidup tanpa tujuan seperti kamu. (Oh! Happy
Day, Disc 1)
(literally: 'Mom, I can find a man that suits # me on my own, to get married, // and live
happily ever after // I will not live aimlessly like you.')
a. Appropriate:
Ibu...saya boleh dapat lelaki yang sesuai # saya sendiri, untuk berkahwin, // dan
hidup bahagia selama-lamanya // Saya takkan hidup tanpa tujuan seperti ibu.

5. Appropriate:
Mak, saya tak boleh (My Tutor Friend, Disc 1)
(literally: 'Mom, I can't)

According to Nor Hashimah Jalaluddin et al (2005: 136), even the use of 'saya' in
situations shown by Subtitle 4 and 5 lessens the degree of politeness to an elderly kin
like one's mother. It is better to use the kinship term that reflects the birth order of a
child when addressing one's parent, as one's parent is definitely much older than
oneself. In the case of Subtitle 4 and 5, the more polite term would then be:

a. 'along' to reflect the fact that 'saya' in Subtitle 4 and 5 is the first child in family,
without indicating the gender of the child (See 4c and 5b) or
 
 b. 'kak long' to also reflect the gender of the child, which is female, by using the
clipped version of 'kakak,' which is 'kak' (See 4d and 5c).

c. Appropriate:
Ibu...along boleh dapat lelaki yang sesuai # along sendiri, untuk berkahwin, //
dan hidup bahagia selama-lamanya // along takkan hidup tanpa tujuan seperti
ibu.
 
d. Appropriate:
Ibu... kak long boleh dapat lelaki yang sesuai # kak long sendiri, untuk
berkahwin, // dan hidup bahagia selama-lamanya // kak long takkan hidup tanpa
tujuan seperti ibu.
 
e. Appropriate:
Mak, along tak boleh
 
f. Appropriate:
Mak, kak long tak boleh

Other instances of ignoring the use of kinship terms as a form of addressing an older
second person who is related can also be seen in Subtitle 6 and 7. Two other forms of
the second person pronoun--'kau' (literally: 'you') in Subtitle 6 and 'awak' (also literally:
'you') in Subtitle 7 have been used to address one's grandfather and one's parent. The
most appropriate, accurate, and polite way is to use the kinship term 'atuk' (literally:
'grandfather) or 'ayah' (literally: 'father') as a substitute for the second person pronoun
'kau' and 'awak' respectively. See 6a and 7a. Just like with 'kamu'-ing, one should also
not 'kau'-ing or 'awak'-ing an elder, especially if that elder is blood-related.

6. Inappropriate:
Atuk, bangun, Atuk ! Kau tak boleh mati ! (My Little Bride, Disc 1)
(literally: 'Grandpa, wake up, Grandpa! You can't die!)
a. Appropriate:
Atuk, bangun, Atuk ! Atuk tak boleh mati !

7. Inappropriate:
Awaklah berambus. (My Tutor Friend, Disc 1)
(literally: You go!)
a. Appropriate:
Ayahlah berambus.

The usage of 'berambus' in 7 and 7a is actually deemed impolite when speaking to one's
 parent. But the writer will not discuss this aspect in detail here. It would suffice to say
that the proper alternative for 'berambus' is 'go' with an exclamation--'Ayahlah pergi!'--
to reflect the tone of the context in which the subtitle represents.

As stated earlier in this article, kinship terms can also be used to address a second
person who is older than oneself and who is not connected either by blood, marriage,
adoption, or fostering. Subtitle 8 is shown for a Korean dialogue between a boy and a
female friend of his older brother. The translator should have selected the clipped
kinship term of 'kakak' (literally: 'sister')--'akak' or 'kak'--, instead of 'kau' which is more
appropriately used when addressing another person of the same age. See 8a.

8. Inappropriate:
Kau sangat cantik (My Tutor Friend, Disc 1)
(literally: You are very beautiful)
a. Appropriate:
Akak / Kak sangat cantik.

A problem also arises when dealing with the form of address for the first person. In
Subtitle 9, 'ibu' is perfectly matched with 'eomma' (literally: 'mother'). However, in the
same subtitle, the first person pronoun 'aku' (literally: 'I') is used to refer to oneself
when speaking to a parent. This is really inappropriate and impolite. In the Malay
culture, one is not allowed to 'aku' (literally: to 'I') one's parent. Instead, one should use
the more polite and formal first person pronoun 'saya,' or one can resort to selecting a
proper kinship term, which in this particular case is 'along' as the character is a first-
born child of the family. See 9a and 9b.

And to further expand some information on culturally sensitive aspects of Malay, even
'hei'-ing one's parent could be considered as impolite in some subcultures of Malay.
Thus, 9 should be more appropriately translated to 9a or 9b depending on the degree of
politeness that needs to be shown by the translator or by the context in which the
subtitle represents.

9. Appropriate:
Heiibu ! Boleh aku simpan jambak bunga ni
(literally: Hey mom! Can I keep this bouquet')

(My Little Bride, Disc 1)

 

a. Appropriate:
Ibu ! Boleh saya simpan jambak bunga ni
'saya'-1st person pronoun]
 
b. Appropriate:
Ibu ! Boleh along simpan jambak bunga ni
 ['along'- kinship term]

Conclusion

With more Korean movies and dramas being broadcast on Malaysian TVs and at the cinemas,
the translator should be aware of the complexity of the culture of both the source language (i.e.
Korean) and target language (i.e. Malay). The translator should take some time to study the
differences and similarities of the systems for the kinship terms of the two cultures in order to
produce good, quality Malay translation that will reflect his or her understanding of the
diversity of languages and cultures in Malaysia and Asia, which in this case is Korea.

Sago frond/palm frond

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Culture and intercultural competence and awareness that rise out of experience of culture,
are far more complex phenomena than it may seem to the translator. The more a translator
 is aware of complexities of differences between cultures, the better a translator s/he will be. It is probably right to
say that there has never been a time when the community of translators was unaware of cultural differences and their
significance for translation. Translation theorists have been cognizant of the problems …

aware, cognizant, conscious, sensible, alive, awake mean having knowledge of

something. aware implies vigilance in observing or alertness in drawing inferences from
what one experiences. aware of changes in climate cognizant implies having special or
certain knowledge as from firsthand sources.

Attendant upon cultural knowledge and cultural differences at least since ancient Rome. Cultural knowledge and
cultural differences have been a major focus of translator training and translation theory for as long as either has
been in existence.

The main concern has traditionally been with words and phrases that are so heavily and exclusively grounded in one
culture that they are almost impossible to translate into the terms – verbal or otherwise – of another.

Long debates have been held over when to paraphrase, when to use the nearest local equivalent, when to coin a new
word by translating literally, and when to transcribe.

All these “untranslatable” cultural-bound words and phrases continued to fascinate translators and translation
theorists.

sig·ni·fi·ca·tion

1. the representation or conveying of meaning.

"film comes closer than other forms of signification to resemblance of reality"

o an exact meaning or sense.

plural noun: significations

"many words acquired a signification colored by legal construction"

this field was introduced by Mounin in

The first theory developed in

1963 who underlined the importance of the

signification of a lexical item claiming that only if
this notion is considered will the translated item
fulfill its function correctly.
The problem with this theory is that all the cultural elements do not involve just the items, what a translator should
do in the case of cultural implications which are implied in the background knowledge of SL readers?

The notion of culture is essential to considering the implications for translation and, despite the differences in
opinion as to whether language is part of culture or not, the two notions of culture and language appear to be
inseparable.

In 1964, Nida discussed the problems of correspondence in translation, conferred equal importance to both linguistic
and cultural differences between the SL and the TL and concluded that differences between cultures may cause more
severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.

It is further explainedthat parallels in culture often provide a common understanding despite significant
formal shifts in the translation. According to him cultural implications for translation are thus of significant
importance as well as lexical concerns.

Nida's definitions of formal and dynamic equivalence in 1964 considers cultural implications for translation.

According to him, a "gloss translation" mostly typifies formal equivalence where form and content are reproduced
as faithfully as possible and the TL reader is able to "understand as much as he can of the customs, manner of
thought, and means of expression" of the SL context.

Contrasting with this idea, dynamic equivalence "tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the
context of his own culture" without insisting that he "understand the cultural patterns of the source-language
context".

According to him problems may vary in scope depending on the cultural and linguistic gap between the two (or
more) languages concerned.

It can be said that the first concept in cultural translation studies was cultural turn that in 1978 was presaged
by the work on Polysystems and translation norms by Even-Zohar and in 1980 by Toury.

pres·age
 porten ,augur,foreshadow,foretell, prophesy

petanda

1. (of an event) be a sign or warning that (something, typically something bad) will happen.
"the outcome of the game presaged the coming year"

a sign or warning that something, typically something bad, will happen; an omen or
portent.
"the fever was a somber presage of his final illness"

With no way around

Cultural mine field

The possibilities are few and far between

scarce; infrequent.
"my inspired moments are few and far between"

They dismiss the linguistic kinds of theories of translation and refer to them as having moved from word to text as a
unit but not beyond.

They themselves go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way
culture impacts and constraints translation and on the larger issues of context, history and convention.

Therefore, the move from translation as a text to translation as culture and politics is what they call it a Cultural
Turn in translation studies and became the ground for a metaphor adopted by Bassnett and Lefevere in 1990.

In fact Cultural Turn is the metaphor adopted by Cultural Studies oriented translation theories to refer to the analysis
of translation in its cultural, political, and ideological context.

Since 1990, the turn has extended to incorporate a whole range of approaches from cultural studies and is a true
indicator of the interdisciplinary nature of contemporary translation studies.

As the result of this so called Cultural Turn, cultural studies has taken an increasingly keen interest in translation.
One consequence of this has been bringing together scholars from different disciplines. It is here important to
mention that these cultural theorists have kept their own ideology and agendas that drive their own criticism.

These cultural approaches have widened the horizons of translation studies with new insights but at the same there
has been a strong element of conflict among them.

It is good to mention that the existence of such differences of perspectives is inevitable.

In the mid 1980s Vermeer introduced skopos theory which is a Greek word for ‘aim’ or ‘purpose’.

It is entered into translation theory in as a technical term for the purpose of translation and of action of translating.

Skopos theory focuses above all on the purpose of translation, which determines the translation method and
strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result.

The result is TT, which Vermeer calls translatum. Therefore, knowing why SL is to be translated and what function
of TT will be are crucial for the translator.

In 1984, Reiss and Vermeer in their book with the title of ‘Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation’
concentrated on the basic underlying ‘rules’ of this theory which involve: 1- A translatum (or TT) is determined by
its skopos,

2- A TT is an offer of information in a target culture and TL considering an offer of information in a source culture
and SL.

This relates the ST and TT to their function in their respective linguistic and cultural context.

The translator is once again the key player in the process of intercultural communication and production of the
translatum because of the purpose of the translation.

In 1988 Newmark defined culture as "the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that
uses a particular language as its means of expression", thus acknowledging that each language group has its own
culturally specific features.

He also introduced ‘Cultural word’ which the readership is unlikely to understand and the translation strategies for
this kind of concept depend on the particular text-type, requirements of the readership and client and importance of
the cultural word in the text.

Peter Newmark also categorized the cultural words as follows:

1) Ecology: flora, fauna, hills, winds, plains

2) Material Culture: food, clothes, houses and towns, transport
3) Social Culture: work and leisure
4) Organizations Customs, Activities, Procedures,

Concepts:

• Political and administrative

• Religious
• artistic
5) Gestures and Habits

He introduced contextual factors for translation process which include:

1- Purpose of text
2- Motivation and cultural, technical and linguistic level of readership
3- Importance of referent in SL text
4- Setting (does recognized translation exist?)
5- Recency of word/referent
6- Future or refrent.

He further clearly stated that operationally he does not regard language as a component or feature of culture in
direct opposition to the view taken by Vermeer who stated that "language is part of a culture" (1989:222).

According to Newmark, Vermeer's stance would imply the impossibility to translate whereas for
the latter, translating the source language (SL) into a suitable form of TL is part of the translator's role in
transcultural communication.

Language and culture may thus be seen as being closely related and both aspects must be
considered for translation.

When considering the translation of cultural words and notions, Newmark proposed two opposing methods:

transference and componential analysis. According to him transference gives "local

colour," keeping cultural names and concepts.

Although placing the emphasis on culture, meaningful to initiated readers, he claimed this method may cause
problems for the general readership and limit the comprehension of certain aspects.

The importance of the translation process in communication led Newmark to propose componential analysis which
he described as being "the most accurate translation procedure, which excludes the culture and highlights the
message".

Newmark also stated the relevance of componential analysis in translation as a flexible but orderly method of
bridging the numerous lexical gaps, both linguistic and cultural, between one language and another:

 Some strategies introduced by Newmark for dealing with cultural gap:

1) Naturalization:
A strategy when a SL word is transferred into TL text in its original form.

2) Couplet or triplet and quadruplet:

Is another technique the translator adopts at the time of transferring, naturalizing or calques to avoid any
misunderstanding: according to him it is a number of strategies combine together to handle one problem.
3) Neutralization:
Neutralization is a kind of paraphrase at the level of word.

If it is at higher level it would be a paraphrase. When the SL item is generalized (neutralized) it is paraphrased with
some culture free words.

4) Descriptive and functional equivalent:

In explanation of source language cultural item there is two elements: one is descriptive and another one would be
functional.

Descriptive equivalent talks about size, color and composition. The functional equivalent talks about the purpose of
the SL cultural-specific word.

5) Explanation as footnote:
The translator may wish to give extra information to the TL reader.

He would explain this extra information in a footnote. It may come at the bottom of the page, at the end of chapter or
at the end of the book.

6) Cultural equivalent:
The SL cultural word is translated by TL cultural word

7) Compensation:
confronting a loss of meaning, sound effect,
A technique which is used when

pragmatic effect or metaphor in one part of a text. The word or concept is compensated
in other part of the text.

In 1992, Lawrence Venuti mentioned the effective powers controlling translation.

He believed that in addition to governments and other politically motivated institutions which may decide to censor
or promote certain works, there are groups and social institutions which would include various players in the
publication as a whole.

These are the publishers and editors who choose the works and commission the translations, pay the translators and
often dictate the translation method.

They also include the literary agents, marketing and sales teams and reviewers.

Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agenda of their
time and place.

Power play is an important theme for cultural commentators and translation scholars.

In both theory and practice of translation, power resides in the deployment of language as an ideological weapon
for excluding or including a reader, a value system, a set of beliefs, or even an entire culture.

In 1992, Mona Baker stated that S.L word may express a concept which is
totally unknown in the target culture. It can be abstract or concrete.
It maybe a religious belief, a social custom or even a type of food.

In her book, In Other Words, she argued about the common non-equivalents to which a translator come across while
translating from SL into TL, while both languages have their distinguished specific culture. She put them in the
following order:

a) Culture specific concepts

b) The SL concept which is not lexicalized in TL
c) The SL word which is semantically complex
d) The source and target languages make different distinction in meaning
e) The TL lacks a super ordinate
f) The TL lacks a specific term (hyponym)
g) Differences in physical or interpersonal perspective
h) Differences in expressive meaning
i) Differences in form
j) Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms
k) The use of loan words in the source text

Mona Baker also believed that it is necessary for translator to have knowledge about
semantics and lexical sets. Because in this case:
S/he would appreciate the “value” of the word in a given system knowledge and the difference of structures in SL
and TL. This allows him to assess the value of a given item in a lexical set.

S/he can develop strategies for dealing with non-equivalence semantic field. These techniques are arranged
hierarchically from general (superordinate) to specific (hyponym).

In 1992 , Coulthard highlighted the importance of defining the ideal reader for whom the author attributes
knowledge of certain facts, memory of certain experiences ... plus certain opinions, preferences and prejudices and a
certain level of linguistic competence.

When considering such aspects, the extent to which the author may be influenced by such notions which depend on
his own sense of belonging to a specific socio-cultural group should not be forgotten.

Coulthard stated that once the ideal ST readership has been determined, considerations must be made concerning
the TT.

He said that the translator's first and major difficulty is the construction of a new ideal reader who, even if he has the
same academic, professional and intellectual level as the original reader, will have significantly different textual
expectations and cultural knowledge.

In the case of the extract translated here, it is debatable whether the ideal TT reader has "significantly different

textual expectations," however his cultural knowledge will almost certainly vary considerably.
Applied to the criteria used to determine the ideal ST reader it may be noted that few conditions are successfully
met by the potential ideal TT reader.

Indeed, the historical and cultural facts are unlikely to be known in detail along with the specific cultural situations
described.
Furthermore, despite considering the level of linguistic competence to be roughly equal for the ST and TT reader,
certain differences may possibly be noted in response to the use of culturally specific lexis which must be
considered when translating.

Although certain opinions, preferences and prejudices may be instinctively transposed by the TT reader who may
liken them to his own experience, it must be remembered that these do not match the social situation experience of
the ST reader.

Therefore, Coulthard mainly stated that the core social and cultural aspects remain problematic when considering
the cultural implications for translation.

Postcolonialism

In 1993 Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak was the one who introduced postcolonialism.

Post-colonialism is one of the most thriving points of contact between Cultural Studies and Translation Studies. It
can be defined as a broad cultural approach to the study of power relations between different groups, cultures or
peoples in which language, literature and translation may play a role.

Spivak’s work is indicative of how cultural studies and especially post-colonialism has over the past decade focused
on issues of translation, the translational and colonization.

The linking of colonization and translation is accompanied by the argument that translation has played an active role
in the colonization process and in disseminating an ideologically motivated image of colonized people.

The metaphor has been used of the colony as an imitative and inferior translational copy whose suppressed identity
has been overwritten by the colonizer.

The postcolonial concepts may have conveyed a view of translation as just a damaging instrument of the colonizers
who imposed their language and used translation to construct a distorted image of the suppressed people which
served to reinforce the hierarchal structure of the colony.

However, some critics of post-colonialism, like Robinson, believe that the view of the translation as purely harmful
and pernicious tool of the empire is inaccurate.

per·ni·cious / -/ adjective(formal) having a very harmful effect on sb/sth, especially in a way

that is gradual and not easily noticed

Like the other cultural theorists, Venuti in 1995 insisted that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened
to take the account of the value-driven nature of sociocultural framework. He used the term invisibility to
describe the translator situation and activity in Anglo-American culture. He said that this invisibility is produced by:

1- The way the translators themselves tend to translate fluently into English, to produce an idiomatic and readable
TT, thus creating illusion of transparency.

2- The way the translated texts are typically read in the target culture:

“A translated text, whether prose or poetry or non-fiction, is judged acceptable by most publishers, reviewers and
readers when it reads fluently, when the absence of any linguistic or stylistic peculiarities makes it seem
transparent, giving the appearance that it reflects the foreign writer’s personality or intention or the essential
meaning the foreign text_ the appearance, in other words, that the translation is not in fact a translation, but the
original.”

(Venuti, 1995)

Venuti discussed invisibility hand in hand with two types of translating strategies: domestication and
foreignization. He considered domestication as dominating Anglo-American (TL) translation culture. Just as the
postcolonialists were alert to the cultural effects of the differential in power relation between colony and ex-colony,
so Venuti bemoaned the phenomenon of domestication since it involves reduction of the foreign text to the
target language cultural values.

per·ni·cious / adjective(formal) having a very harmful effect on sb/sth, especially in a way that
is gradual and not easily noticed

strip sth away

— phrasal verb with strip verb [ T ]

UK 

 /strɪp/ US 

-pp-

to get rid of something that is considered not to be necessary:

Stripping
away layers of bureaucracy would release the extra money necessary to de
velop services that patients really need.
 

to remove a large amount of money, for example from a budget, so that

there is less to spend:
Most of their profits have been stripped away by competitors.
de·sir·able / Ñ / adjective 1(formal) desirable (that) … | desirable (for sb) (to do sth) that you would like
to have or do; worth having or doing:
(BrE) It is desirable that interest rates should be reduced.

Ç (NAmE) It is desirable that interest rates be reduced.

Ç highly desirable Ç The house has many desirable features.

Ç It is no longer desirable for adult children to live with their parents.

Ç She chatted for a few minutes about the qualities she considered desirable in a secretary.

Ç Such measures are desirable, if not essential.

 OPP  undesirable

2(of a person) causing other people to feel sexual desire 

de·sir·abil·ity / Ñ / noun [U] (formal):

No one questions the desirability of cheaper fares.

This entails translating in a transparent, fluent, invisible style in order to minimize the foreignness of the TT.
Venuti believed that a translator should leave the reader in peace, as much as possible, and he should move the
author toward him.

Foregnization, on the other hand, entails choosing a foreign text and developing a translation method along
lines which excluded by dominant cultural values in target language.

Ventuti considers the foreignizing method to be an ethno deviant pressure on target language cultural values to
register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad.

According to him it is highly desirable in an effort to restrain the ethnocentric violence translation.

The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also termed ‘resistancy’ , is a non-fluent or estranging
translation style designed to make visible the persistence of translator by highlighting the foreign identity of ST and
protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture.

In his later book ‘The Scandals of Translation’ Venuti insisted on foreignizing or, as he also called it, ‘minoritizing’
translatin, to cultivate a varied and heterogeneous discourse.

As far as language is concerned, the minoritizing or foriegnizing method of Venuti’s translation comes through in
the deliberate inclusion of foreignizing elements in a bid to make the translator visible and to make the reader
realize that he is reading a translation of the work from a foreign culture.

Foreignization is close adherent to the ST structure and syntax.

Venuti also said that the terms may change meaning across time and location.

In 1996, Simon mentioned that cultural studies brings to translation an understanding of the complexities of gender
and culture and it allows us to situate linguistic transfer.
 She considered a language of sexism in translation studies, with its image of dominance, fidelity, faithfulness and
betrayal.

She mentioned the seventeenth century image of “les belles infidels” (unfaithful beauties), translations into French
that were artistically beautiful but unfaithful. She went further and investigated George Steiner’s male-oriented
image of translation as penetration.

The feminist theorists, more or less, see a parallel between the status of translation which is often considered to be
derivative and inferior to the original writing and that of women so often repressed in society and literature.

This is the core feminist translation that theory seeks to identify and critique the tangle of the concepts which
relegate both women and translation to the bottom of the social and literary ladder.

an·gle1

/ˈtaNGɡəl/

Learn to pronounce

verb

1. twist together into a confused mass.

"the broom somehow got tangled up in my long skirt"

o
noun

1. a confused mass of something twisted together.

"a tangle of golden hair"

Similar:

Snarl, mass, mat, cluster, knot, mesh, disorder

Simon takes this further in the concept of the committed translation project. Translation project here can be defined
as such: An approach to literary translation in which feminist translators openly advocate and implement strategies
(linguistic or otherwise) to foreground the feminist in the translated text.

It may seem worthy to mention that the opposite of translation project occurs when gender-marked works are
translated in such a way that their distinctive characteristics are affected.
With the spread of deconstruction and cultural studies in the academy, the subject of ideology became an
important area of study.

The field of translation studies presents no exception to this general trend. It should also be mentioned that the
concept of ideology is not something new and it has been an area of interest from a long time ago.

The problem of discussing translation and ideology is one of definition. There are so many definitions of ideology
that it is impossible to review them all.

For instance as Hatim and Mason (1997 ) stated that ideology

encompasses the tacit assumptions, beliefs and value systems which are shared collectively by social groups.

Tacit :that is suggested indirectly or understood, rather than said in words:

tacit approval / support / knowledge Ç By tacit agreement, the subject was never mentioned
again.

They make a distinction between the ideology of translating and the translation of ideology. Whereas the former
refers to the basic orientation chosen by the translator operating within a social and cultural context. In translation of
ideology they examined the extent of mediation supplied by a translator of sensitive texts. Here mediation is defined
as the extent to which translators intervene in the transfer process, feeding their own knowledge and beliefs into
processing the text.

In 1999 Hermans stated that Culture refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life. According to him
translation can and should be recognized as a social phenomenon, a cultural practice. He said that we bring to
translation both cognitive and normative expectations, which are continually being negotiated, confirmed, adjusted,
and modified by practicing translators and by all who deal with translation. These expectations result from the
communication within the translation system, for instance, between actual translations and statements about
translation, and between the translation system and other social systems.

In 2002, regarding cultural translation Hervey and Higgins believed in cultural translation rather than literal one.
According to them accepting literal translation means that there’s no cultural translation operation. But obviously
there are some obstacles bigger than linguistic ones. They are cultural obstacles and here a transposition in culture is
needed.

According to Hervey & Higgins cultural transposition has a scale of degrees which are toward the choice of features
indigenous to target language and culture rather than features which are rooted in source culture. The result here is
foreign features reduced in target text and is to some extent naturalized. The scale here is from an extreme which is
mostly based on source culture (exoticism) to the other extreme which is mostly based on target culture (cultural
transplantation):

Exoticism< Calque< Cultural Borrowing< Communicative Translation< cultural transplantation

1) Exoticism
The degree of adaptation is very low here. The translation carries the cultural features and grammar of SL to TL. It
is very close to transference.

2) Calque
Calque includes TL words but in SL structure therefore while it is unidiomatic to target reader but it is familiar to a
large extent.
3) Cultural Borrowing
It is to transfer the ST expression verbatim into the TT. No adaptation of SL expression into TL forms. After a time
they usually become a standard in TL terms. Cultural borrowing is very frequent in history, legal, social, political
texts; for example, “La langue” and “La parole” in linguistics.

4) Communicative Translation
Communicative translation is usually adopted for culture specific cliches such as idioms, proverbs, fixed expression,
etc. In such cases the translator substitutes SL word with an existing concept in target culture. In cultural substitution
the propositional meaning is not the same but it has similar impact on target reader. The literal translation here may
sound comic. The degree of using this strategy some times depends on the license which is given to the translator by
commissioners and also the purpose of translation.

5) Cultural Transplantation
The whole text is rewritten in target culture. The TL word is not a literal equivalent but has similar cultural
connotations to some extent. It is another type of extreme but toward target culture and the whole concept is
transplanted in TL. A normal translation should avoid both exoticism and cultural transplantation.

In 2004, Nico Wiersema in his essay “globalization and translation” stated that globalization is linked to English
being a lingua franca; the language is said to be used at conferences (interpreting) and seen as the main language in
the new technologies. The use of English as a global language is an important trend in world communication.
Globalisation is also linked to the field of Translation Studies. Furthermore, globalisation is placed in the context of
changes in economics, science, technology, and society. Globalization and technology are very helpful to translators
in that translators have more access to online information, such as dictionaries of lesser-known languages.
According to him such comments can be extended to the readers of translations. Should the target text be
challenging for a reader, the internet can help him understand foreign elements in the text. Thus the text can be
written in a more foreignising / exoticising manner. He mentioned a relatively new trend wherein culturally bound
elements (some, one might say, untranslatable), are not translated. He believed that this trend contributes to learning
and understanding foreign cultures. Context explains culture, and adopting (not necessarily adapting) a selection of
words enriches the target text, makes it more exotic and thus more interesting for those who want to learn more
about the culture in question. Eventually, these new words may find their way into target language dictionaries.
Translators will then have contributed to enriching their own languages with loan words from the source language
(esp. English).

He considered this entering loan words into TL as an important aspect of translation. Translation brings cultures
closer. He stated that at this century the process of globalization is moving faster than ever before and there is no
indication that it will stall any time soon. In each translation there will be a certain distortion between cultures. The
translator will have to defend the choices he/she makes, but there is currently an option for including more foreign
words in target texts. Therefore, it is now possible to keep SL cultural elements in target texts. In each translation
there will be a certain distortion between cultures. The translator will have to defend the choices he/she makes, but
there is currently an option for including more foreign words in target texts.

According to him translator has three options for the translation of cultural elements:

1- Adopting the foreign word without any explanation.

2- Adopting the foreign word with extensive explanations.
3- Rewriting the text to make it more comprehensible to the target-language audience.

According to Nico Wiersema (2004), Cultures are getting closer and closer and this is something that he believed
translators need to take into account. In the end it all depends on what the translator, or more often, the publisher
wants to achieve with a certain translation. In his opinion by entering SL cultural elements:

a- The text will be read more fluently (no stops)

b- The text remains more exotic, more foreign
c- The translator is closer to the source culture
d- The reader of the target texts gets a more genuine image of the source culture.

In 2004, ke Ping regarding translation and culture paid attention to misreading and presupposition. He mentioned
that of the many factors that may lead to misreadings in translation is cultural presuppositions.

Cultural presuppositions merit special attention from translators because they can substantially and systematically
affect their interpretation of facts and events in the source text without their even knowing it. He pinpointed the
relationship between cultural presuppositions and translational misreadings. According to him misreadings in
translation are often caused by a translator’s presuppositions about the reality of the source language community.
These presuppositions are usually culturally-derived and deserve the special attention of the translator. He showed
how cultural presuppositions work to produce misreadings in translation.

According to ke Ping “Cultural presupposition,” refers to underlying assumptions, beliefs, and ideas that are
culturally rooted, widespread.

 According to him anthropologists agree on the following features of culture:

(1) Culture is socially acquired instead of biologically transmitted;

(2) Culture is shared among the members of a community rather than being unique to an individual;
(3) Culture is symbolic. Symbolizing means assigning to entities and events meanings which are external to them
and which cannot be grasped alone. Language is the most typical symbolic system within culture;
(4) Culture is integrated. Each aspect of culture is tied in with all other aspects.

 According to ke Ping culture is normally regarded as comprising, with some slight variations, the following four
sub-systems:

(1) Techno-economic System:

ecology (flora, fauna, climate, etc.); means of production, exchange, and distribution of goods; crafts, technology,
and science; artifacts.

(2) Social System:

social classes and groups; kinship system (typology, sex and marriage, procreation and paternity, size of family,
etc.); politics and law; education; sports and entertainment; customs; general history.

(3) Ideational System:

cosmology; religion; magic and witchcraft; folklore; artistic creations as images; values (moral, aesthetic, etc.);
cognitive focus and thinking patterns; ideology.

(4) Linguistic System:

phonology and graphemics; grammar (morphology and syntax); semantics and pragmatics.

Each ingredient in these four sub-systems can lead to presuppositions that are fundamentally different from those
bred by other cultures, and hence might result in misreading when translation or other forms of communication are
conducted across two cultures. ke Ping introduced some of these culture-bound presuppositions as observed in
mistranslated texts which include:

a- Cultural presupposition related to techno-economic system.

b- Cultural presupposition related to social systems.
c- Cultural presupposition related to ideational system.
d- Cultural presupposition related to linguistic systems.
CONCLUSION

The first theory regarding cultural translation introduced by Mounin in 1963 who underlined the importance of the
signification of a lexical item claiming that the best translation is the one which just the cultural items are correctly
translated that only if this notion is considered will the translated item fulfill its function correctly. Nida in 1964
believed that differences between cultures may cause more severe complications for the translator than do
differences in language structure. Regarding translation of cultural elements he paid more attention to dynamic
equivalence which tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture
without insisting that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context. According to him this
method is more tangible for TL reader.

The first concept in cultural translation studies was cultural turn that in 1978 was presaged by the work on
Polysystems and translation norms by Even-Zohar and in 1980 by Toury. The move from translation as a text to
translation as culture and politics is what they call it a Cultural Turn in translation studies.

In the mid 1980s Vermeer introduced skopos theory which focuses above all on the purpose of translation, and
determined the translation method and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate
result. Accordingly cultural elements will be translated according to the purpose of the translation, keeping the local
color of SL depends on the purpose of translation.

Newmark in 1988 categorized cultural words into Ecology (flora, fauna, hills, winds, plains); material Culture( food,
clothes, houses and towns, transport); social Culture (work and leisure); organizations Customs, Activities,
Procedures, Concepts (Political and administrative, religious ,artistic); gestures and habits. He proposed two
opposing methods: a- transference which gives "local color," keeping cultural names and concepts, b- componential
analysis which excludes the culture and highlights the message.

In 1992, Lawrence Venuti mentioned the effective powers controlling translation like governments and other
politically motivated institutions that may decide to censor or promote certain works, value system, a set of beliefs,
or even an entire culture. He said that they effect cultural translation by their power.

In 1992, Mona Baker believed that it is necessary for translator to have knowledge about semantics and lexical sets
and the value of the words in source language. She mentioned that a translator can develop strategies for dealing
with non-equivalence semantic field. These strategies are arranged hierarchically from general (superordinate) to
specific (hyponym).

In 1992, Coulthard highlighted the importance of defining the ideal reader for whom the author attributes knowledge
of certain facts, memory of certain experiences ... plus certain opinions, preferences and prejudices and a certain
level of linguistic competence. Then the translator should identify TL reader for whom he is translating and match
the cultural differences between two languages.

Spivak’s work in 1993 is indicative of how cultural studies and especially post-colonialism has over the past decade
focused on issues of translation. The ideology and beliefs of colonizers affected the way the texts of colonized
countries should be translated.

Venuti discussed invisibility hand in hand with two types of translating strategies: domestication as dominating TL
culture and foreignization which is to make the translator visible and to make the reader realize that he is reading a
translation of the work from a foreign culture and it is close to SL structure and syntax.

In 1996, Simon mentioned that cultural studies brings to translation an understanding of the complexities of gender
and culture and it allows us to situate linguistic transfer. She sees a language of sexism in translation studies, with
its image of dominance, fidelity, faithfulness and betrayal and how the translations are affected by the women’s
ideologies. According to him feminist translators openly advocate and implement strategies (linguistic or otherwise)
to foreground the feminist in the translated text.
Hatim and Mason (1997) stated that ideology encompasses the tacit assumptions, beliefs and value systems which
are shared collectively by social groups. They make a distinction between the ideology of translating and the
translation of ideology. Whereas, the former refers to the basic orientation chosen by the translator operating within
a social and cultural context. In the translation of ideology they examined the extent of mediation supplied by a
translator of sensitive texts.

According to Hermans in 1999 translation can and should be recognized as a social phenomenon, a cultural practice.
He said that we bring to translation both cognitive and normative expectations, which are continually being
negotiated, confirmed, adjusted, and modified by practicing translators and by all who deal with translation,
In 2002, regarding cultural translation Hervey mentioned that for dealing with the cultural gaps cultural
transposition is needed. According to him cultural transposition has a scale of degrees which are toward the choice
of features indigenous to target language and culture rather than features which are rooted in source culture.

In 2004, Nico Wiersema mentined the concept of globalization and translation. He stated that TT can be written in a
more foreignizing / eroticizing manner wherein culturally bound elements (some, one might say, untranslatable), are
not translated. He believed that this trend contributes to learning and understanding foreign cultures.

References:

- Alvarez, Roman and M.C.A. Vidal (1996). Translation, Power, Subversion. Aixelá, J.F. “Culture Specific Items in
Translation”

- Baker, Mona (1992). In Other Words. London: Routledge.

- Baker, Mona (2001). Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. London: Routledge.

- Baker, Mona (2005). Translation and Conflict. London and New York: Routledge.

- H. Minabad, Hassan (2004). “Culture in Translation and Translation of Culture Specific Items”. Translation
Studies. 5,2. : 31-46

- Hatim, Basil and J. Munday (2006). Translation an Advance Resource Book. London and New York: Routledge.

- Hung, Eva (2005). Translation and Cultural change. Amsterdam : John Benjamins.

- Larson, Mildred (1984). Meaning Based Translation: A Guide to Cross Language Equivalence. Lanham:
University Press of America.

- Lefevere, André (1992). Translation History Culture. London: Routledge.

- Munday, Jeremy (2001). Introducing Translation Studies. Tehran: Yalda Ghalam.

- Newmark, Peter (1981). Approaches to Translation. Oxford: Pregamon Press.

- Newmark, Peter (1988). A Text Book of Translation. Tehran: Adab.

 Cultural Implications for Translation
by Kate James

 
 

1. Introduction

ranslation is a kind of activity which inevitably involves at least two

languages and two cultural traditions." (Toury 1978:200). As this statement
implies, translators are permanently faced with the problem of how to treat
the cultural aspects implicit in a source text (ST) and of finding the most appropriate
technique of successfully conveying these aspects in the target language (TL). These
problems may vary in scope depending on the cultural and linguistic gap between the
two (or more) languages concerned (see Nida 1964:130).

The cultural implications for translation may take several forms

an important ranging from lexical content and syntax to ideologies and ways of
aspect is to life in a given culture. The translator also has to decide on the
importance given to certain cultural aspects and to what extent it is
determine how necessary or desirable to translate them into the TL. The aims of the
ST will also have implications for translation as well as the intended
much missing readership for both the ST and the target text (TT).
background
Considering the cultural implications for a translated text
information should implies recognising all of these problems and taking into
account several possibilities before deciding on the solution
be provided by the which appears the most appropriate in each specific case.
Before applying these methods to the chosen text, this essay
translator will examine the importance of culture in translation through a
literature review. The different general procedures of treating
the cultural implications for translation will be examined as
well as analysing the ST and the aims of the author. The
 translation process will also be treated using specific examples found in the ST before
discussing the success of aforementioned theoretical methods applied to the TT.

Although corresponding to cultural categories examined, the title will be considered

separately in order to determine the pertinence of conserving, highlighting, or
excluding certain aspects. Due to these considerations, the title will be considered after
the other aspects as all other cultural implications need to be examined before reaching
relevant conclusions.
 

2. The Importance of Culture in Translation

The definition of "culture" as given in the Concise Oxford Dictionary varies from
descriptions of the "Arts" to plant and bacteria cultivation and includes a wide range of
intermediary aspects. More specifically concerned with language and translation,
Newmark defines culture as "the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to
a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression" (1988:94),
thus acknowledging that each language group has its own culturally specific features.
He further clearly states that operationally he does "not regard language as a
component or feature of culture" (Newmark 1988:95) in direct opposition to the view
taken by Vermeer who states that "language is part of a culture" (1989:222).
According to Newmark, Vermeer's stance would imply the impossibility to translate
whereas for the latter, translating the source language (SL) into a suitable form of TL
is part of the translator's role in transcultural communication.

The notion of culture is essential to considering the implications for translation and,
despite the differences in opinion as to whether language is part of culture or not, the
two notions appear to be inseparable. Discussing the problems of correspondence in
translation, Nida confers equal importance to both linguistic and cultural differences
between the SL and the TL and concludes that "differences between cultures may
cause more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language
structure" (Nida, 1964:130). It is further explained that parallels in culture often
provide a common understanding despite significant formal shifts in the translation.
The cultural implications for translation are thus of significant importance as well as
lexical concerns.

Lotman's theory states that "no language can exist unless it is steeped in the context of
culture; and no culture can exist which does not have at its centre, the structure of
natural language" (Lotman, 1978:211-32). Bassnett (1980: 13-14) underlines the
importance of this double consideration when translating by stating that language is
"the heart within the body of culture," the survival of both aspects being
interdependent. Linguistic notions of transferring meaning are seen as being only part
of the translation process; "a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria" must also be
considered. As Bassnett further points out, "the translator must tackle the SL text in
such a way that the TL version will correspond to the SL version... To attempt to
 impose the value system of the SL culture onto the TL culture is dangerous ground"
(Bassnett, 1980:23). Thus, when translating, it is important to consider not only the
lexical impact on the TL reader, but also the manner in which cultural aspects may be
perceived and make translating decisions accordingly.
 

1. General cultural implications for translation

Language and culture may thus be seen as being closely related and both
aspects must be considered for translation. When considering the translation of
cultural words and notions, Newmark proposes two opposing methods:
transference and componential analysis (Newmark, 1988:96). As Newmark
mentions, transference gives "local colour," keeping cultural names and
concepts. Although placing the emphasis on culture, meaningful to initiated
readers, he claims this method may cause problems for the general readership
and limit the comprehension of certain aspects. The importance of the
translation process in communication leads Newmark to propose componential
analysis which he describes as being "the most accurate translation procedure,
which excludes the culture and highlights the message" (Newmark, 1988:96).
This may be compared to the scale proposed by Hervey et al, visualised as
follows:

(Hervey et al, 1992:28)

Nida's definitions of formal and dynamic equivalence (see Nida, 1964:129)

may also be seen to apply when considering cultural implications for
translation. According to Nida, a "gloss translation" mostly typifies formal
equivalence where form and content are reproduced as faithfully as possible
and the TL reader is able to "understand as much as he can of the customs,
manner of thought, and means of expression" of the SL context (Nida,
1964:129). Contrasting with this idea, dynamic equivalence "tries to relate the
receptor to modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture"
without insisting that he "understand the cultural patterns of the source-
language context" (idem).
 

3. Source Text
 
1. The nature of the source text

The text chosen for translation ("Les Loukoums chez l'Arabe') is an extract
 from La Première Gorgée de Bière et autres Plaisirs Minuscules (L'Arpenteur,
1998) by the prize-winning French author, Philippe Delerm. It is a self-
contained chapter of a collection of similar extracts where the author's intention
to present certain aspects of French life in a lyrical way presents matter for
thought both culturally and linguistically. The subject matter is centred around
thoughts on Turkish Delight and the Arab shop where this sweet can be bought,
thus introducing not only French, but North African cultural aspects.
Reflections on the subject, action and dialogue are all presented in the same
narrative form where the voice of the author is omnipresent. The text contains
several culturally-specific words and notions whose implications for translation
merit attention.
 

2. The ideal reader

A question that needs to be asked when considering a text for translation is for
whom the original text was destined and whether this readership corresponds to
the potential TT reader. Thus two types of ideal reader may be distinguished:
the ST ideal reader and the TT ideal reader. In the text Les Loukoums chez
l'Arabe, this notion may be seen as particularly relevant due to the literary
nature of the extract with the subject matter being specifically linked to culture.

1. The ideal ST reader

Coulthard (1992) highlights the importance of defining the ideal reader

for whom the author "attributes knowledge of certain facts, memory of
certain experiences ... plus certain opinions, preferences and prejudices
and a certain level of linguistic competence." When considering such
aspects, it should not be forgotten that the extent to which the author
may be influenced by such notions is dependent on his own sense of
belonging to a specific socio-cultural group.

These principles may be applied to "Les Loukoums chez l'Arabe" and

conclusions may be reached concerning Delerm's ideal reader in the
following way:

i. Certain facts. The author supposes that his ideal reader has a
knowledge of historical events and links between France and
Northern African countries as well as a certain cultural familiarity
with the customs of these countries.
ii. Memory of certain experiences. The experiences in this instance
may be considered as contact with cultural situations described in
the text such as previous visits to the kind of Arab shop described
 and other cultural elements (French town life).
iii. Certain opinions, preferences and prejudices. In this category may
be placed the widespread French associations concerning Arab
immigration. Delerm does not seek an anti-immigrant or racist
readership yet inherent cultural prejudices are not avoided.
iv. A certain level of linguistic competence. The text chosen
corresponds to the description of the average text for translation
given by Newmark, namely for "an educated, middle-class readership
in an informal ... style (Newmark, 1988:13). It may be considered that
the social category "middle class" may find an approximate
corresponding category in France. On a semantic and cultural level,
there are several potential problems for a reader not corresponding
to the criteria of the ideal reader.

 
2. The ideal TT reader

Once the ideal ST readership has been determined, considerations must

be made concerning the TT. Coulthard states:

The translator's first and major difficulty ... is the

construction of a new ideal reader who, even if he has
the same academic, professional and intellectual level as
the original reader, will have significantly different
textual expectations and cultural knowledge (Coulthard,
1992:12).

In the case of the extract translated here, it is debatable whether the

ideal TT reader has "significantly different textual expectations,"
however his cultural knowledge will almost certainly vary considerably.

Applied to the criteria used to determine the ideal ST reader it may be

noted that few conditions are successfully met by the potential ideal TT
reader. Indeed, the historical and cultural facts are unlikely to be known
in detail along with the specific cultural situations described.
Furthermore, despite considering the level of linguistic competence to
be roughly equal for the ST and TT reader, certain differences may
possibly be noted in response to the use of culturally specific lexis
which must be considered when translating.

Although certain opinions, preferences and prejudices may be

instinctively transposed by the TT reader who may liken them to his
own experience (in Britain, for example, comparing Algerian and
Moroccan immigrants to Indian or Pakistani communities), it must be
remembered that these do not match the social situation experience of
the ST reader. Therefore, the core social and cultural aspects remain
 problematic when considering the cultural implications for translation.
 

4. The Translation Process

It has already been noted that the text in this case is surely intended for "an educated,
middle-class readership" and, more specifically, a French one with knowledge of the
foreign cultural aspects implied. The problems when translating such a text are
therefore not only of a purely lexical character but also of an equally fundamental
nature - the understanding of a social, economic, political and cultural context as well
as connotative aspects of a more semantic character. As with all texts of foreign
literature, historical, political and other such cultural references are always of a certain
importance and the TT reader is unlikely to have a full understanding of such notions.
When considering the cultural implications for translation, the extent to which it is
necessary for the translator to explain or complete such an information gap should be
taken into account; on the basis of conclusions reached concerning the ideal TT reader,
the translator should decide how much may be left for the reader to simply infer.

Taking these last points into consideration, different elements will be discussed in
relation to their cultural implications for translation. The different aforementioned
theories will be considered and their relative pertinence examined.
 

1. Cultural categories

Adapting Nida, Newmark places "foreign cultural words" in several categories

(Newmark 1988:95-102). Following these categories, in the text "Les
Loukoums chez l'Arabe," the examples leading to cultural implications for
translation may be classed essentially as material culture, and as gestures and
habits although other cultural terms are also present. These aspects may be
translated in different ways according to their role in the text and the aims for
the TT reader. Newmark also states the relevance of componential analysis in
translation "as a flexible but orderly method of bridging the numerous lexical
gaps, both linguistic and cultural, between one language and another"
(Newmark, 1988:123). The two orientations in translation examined by Nida,
namely formal or dynamic equivalence, should also be considered when
analysing the cultural implications for translation of elements in these
categories.
 

1. Material culture

"Food is for many the most sensitive and important expression of

national culture; food terms are subject to the widest variety of
translation procedures" (Newmark, 1988:97). The terms coming under
 this category are further complicated due to the "foreign" elements
present. One such case is the reference to the brightly coloured
pâtisseries tunisiennes (l.17). Translating according to the French idea
of pâtisseries would imply using the English "cakes" or "pastries" yet in
the context of Tunisian culture this hardly seems appropriate bearing in
mind the difference in form of the TL reference. This illustrates the
theory developed by Mounin (1963) who underlines the importance of
the signification of a lexical item claiming that only if this notion is
considered will the translated item fulfil its function correctly. In this
case the translation as "sweets" seems to correspond to the idea of the
original signification, even if it is a more abstract translation of the
French original, and is therefore more appropriate concerning its
function in the TT than a translation of formal equivalence.

Another example of material culture includes an eponym, namely

bouteilles de Sidi Brahim (l.42). In France this low-quality, Algerian
wine is widely known and is the traditional drink with North African
dishes, therefore widely sold in supermarkets as well as this type of
small shop. This example can be seen as corresponding to the new ideal
reader as described by Coulthard, having different cultural knowledge
(Coulthard, 1992:12) as an English-speaking reader would not
necessarily know the name of this wine and even less its associations.
By using strictly formal equivalence, all meaning would be lost. It
would however be possible to neutralise the original term Sidi Brahim
by translating as "wine" or else to introduce a form of componential
analysis, translating as "cheap, Algerian wine." Sidi Brahim being the
area where the wine is produced, it seems appropriate to keep the
original term in the TT but it is necessary to add a qualifier, here
"wine." In this way, although the cultural implications are not so strong
as for an "initiated" French reader, the information is passed on and
elucidated by a qualifier. The cultural implications automatically
understood by the ST reader, namely the notion of cheap, low-quality
wine, are not however conveyed, the emphasis in this context being on
the exotic nature of the product as conveyed by Sidi Brahim and not on
the low cost.
 

2. Gestures and habits

Newmark points out that gestures and habits are "often described in
'non-cultural' language" (Newmark, 1988:103).

In this extract many gestures and habits are implied yet not specifically
described thus making an entirely communicative translation difficult.
Once again, these are cultural references which imply a certain
knowledge of the way of life of the North African community in France
and of the attitudes towards it.

North African men, often working in groups, are often caricatured by

the French as being crafty. As well as this, the popular French
expression "un travail d'Arabe" used to describe work that has been
poorly done further explains popular attitudes.

ser·vile / / adjective(disapproving) wanting too much to please sb and

obey them
 SYN  fawning

Due to linguistic and cultural factors, lower class Algerian and

Moroccan men appear overtly servile in French society. All of these
factors are inherently present in the text, yet their full cultural
significance is difficult to portray without such background knowledge.

The possible lack of cultural knowledge of the TT reader implies

translating in a way so as to clearly convey notions which may
otherwise go unnoticed. The proposed translation of "obligeance" as
"obsequiousness" may overemphasise the strength of the original ST
term yet the mockingly over-servile attitude aimed at being conveyed
by the author is respected. When explaining certain principles of
dynamic equivalence, Nida states that "the emotional tone must
accurately reflect the point of view of the author" (Nida, 1964:139).
Newmark's definition of compensation, being "when loss of
meaning...in one part of a sentence is compensated in another part"
(Newmark, 1988:90) may seem relevant here. By translating in this
way, although culturally implicit translation loss is inevitable here, a
form of dynamic equivalence through compensation is adopted in order
to counterbalance such loss and seems an appropriate way of conveying
cultural implications present in the ST.

The expression d'après le café also needs further explanation. In French

society, this would immediately be understood as the time after the
small expresso coffee drunk at the end of a meal. As Sapir claims, "no
two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as
representing the same social reality" (Sapir, 1956:69), and even a
lexical item seen as having an apparently simple translation (here, café
=coffee) may have a considerably different signification. The emphasis
given by Nida on a TT having to produce the same response as the
 original (Nida, 1964) encourages the addition of "mealtime" as does the
aforementioned theory developed by Mounin. In this way, the lexical
function is transferred as far as possible in the TT as are the ST cultural
connotations.
 

2. Cultural references

Three examples of potentially opaque cultural references for the TT reader may
be found in the text. The first of these is "un Berbère à petit beret bleu." The
author regrets not finding a typical Berber shopkeeper each time he goes into
an Arab shop, a notion full of cultural meaning given the context of French
colonisation of Algeria and Arab immigration yet of no great cultural
significance for the TT reader. The slightly ironic touch portrayed by the image
of a typical Berber man wearing the classic symbol of a Frenchman, namely a
blue beret, may not be entirely lost on a TT reader yet without understanding
the historical and cultural background the depth of the irony of comic paradox
may be lost. It does not however seem appropriate to explore Nida's theory of
dynamic equivalence by replacing this image with a TL equivalent as the
cultural implications here are extremely specific. The text-type as well as the
definition of the ideal TT reader and his motivations may imply preferring the
use of transference or formal equivalence despite translation loss concerning
cultural implications.

Secondly, the term "kabyle" must be considered. This is another reference

which has strongly attached associations due to the same cultural and historical
factors and the meaning is only fully understandable if these associations are
known. A literal translation of the text would be "...where even the red piles of
coca-cola cans have taken on a small, Kabyle look." An educated French reader
would have enough knowledge of Algerian problems to instantly associate
Kabylia with a fiercely independent community which has always refused to be
influenced culturally, linguistically and politically by the surrounding countries
despite great pressure. A communicative approach implies an explanation of
this cultural reference and may be obtained by the addition of explanatory
adjectives in the TT, thus translating as "...even the red piles of coca-cola cans
have taken on that fiercely independent Kabyle look." This potential solution is
not a direct translation of the ST, however it enables the TT reader to approach
the cultural reference in a more meaningful way, yet again illustrating Nida's
concern that a TT should produce the same response as the original.

Lastly, the term "boétien" needs consideration. Transferring this term using
formal equivalence would have little cultural effect on an English-speaking
reader and be of no value considering the text-type and the definition of the
ideal TT reader. Indeed, Boeotians in Antique periods were considered to be a
nation of rough peasants lacking in culture. In French the term béotien
 maintains this concept and although the adjective could be translated formally
as "Boeotian," the true sense would be lacking in the TT. The cultural
implications for translation require a full understanding of the notion rather
than an emphasis on the original SL reference. In this case an appropriate
translation would consider the use of a cultural equivalent and the term
"philistine" could be used to represent a similar cultural concept.
 

3. Lexical feature

As can be frequently found in literary texts, lexical features present cultural

implications for translation. One example of lexis in this text which may have a
different effect on the ST and the TT reader is the reference "dans la fraîcheur
du soir." This would seem welcoming to a ST reader used to hot days where
fresh temperatures provide a welcome relief. To a British reader however, this
may not produce the pleasurable effect intended by the author and care must be
taken to convey the drop in temperature positively. By translating as "in the
cool of the evening," the same positive aspect may be maintained on the TT
reader as in the SL country.
 

4. The translation of the title: "Les Loukoums chez l'Arabe'

The title of this extract may also be considered as having cultural implications
for translation. Considering the titles of the other chapters in the collection, it
may be noted that almost all have cultural connotations and that this is one of
the author's aims. According to Newmark, in literary translation "the title
should sound attractive, allusive, suggestive ... and should usually bear some
relation to the original" (Newmark, 1988:56). This can be seen as relevant here,
the aim being to portray culturally bound aspects; thus the title may be seen as
conveying aspects of the narrative and deserves further attention.
 

1. Les Loukoums

Firstly, the word loukoums must be considered. There are basically two
possibilities when translating this word, keeping the original term or
using the wider known term, Turkish delight, which may however carry
a semantic incompatibility with chez l'Arabe. Loukoum is a term that is
used in English but probably by a smaller community, those familiar
with Oriental customs and countries, particularly Turkey and Greece. It
may be misleading to introduce such a term which could be interpreted
as an exotic translation using the scale presented by Hervey et al, shown
previously.
 On the other hand, a translation where loukoums are referred to as
Turkish delight may introduce a widely accepted yet false cultural
notion, namely that such a sweet is primarily Turkish and not
something equally common to North African culture. In French no
other term exists, loukoum is a cultural word that has been transferred
as such and French links with North African countries reinforce the
notion of loukoums as a cultural feature.

In English the term loukoums would need an explanation in the context

of this text, destined for a wide general readership. The cultural
knowledge of the TT does not correspond to the ST reader and it would
therefore be difficult to justify the use of loukoum instead of Turkish
delight, a word instantly understandable to the ideal TT reader and thus
corresponding more to the notion of communicative translation as
defined by Hervey et al (1992:31-32) and Newmark (1988:47).
 

2. Chez l'Arabe

This part of the title has several cultural implications to be considered

when translating. Whilst conserving the original aspect of the ST title, a
non-French reader would not necessarily react in the same way to the
word "l'Arabe." As we have seen with the historical context, the French
have obvious reasons to feel cultural implications when dealing with
l'Arabe and an average French reader would necessarily have a large
range of associations connected to the word, not primarily positive.
Here, the word refers not only to the ethnic origin of the shopkeeper but
also to the notion "Arab shop," a place which is always open and where
almost everything can be found. This notion deserves to be maintained
although a culturally bound translation loss is inevitable due to missing
background knowledge. To translate the title simply as "Turkish
Delight" would minimise the importance of l'Arabe in the SL cultural
context and reinforce this loss. This case may be seen to illustrate
Nida's aforementioned theory that differences in culture are often a
greater problem than differences in language.

It must also be noted that a qualifier must be added to fully translate

chez l'Arabe. Several possibilities may be considered, ranging from
"Turkish Delight bought from the Arab," "...sold by the Arab,"
"...bought at the shop of the Arab," "...from the Arab shop."
Considering the lack of background knowledge for the TT reader, the
last possibility may be the most appropriate, the idea conveyed by
"Arab shop" implying a notion of difference in French/Arab culture.
Following Newmark who claims "the additional information a
translator may have to add to his version is normally cultural
 (accounting for difference between SL and TL culture), technical...or
linguistic" (Newmark, 1988:91), it may in this case prove useful to
explain further this relationship by adding a footnote. An example may
be "North Africans have strong colonial ties with France and many
have set up local shops open long hours and selling a large variety of
goods, both of French and native origins."
 

5. Conclusion

A variety of different approaches have been examined in relation to the cultural

implications for translation. It is necessary to examine these approaches bearing in
mind the inevitability of translation loss when the text is, as here, culture bound.
Considering the nature of the text and the similarities between the ideal ST and TT
reader, an important aspect is to determine how much missing background information
should be provided by the translator using these methods. It has been recognised that
in order to preserve specific cultural references certain additions need to be brought to
the TT. This implies that formal equivalence should not be sought as this is not
justified when considering the expectations of the ideal TT reader. At the other end of
Nida's scale, complete dynamic equivalence does not seem totally desirable either as
cultural elements have been kept in order to preserve the original aim of the text,
namely to present one aspect of life in France.

Thus the cultural implications for translation of this kind of ST do not justify using
either of these two extremes and tend to correspond to the definition of communicative
translation, attempting to ensure that content and language present in the SL context is
fully acceptable and comprehensible to the TL readership. (Newmark,1988).
 
 

REFERENCES

Bassnett, S. 1991. Translation Studies. London: Routledge

Coulthard, M. 1992. "Linguistic Constraints on Translation." In Studies in Translation /

Estudos da Traducao, Ilha do Desterro, 28. Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, pp. 9-23.

Hervey, S., Higgins, I. 1992. Thinking Translation. London: Routledge.

Lotman, J., Uspensky, B. 1978. "On the Semiotic Mechanism of Culture," New Literary
History, pp. 211-32.

Mounin, G. 1963. Les problèmes théoriques de la traduction. Paris: Gallimard.

 Newmark, P. 1988. A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice Hall

Nida, E. 1964. "Principles of Correspondence." In Venuti, L. The Translation Studies Reader.

London: Routledge.

Sapir, E. 1956. Culture, Language and Personality. Los Angeles: University of California
Press.

Toury, G. 1978, revised 1995. "The Nature and Role of Norms in Translation." In Venuti, L.
The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.

Vermeer, H. 1989. "Skopos and Commission in Translational Activity." In Venuti, L. The

Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.

Teaching Translation
Problems and Solutions

  by Prof. Constanza Gerding-Salas

 
 

Abstract

The present article deals firstly with some theoretical reflections

about the translational process and the various approaches to verge
on texts to be translated. Then, a sequential work procedure
carried out with undergraduate translation students is described.
This methodology, consisting of a step-by-step, either sequential or
successive procedure for workshops, which has proven quite
successful in translator training at an undergraduate level. The
educator is understood as a facilitator of the translation task: The
lion's share of the transfer process is accomplished by the students
both collectively and individually. The methodology proposed and
the corresponding evaluation process are discussed, and the human
profiles and the work facilities are defined. All the aspects
presented and analyzed here respond to empirical matters.

 
Introduction

very translation activity has one or more specific purposes and whichever they may
be, the main aim of translation is to serve as a cross-cultural bilingual communication
vehicle among peoples. In the past few decades, this activity has developed because of
rising international trade, increased migration, globalization, the recognition of linguistic
minorities, and the expansion of the mass media and technology. For this reason, the
translator plays an important role as a bilingual or multi-lingual cross-cultural transmitter of
culture and truths by attempting to interpret concepts and speech in a variety of texts as
faithfully and accurately as possible.

Most translation theorists agree that translation is understood as a transfer process from a
foreign language—or a second language—to the mother tongue. However, market
requirements are increasingly demanding that translators transfer texts to a target
language that is not their mother tongue, but a foreign language. This is what Newmark
calls "service translation."

"I shall assume that you, the reader, are learning to translate into your
language of habitual use, since that is the only way you can translate
naturally, accurately and with maximum effectiveness. In fact, however,
most translators do translate out of their own language..." Newmark
(1995b).

This fact makes the translating process a harder task,

There is always a
way of
approaching an SL
text, whether the
translator chooses
the author-
centered
traditional model,
the text-centered
structuralistic
model or the
cognitive reader-
centered model.
sometimes resulting in a mediocre output that should
undoubtedly be revised and post-edited before delivery to
the client.
Through experience I have learned that the consequences
of wrong translations can be catastrophic—especially if
done by laypersons—and mistakes made in the
performance of this activity can obviously be irreparable.
Just think of what could happen in cases of serious
inadequacy in knowledge areas such as science, medicine,
legal matters, or technology. There must be thousands of
examples, but I find this anecdote worth mentioning here:
Lily, a Chilean exile who had been granted refugee status in
a non-Spanish-speaking country, was going to undergo
surgery for the simple removal of a skin blemish from her
face. However, because of a misunderstanding by the
translator on duty in the hospital at the moment she was
going to be anesthetized, she was about to undergo breast
surgery!
It is quite clear that a poor translation can not only lead to hilarity or to minor confusion,
but it can also be a matter of life and death. Hence the importance of training translators,
not only in the acquisition and command of languages and translation strategies and
procedures, but also in specific knowledge areas and, what is equally important, in
professional ethics.

If translating is a discourse operation interposing between language and thought (Delisle,

1980), we should accept that in the art or skill of translating we are inexorably going to
come across assorted and numerous obstacles. Delisle (1981) illustrates what a subtle form
of torture translation is:

Translation is an arduous job that mortifies you, puts you in a state of

despair at times, but also an enriching and indispensable work, that
demands honesty and modesty.

There are many thorns that can mortify us during the translation process, whatever the
nature of the text we face, and translators should be aware of them. The first problem is
related to reading and comprehension ability in the source language. Once the translator
has coped with this obstacle, the most frequent translation difficulties are of a semantic
and cultural nature (Tricás, 1995): "Linguistic untranslatability" (cognates, i.e. true and false
friends, calque, and other forms of interference; institutional and standardized terms,
neologisms, aphorisms, etc.), and "cultural untranslatability," (idioms, sayings, proverbs,
jokes, puns, etc.). One should adopt a very cautious attitude toward these words or
expressions so as to avoid interference and/or language misuse (Kussmaul, 1995).

Similarly, we quite often run into those painful "not found" terms, for which not even the
best dictionary, an expert in the topic or a native speaker of the source language can
provide us with a solution to convey an accurate meaning. We should always bear in mind
that one of the greatest virtues of a good translator is what I have called "contextualized
intuition," i.e. the ability to find the nearest common sense interpretation of the "not
found" element within its context.

Whatever the difficulty in the translation process, procedures must aim at the essence of
the message and faithfulness to the meaning of the source language text being transferred
to the target language text. In the words of Nida and Taber (1974):

Translating consists of reproducing, in the target language, the nearest

equivalent to the message in the source language, in the first place in the
semantic aspect and, in the second place, in the stylistic aspect.

To a great extent, the quality of translation will depend on the quality of the translator, i.e.
on her/his knowledge, skills, training, cultural background, expertise, and even mood!
Newmark (1995b) distinguishes some essential characteristics that any good translator
should have:

 Reading comprehension ability in a foreign language

 Knowledge of the subject

 Sensitivity to language (both mother tongue and foreign language)

 Competence to write the target language dexterously, clearly, economically and

resourcefully

In addition, Mercedes Tricás refers to intuition, or common sense as the most common of
all senses; in other words, making use of that sixth sense, a combination of intelligence,
sensitivity and intuition. This phenomenon works very well if handled cautiously:
...the transfer process is a difficult and complex approach mechanism, one
in which one must make use of all one's intellectual capacity, intuition and
skill (Tricás, 1995).

Apart from the previously mentioned aspects, it is relevant to emphasize the necessity for
sound linguistic knowledge of both the SL and the TL, an essential condition, yet not the
only one, to begin swimming up the streams of professional translation. However, neither
knowing languages nor being efficiently bilingual is enough to become a translator.

For more than twenty years, translation theorists have been pointing this out, and yet
many people believe and claim that knowing two or more languages is identical to knowing
how to translate properly. We must banish this idea. Delisle (1980) states it clearly:

Linguistic competence is a necessary condition, but not yet sufficient for the
professional practice of translation.

In addition to reading comprehension ability, the knowledge of specialized subjects derived

from specialized training and a wide cultural background, and the global vision of cross-
cultural and interlingual communication, it is a must to learn how to handle the strategic
and tactical tools for a good translating performance.

Hence the importance of a didactic translation approach: A methodology that allows the
development of an effective and efficient transfer process from one language to another.
As is widely known by those committed to the field, translation as a formal professional
activity with a theoretical background is relatively new. Thus, a number of terms have
recently been coined for the subject called Translation Theory ("Translatology" in Canada,
"Traductología" in Spain, "Translation Studies" in Belgium and the Netherlands).

This discipline being so new, little has been done in terms of academic training in higher
education in Chile to devise didactic methods and procedures to teach or learn how to
translate. I quite agree with William Weaver, the translator of The name of the Rose, who
claims that "Translation is something you learn only by doing." Nonetheless, we teachers
may facilitate our own task and that of our students if we take advantage of the
appropriate tools and strategies.

Cognition sciences have provided us with simple but very useful ideas about meaningful
learning, i.e. a positive approach to learning that comes from the relationship between
previous knowledge and new knowledge.1

This cognitive approach perfectly applies to the transfer process of ideas from one language
to another, which obviously implies a lot more than the simple reproduction model. In the
preparatory phase of a translation, cognition, in the form of self-consciousness and self-
confidence, plays a very important role, inasmuch as this period implies conscious mental
activities, where translating problems are detected and analyzed, and information and
knowledge are accumulated (Kussmaul, 1995).

From the psychological and social point of view, the translator, whose profile should be
that of an intellectual worker with professional training characteristics such as the above-
mentioned, will be more successful if her/his social-affective development is given more
emphasis, for s/he may be better prepared for cooperative work, and s/he may reach a
higher tolerance level, showing respect, self-criticism and sensitivity.

The Global Approach

With regard to the principal approaches to a translation text, the most renowned
translation theorists (Delisle, Newmark, Nida, Nord, Kussmaul) are in agreement on the
following aspects:

Firstly, there is comprehension and interpretation of texts which implies the management
of the approach principles to various types of texts, considering the textual, referential,
cohesion and naturalness levels. This competence includes reading comprehension and
message interpretation (encoding and decoding).
Secondly, re-wording is also important. It means the application of the various strategies
for the restitution process of the message (re-coding) by choosing the appropriate
method(s), techniques and procedures. Among the most frequently used procedures for
the restoration of ideas contained in a translation unit, a translator may resort to transfer,
cultural or functional equivalent, synonymy, transposition, modulation, compensation,
reduction and expansion or amplification (See Newmark, P., 1995: A Textbook of
Translation). These skills constitute the essence of translating competence and should most
strongly emphasized in the training prospective translators. For this purpose, it is also
indispensable to make effective use of different types of documentation: Parallel texts,
monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, encyclopedias, term data base, informants, other
sources.

And thirdly, translation theorists give great importance to the assessment of the result, i.e.
evidencing the capacity to confront the translated text with the original text, being able to
assess earnings and losses and showing self-correction capacity. It is the accurate revision
of the output that will definitely result in a final translation of higher quality.

 
The Specific Approaches

According to most translation theorists, the specific approaches to text translation tend to
be similar. On the one hand, it is necessary to use one or more translating approaches or
models. On the other, there is always a way of approaching an SL text, whether the
translator chooses the author-centered traditional model, the text-centered structuralistic
model or the cognitive reader-centered model. Depending on their training, translators will
adopt one model or another, but many will tend to tend to an eclectic integration of the
three approaches.

Translators should be aware of the fact that incorrect comprehension of a text considerably
decreases the quality of the translation. We must, therefore, use reading comprehension
strategies for translation (underlining words, detecting translation difficulties,
contextualizing lexical items—never isolating them -, adapting, analyzing, and so on.)

Finding solutions to dilemmas is a constant in the work of the translator. This includes
translating problems such as linguistic or cultural "untranslatability," being able to manage
losses and gains, solutions to lexical ambiguity, etc., through various mechanisms such as
compensation, loans, explanatory notes, adaptation, equivalence, paraphrasing, analogies,
etc.

Translators should also be aware that meaning is not only conveyed by words. Hence
adequate decoding and re-coding of nomenclatures, figures, tables and charts;
standardized terms, acronyms, metonyms, toponyms, etc. is a matter that must be properly
considered.

A good translator should define some essential starting-points for the approximation to a
text to be translated, such as the author of the text, the aim of the text, the readership, and
the standard to be used, for which it is important to identify and categorize the author, the
message, the kind of discourse, the translator and the readership.

Another important aspect is the pre-editing of the original text to detect eventual source
text defects, on the one hand, and the post-editing of the translated text to verify the use
of the most adequate syntactic, semantic and graphemic levels (recognition of the reviser's
role), on the other hand.

Among formal matters, translators should be aware of and control the sound effect and
cadence of the translated text ("translating with the ear") to avoid cacophonous
combinations and calque on the source language.

Regarding the use of translation procedures and strategies, translators must constantly
make choices, in each paragraph, sentence or translation unit, so as to decide which of
them is the most useful for the transfer of the ideas in the text being translated. It means
adapting the most suitable strategies and techniques to the requirements of the text rather
than adopting a certain technique and using it for ever.

Last, but not least, translators should observe that the essence—in terms of meaning and
sense, register and style, etc.— and the lay out of the original text— in terms of format,
i.e. sources, paragraphs, indentation, columns, tables, etc.—is properly adhered to in the
translated unit.

 
A Translation Methodology: A Cooperative Work Procedure

My experience in the field of translation training has given me some useful hints on how
to elaborate a translation methodology with undergraduate students who want to become
translators. This approach attempts to develop some workshop activities for the
translation process—as a cooperative activity with the students—through a graded and
sequential procedure. We must assume that students have sound linguistic knowledge,
both theoretical and practical, and a wide cultural bilingual background, achieved
during their first years in college.

This methodology, consisting of a step-by-step procedure workshop, (stages may

sometimes be sequential and successive, sometimes, alternated) has proven quite
successful in my classes in terms of students' motivation, productivity and the quality of
their work. However, I do think that this methodology can be improved.

1. The teacher makes a selection of the material to be translated. Texts must be

chosen according to previously defined objectives for translation practice, taking
into account the degree of difficulty of the texts (semantic, cultural, stylistic, etc.),
the topic or the specific knowledge area (science and technology; social,
institutional, economic and/or political topics; and literary or philosophical
works), the translation problems to be solved, and so on.

2. After browsing through the text (scan reading and/or skim reading), the students,
assisted by their teacher, should identify the source, the norm, the type of text, the
register, the style and the readership of the text selected. It is a kind of game of
the imagination in which the text is real but the client and her/his needs are
imaginary.

3. The students should read the whole text at least twice: The first reading will be
comprehensive and general, to become acquainted with the topic and to
understand the original, always bearing in mind that meaning is context-
determined.

4. The second reading must be a "deep" reading, placing emphasis on items where
translation problems may appear. In other words, this is what I have called
"reading with translation intention," i.e. doing pre-editing and assessing the
quality of the writing (Reminder: Not all texts are well written). In my opinion,
when translating into the TL, if the translator detects mistakes (usually due to
misprints) in the original text, s/he should be entitled to amend them in her/his
version if too obvious or else consult the client or an expert in case of doubt.
When doing this "reading with translation intention," students should first
underline unknown terms and then they should mentally confront potential
translation difficulties in the text with suitable translation procedures.

5. The teacher then divides the text into as many segments as students in the group.
Depending on the degree of difficulty and the length of the text, these segments
may be paragraphs, columns, pages or even whole chapters. Then, each student is
assigned a fair portion of the text. The segment distribution order should rotate
so that a different student begins a translation unit every time.
6. If the topic is already quite familiar to the students, they do a preliminary
translation. As this is the first approach to the text, it will probably lack
naturalness, since students tend to transfer SL units of translation to TL units of
translation ("one-to-one translation," Newmark, 1995a). This first approach can
often be made orally and suggested annotations may be written in the margins.

7. If the topic is completely unknown to the students, they should consult

complementary literature. In other words, before beginning the transfer process,
they should resort to various documentation sources, especially parallel texts
(those which are similar in nature and style) in the language of the original. This
allows them to achieve a deeper understanding of the topic under study.

8. Once the "one-to-one" version is accomplished, the students do a second version

of their own translation—this time a written draft—handling the most suitable
translation strategies and procedures and being faithful in the transfer of ideas.

9. With the original text in front of her/him and being careful to follow the same
correlative order of the SL text, each student reads out her/his own version of the
translated text, making the necessary pauses between sentences.

10. The students and the teacher follow the reading of each text attentively. As a
monitoring activity, everybody should feel free to stop the reading at the end of a
given sentence and have the reading of the segment repeated, when the situation
warrants comments, suggestions, questions, contributions, etc. The students have
to "defend" their work against criticism.

11. During this procedure, the students and the teacher need to set up all necessary
conventions with regard to the homogeneity of the terms and the coherence and
cohesion of the final version.

12. As Newmark states, "translation is for discussion" (Newmark, 1995b). Students

should then be encouraged to take notes and discuss the (in)convenience of the
contributions and comments arising from this analytical reading of each one of
the different versions proposed.
 13. As a metacognitive activity, the students, assisted by the teacher, analyze the
translation strategies and procedures used, and discuss the reasons taken into
account in the choice of each analyzed criterion: "The ability to discuss
translations in an objective way is central to a translator's competence", (Kussmaul,
1995).

14. The students hand in the final version of their revised and post-edited segments,
which have already been amended in the light of the whole text. The work must
be typed, double-spaced and paged according to the original.

15. The teacher makes a final revision (second post-edit), gives formative evaluation
and makes comments, emphasizes findings, "happy" solutions and creative acts,
on the one hand, and analyzes failures and weaknesses in the process, on the
other.

In seminars of this kind, I assume that the teacher is understood as a facilitator of the
translation task, since the lion's share of the transfer process is accomplished by the
students, mainly collectively, but also individually. I therefore consider it valid for
students to consult all possible information sources, including the traditional written
forms, the "live" sources or informants, e.g. their own teacher (the "client," in this case),
experts in the topic, native speakers, translation software, term data bases and the
international data processing nets. For this process to be efficiently carried out, the
following minimum conditions should be met:

Teaching Translation
Problems and Solutions

  by Prof. Constanza Gerding-Salas

 
 

Abstract

The present article deals firstly with some theoretical reflections about the
 translational process and the various approaches to verge on texts to be
translated. Then, a sequential work procedure carried out with
undergraduate translation students is described. This methodology,
consisting of a step-by-step, either sequential or successive procedure for
workshops, which has proven quite successful in translator training at an
undergraduate level. The educator is understood as a facilitator of the
translation task: The lion's share of the transfer process is accomplished by
the students both collectively and individually. The methodology proposed
and the corresponding evaluation process are discussed, and the human
profiles and the work facilities are defined. All the aspects presented and
analyzed here respond to empirical matters.

 
Introduction

very translation activity has one or more specific purposes and whichever they may be, the
main aim of translation is to serve as a cross-cultural bilingual communication vehicle
among peoples. In the past few decades, this activity has developed because of rising
international trade, increased migration, globalization, the recognition of linguistic minorities,
and the expansion of the mass media and technology. For this reason, the translator plays an
important role as a bilingual or multi-lingual cross-cultural transmitter of culture and truths by
attempting to interpret concepts and speech in a variety of texts as faithfully and accurately as
possible.

Most translation theorists agree that translation is understood as a transfer process from a
foreign language—or a second language—to the mother tongue.

However, market requirements are increasingly demanding that translators transfer texts to a
target language that is not their mother tongue, but a foreign language. This is what Newmark
calls "service translation."

"I shall assume that you, the reader, are learning to translate into your language
of habitual use, since that is the only way you can translate naturally, accurately
and with maximum effectiveness.

In fact, however, most translators do translate out of their own language..."

Newmark (1995b).
 This fact makes the translating process a harder task, sometimes
There is always a resulting in a mediocre output that should undoubtedly be
way of revised and post-edited before delivery to the client.

approaching an SL Through experience I have learned that the consequences of

text, whether the
translator chooses
the author-
centered
traditional model,
the text-centered
structuralistic
model or the
cognitive reader-
centered model.
knowledge areas and, what is equally important, in professional ethics.
wrong translations can be catastrophic—especially if done by
laypersons—and mistakes made in the performance of this
activity can obviously be irreparable. Just think of what could
happen in cases of serious inadequacy in knowledge areas such
as science, medicine, legal matters, or technology. There must
be thousands of examples, but I find this anecdote worth
mentioning here: Lily, a Chilean exile who had been granted
refugee status in a non-Spanish-speaking country, was going to
undergo surgery for the simple removal of a skin blemish from
her face. However, because of a misunderstanding by the
translator on duty in the hospital at the moment she was going
to be anesthetized, she was about to undergo breast surgery!
It is quite clear that a poor translation can not only lead to
hilarity or to minor confusion, but it can also be a matter of life
and death. Hence the importance of training translators, not
only in the acquisition and command of languages and
translation strategies and procedures, but also in specific

inter·pose / Ñ / verb (formal) 1to add a question or remark into a conversation:

[v speech] ‘Just a minute,’ Charles interposed. ‘How do you know?’ [also vn]

2[vn] interpose sb/sth (between A and B) to place sth between two people or things:
He quickly interposed himself between Mel and the doorway.

If translating is a discourse operation interposing between language and thought (Delisle, 1980),
we should accept that in the art or skill of translating we are inexorably going to come across
assorted and numerous obstacles. Delisle (1981) illustrates what a subtle form of torture
translation is:

Translation is an arduous job that mortifies you, puts you in a state of despair at
times, but also an enriching and indispensable work, that demands honesty and
modesty.

There are many thorns that can mortify us during the translation process, whatever the nature of
the text we face, and translators should be aware of them. The first problem is related to reading
and comprehension ability in the source language. Once the translator has coped with this
obstacle, the most frequent translation difficulties are of a semantic and cultural nature (Tricás,
1995): "Linguistic untranslatability" (cognates, i.e. true and false friends, calque, and other forms
of interference; institutional and standardized terms, neologisms, aphorisms, etc.), and "cultural
untranslatability," (idioms, sayings, proverbs, jokes, puns, etc.). One should adopt a very cautious
attitude toward these words or expressions so as to avoid interference and/or language misuse
(Kussmaul, 1995).

Similarly, we quite often run into those painful "not found" terms, for which not even the best
dictionary, an expert in the topic or a native speaker of the source language can provide us with a
solution to convey an accurate meaning. We should always bear in mind that one of the greatest
virtues of a good translator is what I have called "contextualized intuition," i.e. the ability to find
the nearest common sense interpretation of the "not found" element within its context.

Whatever the difficulty in the translation process, procedures must aim at the essence of the
message and faithfulness to the meaning of the source language text being transferred to the
target language text. In the words of Nida and Taber (1974):

Translating consists of reproducing, in the target language, the nearest

equivalent to the message in the source language, in the first place in the
semantic aspect and, in the second place, in the stylistic aspect.

To a great extent, the quality of translation will depend on the quality of the translator, i.e. on
her/his knowledge, skills, training, cultural background, expertise, and even mood! Newmark
(1995b) distinguishes some essential characteristics that any good translator should have:

 Reading comprehension ability in a foreign language

 Knowledge of the subject

 Sensitivity to language (both mother tongue and foreign language)

 Competence to write the target language dexterously, clearly, economically and

resourcefully

In addition, Mercedes Tricás refers to intuition, or common sense as the most common of all
senses; in other words, making use of that sixth sense, a combination of intelligence, sensitivity
and intuition. This phenomenon works very well if handled cautiously:
...the transfer process is a difficult and complex approach mechanism, one in
which one must make use of all one's intellectual capacity, intuition and skill
(Tricás, 1995).

Apart from the previously mentioned aspects, it is relevant to emphasize the necessity for sound
linguistic knowledge of both the SL and the TL, an essential condition, yet not the only one, to
begin swimming up the streams of professional translation. However, neither knowing
languages nor being efficiently bilingual is enough to become a translator.

For more than twenty years, translation theorists have been pointing this out, and yet many
people believe and claim that knowing two or more languages is identical to knowing how to
translate properly. We must banish this idea. Delisle (1980) states it clearly:

Linguistic competence is a necessary condition, but not yet sufficient for the
professional practice of translation.

In addition to reading comprehension ability, the knowledge of specialized subjects derived from
specialized training and a wide cultural background, and the global vision of cross-cultural and
interlingual communication, it is a must to learn how to handle the strategic and tactical tools for
a good translating performance.

Hence the importance of a didactic translation approach: A methodology that allows the
development of an effective and efficient transfer process from one language to another. As is
widely known by those committed to the field, translation as a formal professional activity with a
theoretical background is relatively new. Thus, a number of terms have recently been coined for
the subject called Translation Theory ("Translatology" in Canada, "Traductología" in Spain,
"Translation Studies" in Belgium and the Netherlands).

This discipline being so new, little has been done in terms of academic training in higher
education in Chile to devise didactic methods and procedures to teach or learn how to translate. I
quite agree with William Weaver, the translator of The name of the Rose, who claims that
"Translation is something you learn only by doing." Nonetheless, we teachers may facilitate our
own task and that of our students if we take advantage of the appropriate tools and strategies.

Cognition sciences have provided us with simple but very useful ideas about meaningful learning,
i.e. a positive approach to learning that comes from the relationship between previous
knowledge and new knowledge.1

This cognitive approach perfectly applies to the transfer process of ideas from one language to
another, which obviously implies a lot more than the simple reproduction model. In the
preparatory phase of a translation, cognition, in the form of self-consciousness and self-
confidence, plays a very important role, inasmuch as this period implies conscious mental
activities, where translating problems are detected and analyzed, and information and
knowledge are accumulated (Kussmaul, 1995).

From the psychological and social point of view, the translator, whose profile should be that of an
intellectual worker with professional training characteristics such as the above-mentioned, will be
more successful if her/his social-affective development is given more emphasis, for s/he may be
better prepared for cooperative work, and s/he may reach a higher tolerance level, showing
respect, self-criticism and sensitivity.

The Global Approach

With regard to the principal approaches to a translation text, the most renowned translation
theorists (Delisle, Newmark, Nida, Nord, Kussmaul) are in agreement on the following aspects:

Firstly, there is comprehension and interpretation of texts which implies the management of the
approach principles to various types of texts, considering the textual, referential, cohesion and
naturalness levels. This competence includes reading comprehension and message interpretation
(encoding and decoding).

Secondly, re-wording is also important. It means the application of the various strategies for the
restitution process of the message (re-coding) by choosing the appropriate method(s),
techniques and procedures. Among the most frequently used procedures for the restoration of
ideas contained in a translation unit, a translator may resort to transfer, cultural or functional
equivalent, synonymy, transposition, modulation, compensation, reduction and expansion or
amplification (See Newmark, P., 1995: A Textbook of Translation). These skills constitute the
essence of translating competence and should most strongly emphasized in the training
prospective translators. For this purpose, it is also indispensable to make effective use of different
types of documentation: Parallel texts, monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, encyclopedias,
term data base, informants, other sources.

And thirdly, translation theorists give great importance to the assessment of the result, i.e.
evidencing the capacity to confront the translated text with the original text, being able to assess
earnings and losses and showing self-correction capacity. It is the accurate revision of the output
that will definitely result in a final translation of higher quality.

 
The Specific Approaches
According to most translation theorists, the specific approaches to text translation tend to be
similar. On the one hand, it is necessary to use one or more translating approaches or models. On
the other, there is always a way of approaching an SL text, whether the translator chooses the
author-centered traditional model, the text-centered structuralistic model or the cognitive
reader-centered model. Depending on their training, translators will adopt one model or another,
but many will tend to tend to an eclectic integration of the three approaches.

Translators should be aware of the fact that incorrect comprehension of a text considerably
decreases the quality of the translation. We must, therefore, use reading comprehension
strategies for translation (underlining words, detecting translation difficulties, contextualizing
lexical items—never isolating them -, adapting, analyzing, and so on.)

Finding solutions to dilemmas is a constant in the work of the translator. This includes translating
problems such as linguistic or cultural "untranslatability," being able to manage losses and gains,
solutions to lexical ambiguity, etc., through various mechanisms such as compensation, loans,
explanatory notes, adaptation, equivalence, paraphrasing, analogies, etc.

Translators should also be aware that meaning is not only conveyed by words. Hence adequate
decoding and re-coding of nomenclatures, figures, tables and charts; standardized terms,
acronyms, metonyms, toponyms, etc. is a matter that must be properly considered.

A good translator should define some essential starting-points for the approximation to a text to
be translated, such as the author of the text, the aim of the text, the readership, and the
standard to be used, for which it is important to identify and categorize the author, the message,
the kind of discourse, the translator and the readership.

Another important aspect is the pre-editing of the original text to detect eventual source text
defects, on the one hand, and the post-editing of the translated text to verify the use of the most
adequate syntactic, semantic and graphemic levels (recognition of the reviser's role), on the other
hand.

Among formal matters, translators should be aware of and control the sound effect and cadence
of the translated text ("translating with the ear") to avoid cacophonous combinations and calque
on the source language.

Regarding the use of translation procedures and strategies, translators must constantly make
choices, in each paragraph, sentence or translation unit, so as to decide which of them is the
most useful for the transfer of the ideas in the text being translated. It means adapting the most
suitable strategies and techniques to the requirements of the text rather than adopting a certain
technique and using it for ever.
Last, but not least, translators should observe that the essence—in terms of meaning and sense,
register and style, etc.— and the lay out of the original text— in terms of format, i.e. sources,
paragraphs, indentation, columns, tables, etc.—is properly adhered to in the translated unit.

 
A Translation Methodology: A Cooperative Work Procedure

My experience in the field of translation training has given me some useful hints on how to
elaborate a translation methodology with undergraduate students who want to become translators.
This approach attempts to develop some workshop activities for the translation process—as a
cooperative activity with the students—through a graded and sequential procedure. We must
assume that students have sound linguistic knowledge, both theoretical and practical, and a wide
cultural bilingual background, achieved during their first years in college.

This methodology, consisting of a step-by-step procedure workshop, (stages may sometimes be

sequential and successive, sometimes, alternated) has proven quite successful in my classes in
terms of students' motivation, productivity and the quality of their work. However, I do think that
this methodology can be improved.

1. The teacher makes a selection of the material to be translated. Texts must be chosen
according to previously defined objectives for translation practice, taking into account the
degree of difficulty of the texts (semantic, cultural, stylistic, etc.), the topic or the specific
knowledge area (science and technology; social, institutional, economic and/or political
topics; and literary or philosophical works), the translation problems to be solved, and so
on.

2. After browsing through the text (scan reading and/or skim reading), the students, assisted
by their teacher, should identify the source, the norm, the type of text, the register, the
style and the readership of the text selected. It is a kind of game of the imagination in
which the text is real but the client and her/his needs are imaginary.

3. The students should read the whole text at least twice: The first reading will be
comprehensive and general, to become acquainted with the topic and to understand the
original, always bearing in mind that meaning is context-determined.
4. The second reading must be a "deep" reading, placing emphasis on items where translation
problems may appear. In other words, this is what I have called "reading with translation
intention," i.e. doing pre-editing and assessing the quality of the writing (Reminder: Not
all texts are well written). In my opinion, when translating into the TL, if the translator
detects mistakes (usually due to misprints) in the original text, s/he should be entitled to
amend them in her/his version if too obvious or else consult the client or an expert in case
of doubt. When doing this "reading with translation intention," students should first
underline unknown terms and then they should mentally confront potential translation
difficulties in the text with suitable translation procedures.

5. The teacher then divides the text into as many segments as students in the group.
Depending on the degree of difficulty and the length of the text, these segments may be
paragraphs, columns, pages or even whole chapters. Then, each student is assigned a fair
portion of the text. The segment distribution order should rotate so that a different student
begins a translation unit every time.

6. If the topic is already quite familiar to the students, they do a preliminary translation. As
this is the first approach to the text, it will probably lack naturalness, since students tend to
transfer SL units of translation to TL units of translation ("one-to-one translation,"
Newmark, 1995a). This first approach can often be made orally and suggested annotations
may be written in the margins.

7. If the topic is completely unknown to the students, they should consult complementary
literature. In other words, before beginning the transfer process, they should resort to
various documentation sources, especially parallel texts (those which are similar in nature
and style) in the language of the original. This allows them to achieve a deeper
understanding of the topic under study.

8. Once the "one-to-one" version is accomplished, the students do a second version of their
own translation—this time a written draft—handling the most suitable translation
strategies and procedures and being faithful in the transfer of ideas.

9. With the original text in front of her/him and being careful to follow the same correlative
order of the SL text, each student reads out her/his own version of the translated text,
making the necessary pauses between sentences.
 10. The students and the teacher follow the reading of each text attentively. As a monitoring
activity, everybody should feel free to stop the reading at the end of a given sentence and
have the reading of the segment repeated, when the situation warrants comments,
suggestions, questions, contributions, etc. The students have to "defend" their work against
criticism.

11. During this procedure, the students and the teacher need to set up all necessary
conventions with regard to the homogeneity of the terms and the coherence and cohesion
of the final version.

12. As Newmark states, "translation is for discussion" (Newmark, 1995b). Students should
then be encouraged to take notes and discuss the (in)convenience of the contributions and
comments arising from this analytical reading of each one of the different versions
proposed.

13. As a metacognitive activity, the students, assisted by the teacher, analyze the translation
strategies and procedures used, and discuss the reasons taken into account in the choice of
each analyzed criterion: "The ability to discuss translations in an objective way is central
to a translator's competence", (Kussmaul, 1995).

14. The students hand in the final version of their revised and post-edited segments, which
have already been amended in the light of the whole text. The work must be typed, double-
spaced and paged according to the original.

15. The teacher makes a final revision (second post-edit), gives formative evaluation and
makes comments, emphasizes findings, "happy" solutions and creative acts, on the one
hand, and analyzes failures and weaknesses in the process, on the other.

In seminars of this kind, I assume that the teacher is understood as a facilitator of the translation
task, since the lion's share of the transfer process is accomplished by the students, mainly
collectively, but also individually. I therefore consider it valid for students to consult all possible
information sources, including the traditional written forms, the "live" sources or informants, e.g.
their own teacher (the "client," in this case), experts in the topic, native speakers, translation
software, term data bases and the international data processing nets. For this process to be
efficiently carried out, the following minimum conditions should be met:

Knowing how to speak two languages is not the same thing as knowing how to translate.
Translation is a special skill that professionals work hard to develop. In their book Found in
Translation, professional translators Nataly Kelly and Jost Zetzsche give a spirited tour of the
world of translation, full of fascinating stories about everything from volunteer text message
translators during the Haitian earthquake rescue effort, to the challenges of translation at the
Olympics and the World Cup, to the personal friendships celebrities like Yao Ming and Marlee
Matlin have with their translators.

The importance of good translation is most obvious when things go wrong. Here are nine
examples from the book that show just how high-stakes the job of translation can be.

1. The seventy-one-million-dollar word

In 1980, 18-year-old Willie Ramirez was admitted to a Florida hospital in a comatose state. His
friends and family tried to describe his condition to the paramedics and doctors who treated him,
but they only spoke Spanish. Translation was provided by a bilingual staff member who
translated "intoxicado" as "intoxicated." A professional interpreter would have known that
"intoxicado" is closer to "poisoned" and doesn't carry the same connotations of drug or alcohol
use that "intoxicated" does. Ramirez's family believed he was suffering from food poisoning. He
was actually suffering from an intracerebral hemorrhage, but the doctors proceeded as if he were
suffering from an intentional drug overdose, which can lead to some of the symptoms he
displayed. Because of the delay in treatment, Ramirez was left quadriplegic. He received a
malpractice settlement of $71 million.

2. Your lusts for the future

When President Carter traveled to Poland in 1977, the State Department hired a Russian
interpreter who knew Polish, but was not used to interpreting professionally in that language.
Through the interpreter, Carter ended up saying things in Polish like "when I abandoned the
United States" (for "when I left the United States") and "your lusts for the future" (for "your
desires for the future"), mistakes that the media in both countries very much enjoyed.

3. We will bury you

At the height of the cold war, Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev gave a speech in which he
uttered a phrase that interpreted from Russian as "we will bury you." It was taken as chilling
threat to bury the U.S. with a nuclear attack and escalated the tension between the U.S. and
Russia. However, the translation was a bit too literal. The sense of the Russian phrase was more
that "we will live to see you buried" or "we will outlast you." Still not exactly friendly, but not
quite so threatening.
4. Do nothing

In 2009, HSBC bank had to launch a $10 million rebranding campaign to repair the damage done
when its catchphrase "Assume Nothing" was mistranslated as "Do Nothing" in various countries.

5. Markets tumble

A panic in the world's foreign exchange market led the U.S. dollar to plunge in value after a poor
English translation of an article by Guan Xiangdong of the China News Service zoomed around
the Internet. The original article was a casual, speculative overview of some financial reports, but
the English translation sounded much more authoritative and concrete.

6. What's that on Moses's head?

St. Jerome, the patron saint of translators, studied Hebrew so he could translate the Old
Testament into Latin from the original, instead of from the third century Greek version that
everyone else had used. The resulting Latin version, which became the basis for hundreds of
subsequent translations, contained a famous mistake. When Moses comes down from Mount
Sinai his head has "radiance" or, in Hebrew, "karan." But Hebrew is written without the vowels,
and St. Jerome had read "karan" as "keren," or "horned." From this error came centuries of
paintings and sculptures of Moses with horns and the odd offensive stereotype of the horned Jew.

7. Chocolates for him

In the 50s, when chocolate companies began encouraging people to celebrate Valentine's Day in
Japan, a mistranslation from one company gave people the idea that it was customary for women
to give chocolate to men on the holiday. And that's what they do to this day. On February 14, the
women of Japan shower their men with chocolate hearts and truffles, and on March 14 the men
return the favor. An all around win for the chocolate companies!

8. You must defeat Sheng Long

In the Japanese video game Street Fighter II a character says, "if you cannot overcome the
Rising Dragon Punch, you cannot win!" When this was translated from Japanese into English,
the characters for "rising dragon" were interpreted as "Sheng Long." The same characters can
have different readings in Japanese, and the translator, working on a list of phrases and unaware
of the context, thought a new person was being introduced to the game. Gamers went crazy
trying to figure out who this Sheng Long was and how they could defeat him. In 1992, as an
April Fools Day joke, Electronic Gaming Monthly published elaborate and difficult to execute
instructions for how to find Sheng Long. It wasn't revealed as a hoax until that December, after
countless hours had no doubt been wasted.

9. Trouble at Waitangi

In 1840, the British government made a deal with the Maori chiefs in New Zealand. The Maori
wanted protection from marauding convicts, sailors, and traders running roughshod through their
villages, and the British wanted to expand their colonial holdings. The Treaty of Waitangi was
drawn up and both sides signed it. But they were signing different documents. In the English
version, the Maori were to "cede to Her Majesty the Queen of England absolutely and without
reservation all the rights and powers of Sovereignty." In the Maori translation, composed by a
British missionary, they were not to give up sovereignty, but governance. They thought they
were getting a legal system, but keeping their right to rule themselves. That's not how it turned
out, and generations later the issues around the meaning of this treaty are still being worked out.

ride, etc. 'roughshod over sb (especially BrE) (US usually run 'roughshod over sb)to treat sb badly and
not worry about their feelings

Common Problems Faced During Translation

Translation, being a growing field, has been much analyzed and talked about. Several conclusions have
come up regarding its nature, the obstacles one faces during translation, traits of a translator and the
process that is to be followed. Some common problems that occur during the translation process are -

* Reading the original language poses a problem to inexperienced or unskilled translators. It is not just
the verbal fluency of a language that is required. The skills to read and write it are sometimes more
important.

* The translator could have a problem in comprehending the language too. This could be because of lack
of proficiency in that language or complexity of the language or the personal interpretation of the
translator.

* The translator sometimes brings in his own beliefs and experiences in interpreting a document. This
could potentially harm the document's accuracy, intent and effect. This is a natural problem to occur
with every translator but it must be fought against. The focus of the translator must be on the client and
his needs.

* Lack of knowledge of the source language. The translator should ideally be a native to that language.
That is the only way to ensure comprehensive translation of the content, complete with colloquial
understanding of expressions, humor, slangs, hidden meanings, culturally significant content, etc. Some
translators only deliver the word to word translation or the superficial meaning of the text. This leads to
a loss of the text's core meaning.

* Semantic (which includes aphorisms, standardized terms, etc.) and the cultural (which includes idioms,
proverbs, puns, etc.) difficulties of translation. Translators should know all the characteristics of the
language.

* Language can be misused unintentionally. While using a particular expression, the intentions of the
translator could be innocent, but the actual meaning of the expression in the targeted language could be
offensive or sordid. Know your language, and if you do not, then inform the client in clear words.

* There are some rare words whose meanings escape, not only the general public but also the
dictionaries. The translator should have enough common sense and intuition to come up with the
closest possible word for it. Only a thorough understanding of the language and the field of translation
warrants such advanced skills. Contextual understanding of the document is extremely important.

* Being faithful to both languages. There are rules and cultural differences to be considered in both
languages. It is difficult to express exactly the same meaning in another language at times. There are
sometimes no equivalents for certain words or expressions. The most a translator can do is come up
with the next best alternative word.

All these problems that are faced during the translation process can be combated with experience,
taking up wide variety of projects and through a constant improvement in language skills.

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ABSTRACT

Basically, poetry translation should be semantic translation for a poem is typically rich with
aesthetic and expressive values. The translator may face the linguistic, literary and aesthetic,
and socio-cultural problems in translating it. The linguistic problems include the collocation
and obscured syntactic structure. The aesthetic and literary problems are related with poetic
structure, metaphorical expressions, and sounds. While the socio-cultural problems arise when
the translator translates expressions containing the four major cultural categories: ideas,
ecology, behavior, and products. This article shows some basic considerations on how to solve
them.  

Key words: translation, aesthetic values, expressive values, collocation, poetic structure,
metaphorical expression, sounds.

Translating literary works is, perhaps, always more difficult than translating
other types of text because literary works have specific values called the
aesthetic and expressive values. The aesthetic function of the work shall
emphasize the beauty of the words (diction), figurative language, metaphors,
etc. While the expressive functions shall put forwards the writer's thought
(or process of thought), emotion, etc. And the translator should try, at his
best, to transfer these specific values into the target language (TL). As one
genre of literature, poetry has something special compared to the others. In a
poem, the beauty is not only achieved with the choice of words and
figurative language like in novels and short stories, but also with the creation
of rhythm, rhyme, meter, and specific expressions and structures that may not conform to the
ones of the daily language. In short, the translation of poetry needs 'something more' than
translating other genres of literature. This simple writing will present in brief some
considerations in translating poetry.

SOME POSSIBLE PROBLEMS IN TRANSLATING A POEM

About translating problems, Suryawinata (1982) finds that in general a literary translator faces
linguistic, literary and aesthetic, and socio-cultural problems. In translating a poem, one of the
literary genres, the translator are also likely to face similar problems.

1. Linguistic Problems

In term of linguistic factors, according to the writer, at least there are two points to consider:
collocation and obscured (non-standard) syntactical structures. The word "collocation' used here
refers to words or word groups with which a word or words may typically combine. The
combination may by syntagmatic or horizontal, like make a speech (not say a speech), run a
meeting (not do a meeting), etc. Something to remember is in different languages the collocates
tend to be different. The Indonesian phrase for run a meeting is not melarikan rapat but
mengadakan rapat.

The other class of collocation is pragmatic or vertical. This consists of words belonging to the
same semantic field or be semantic opposite. Different from the first class, the collocates in this
class may be the same for several languages. Land, sea, air are exactly the same as tanah, laut, 
udara.

Whatever the reason is, where there is an accepted collocation in the SL, the translator must find
and use its equivalent in the TL if it exists. But a closer attention should also be paid to the
collocation with similar form in the SL and TL, but different meaning. See this line, for example:

I find you in every woods and gardens.

The words woods and garden are collocates, and the Indonesian equivalents are very similar,
hutan and kebun. Even the form is very much similar, the translator must examine first whether
the meaning is the same. As it is known, the word woods in US is not exactly the same as hutan
in Indonesia in term of the characteristics, area, location, etc. In addition, garden is not always
the same as kebun. It may mean taman. The clear examination can only be done if the translator
understands the contextual meaning.

The second point to consider in term of linguistic matters is obscured (non-standard) syntactic
structures. Such kinds of structures may be intentionally written in a poem as a part of the
expressive function of the text. Hence, such structures should be rendered as closely as possible.

The first step to deal with this problem is to find the deep (underlying) structure. According to
Newmark (1981: 116), the useful procedure is to find the logical subject first, and then the
specific verb. If the two important elements are discovered, the rest will fall into place. After that
the translator can reconstruct the structure in the TL as closely as possible to the original
structure. Besides, the structure of each phrase or clause should be examined clearly also.

2. Literary or Aesthetic Problems

Aesthetic values or poetic truth in a poem are conveyed in word order and sounds, as well as in
cognitive sense (logic). And these aesthetic values have no independent meaning, but they are
correlative with the various types of meaning in the text. Hence, if the translator destroys the
word choice, word order, and the sounds, he impairs and distorts the beauty of the original poem.
Delicacy and gentleness, for instance, will be ruined if the translator provides crude alliterations
for the original carefully-composed alliterations. So, the problems in translating a poem is how to
retain the aesthetic values in the TL text.

The aesthetic values, according to Newmark (1981: 65) are dependent on the structure (or poetic
structure), metaphor, and sound. Poetic structure includes the plan of the original poem as a
whole, the shape and the balance of individual sentences in each line. Metaphor is related to
visual images created with combinations of words, which may also evoke sound, touch, smell,
and taste. While sound is anything connected with sound cultivation including rhyme, rhythm,
assonance, onomatopoeia, etc. A translator cannot ignore any of them although he may order
them depending on the nature of the poem translated.

2.1. Poetic Structure

The first factor is structure. It is important to note that structure meant here is the plan of the
poem as a whole, the shape and the balance of individual sentence or of each line. So, it does not
have to relate directly to the sentential structures or grammar of a language, even in fact it is very
much affected by the sentential structure. Thus, maintaining the original structure of the poem
may mean maintaining the original structure of each sentence.

The simple examples below show one stanza of Chairil Anwar's Senja di Pelabuhan Kecil and
its two translations: the first is done by Boen S. Oemarjati and the last is by Burton Raffel. Try to
compare which one is better? (Do not consider the semantic aspect for this stage.)

          

1.a  Ini kali tidak ada yang mencari cinta

     di antara gudang, rumah tua, pada cerita

     tiang serta temali, kapal, perahu tidak berlaut,

     menghembus diri dalam mempercaya mau berpaut

          (Kasbolah, 1990: 4)

1.b  This time there's no one looking for love

     among the sheds, old houses, near the tale

     of the masts and riggings. Ships (and) boats (that) have not gone to sea

     are puffing themselves (out) in the believe (they) will be united.

                 (Kasbolah, 1990: 13)

1.c  This time no one's looking for love

     between the sheds, the old house, in the make-believe

     of poles and ropes. A boat, a prau without water

     puff and blows, thinking there's something it can catch

                  (Kasbolah, 1990: 12)

The translations of the first line both are good in the sense that they put the adverb, "this time"
first, but the translation of the main clause in the second translation is better for it tries to
maintain the "poetic structure" of the line. The further we read the lines, the better we can catch
the importance of maintaining the structure as an attempt to maintain the beauty of the poem.
And finally we may agree that the second translation is more successfully in maintaining the
poetic structure.

2.2. Metaphorical Expressions

Metaphorical expressions, as the second factor,  mean any constructions evoking visual, sounds,
touch, and taste images, the traditional metaphors, direct comparisons without the words "like'
and "as if", and all figurative languages. Intentionally, the writer does not use the term metaphor
in the sub-heading since it has different meaning for some people. What is generally known as
(traditional) metaphor, for example, is not the same as metaphor meant by Newmark.

To understand the meaning of metaphor as proposed by Newmark, it is advisable to understand

the following terms: object, image, sense, metaphor, and metonym. Object, called also topic, is
the item which is described by the metaphor. Image refers to the item in terms of which the
object is described. It is also called vehicle. The next term, sense, refers to the point of similarity
between aspects of the objects and the image. Metaphor here means the word(s) taken from the
image. And finally, metonym refers to one-word image which replace the object, which is in
many cases figurative but not metaphorical.

In the expression "rooting out the faults", for example, the object is 'faults', the image is 'rooting
out weeds', the sense is (a) eliminate, (b) with tremendous effort, and the metaphor is 'rooting
out'. The expression 'the seven seas' referring 'the whole world' is not metaphorical. It is
figurative and a metonym.

Newmark (1981: 88-91) proposes seven procedures to translate metaphors in general. The first
procedure is reproducing the same image in the TL if the image has comparable frequency and
currency in the appropriate register. This procedure is usually used for one-word metaphor, e.g.
ray of hope. Ray of hope can be simply translated into sinar harap.

The second procedure is replacing images in the SL with a standard TL image within the
constraints of TL cultures. The English metaphor 'my life hangs on a thread', with this procedure,
can be translated into Indonesian 'hidupku di ujung tanduk'.

The next is translating a metaphor by simile, retaining the image in the SL. This procedure can
be used to modify any type of metaphor. The 'my life hangs on a thread', with this procedure, can
be translated into 'hidupku bagai tergantung pada sehelai benang'.

And the rest of the procedures, translating metaphor (or simile) into simile plus sense, conversing
metaphor into sense, deleting unimportant metaphor, and translating metaphor with some
metaphors combined with sense, are not considered appropriate for poetry translation.

The possible question arising now is 'how far a translator can modify the author's metaphorical
expressions?' It depends on the importance and expressiveness. If the expressions are very
expressive in term of the originality, the expressions should be kept as close as possible to the
original, in terms of object, image, sense, and the metaphor.

And then what about the culturally-bound metaphors or expressions?

As it is known, there are two kinds of expressions: universal and culturally-bound expressions.
Universal expressions are the ones which consist of words having the same semantic field with
that of most cultures in the world. Engkaulah matahariku, for example, is a universal expression
for every culture sees the sun as the source of light, source of energy, source of life. Therefore,
the expression can be simply transferred into 'You are my sun'.

See the example below. The poem in 2.a. is written by Sapardi Djoko Damono and the
translation in 2.b. is done by John. H. McGlynn. The expression "matahari yang berteduh di
bawah bunga-bunga" can be transferred directly. The expression "ricik air yang membuat setiap
jawaban tertunda" is modified slightly. The metaphor "membuat (jawaban) tertunda" is changed
into "postponing (each and every answer)", which literally means "menunda (setiap jawab)";
here the translator reproduces the same image in the TL, but does not transfer it directly.

             2.a Taman Jepang, Honolulu

        inikah ketentraman? Sebuah hutan kecil:

        jalan setapak yang berbelit, matahari       

        yang berteduh di bawah bunga-bunga, ricik air

            yang membuat setiap jawaban tertunda        

                    (McGlynn, 1990: 100)

             2.b Japanese Garden, Honolulu       

is this peace? A small glen: 

        a winding footpath, the sun

        resting beneath the flowers, rippling water

        postponing each and every answer.          

                    (McGlynn, 1990: 101) 

2.3. Sound

The last of literary or aesthetic factors is sound. As stated before, sound is anything connected
with sound cultivation including rhyme, rhythm, assonance, onomatopoeia, etc. A translator must
try to maintain them in the translation. As Newmark (1981: 67) further states, "In a significant
text, semantic truth is cardinal [meaning is not more or less important, it is important!], whilst of
the three aesthetic factors, sound (e.g. alliteration or rhyme) is likely to recede in importance --
rhyme is perhaps the most likely factor to 'give' -- rhyming is difficult and artificial enough in
one language, reproducing line is sometimes doubly so." In short, if the translation is faced with
the condition where he should sacrifice one of the three factors, structure, metaphor, and sound,
he should sacrifice the sound.

On the other hand, the translator should balance where the beauty of a poem really lies. If the
beauty lies more on the sounds rather than on the meaning (semantic), the translator cannot
ignore the sound factor. See the following part of a poem written by Effendi Kadarisman
(example 3.a). Can a translator ignore the rhyme and assonance? In this case, he has to maintain
the two.

             3.a  Are you the bubble-bubble gum?

         Are you the jumble-jumble hum?

         Are you the rumble-rumble drum?

                Well, folks

                Poems are serious jokes

                Just say those nonsense words

                And sing with the mocking birds

In other cases where sounds is not such important, he should try to maintain them first in the TL
before he decides not to transfer the sound into the TL. This means he should try to keep the
beauty of the sound where possible. In example 4.b, the translator tries to maintain the rhyme but
still he puts meaning in the first consideration. 

             4.a  Dalam tubuhmu kucari kepastian

         tapi yang tertinggal hanya kenangan

         Bisikan-bisikan segera fana

         Tak sedikit pun tercatat, meski hanya kata-kata

               (Rosidi, 1993: 200)

             4.b  In your body, I searched for certainty

         but what's left was only memory

         Whispers soon faded away

         Nothing's noted, even words only

3. Socio-cultural Problems

Words or expressions that contain culturally-bound word(s) create certain problems. The socio-
cultural problems exist in the phrases, clauses, or sentences containing word(s) related to the four
major cultural categories, namely: ideas, behavior, product, and ecology (Said, 1994: 39). The
"ideas" includes belief, values, and institution; "behavior" includes customs or habits, "products"
includes art, music, and artifacts, and "ecology" includes flora, fauna, plains, winds, and weather.
In translating culturally-bound expressions, like in other expressions, a translator may apply one
or some of the procedures: Literal translation, transference, naturalization, cultural equivalent,
functional equivalent, description equivalent, classifier, componential analysis, deletion,
couplets, note, addition, glosses, reduction, and synonymy. In literal translation, a translator does
unit-to-unit translation. The translation unit may range from word to larger units such as phrase
or clause.

He applies 'transference procedure' if he converts the SL word directly into TL word by adjusting
the alphabets (writing system) only. The result is 'loan word'. When he does not only adjust the
alphabets, but also adjust it into the normal pronunciation of TL word, he applies naturalization.
The current example is the Indonesian word "mal" as the naturalization of the English word
"mall".

In addition, the translator may find the cultural equivalent word of the SL or, if he cannot find
one, neutralize or generalize the SL word to result 'functional equivalents'. When he modifies the
SL word with description of form in the TL, the result is description equivalent. Sometimes a
translator provides a generic or general or superordinate term for a TL word and the result in the
TL is called classifier. And when he just supplies the near TL equivalent for the SL word, he
uses synonymy.

In componential analysis procedure, the translator splits up a lexical unit into its sense
components, often one-to-two, one-to-three, or -more translation. Moreover, a translator
sometimes adds some information, whether he puts it in a bracket or in other clause or even
footnote, or even deletes unimportant SL words in the translation to smooth the result for the
reader.

These different procedures may be used at the same time. Such a procedure is called couplets.
(For further discussion and examples of the procedures, see Said (1994: 25 - 28) and compare it
with Newmark (1981: 30-32)).

The writer does not assert that one procedure is superior to the others. It depends on the situation.
Considering the aesthetic and expressive functions a poem is carrying, a translator should try to
find the cultural equivalent or the nearest equivalent (synonym) first before trying the other
procedures

See the first stanza of Shakespeare's Sonnet XVIII below.

             5.a  Shall I compare thee with a summer's day?

         Thou are more lovely and more temperate

         Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,

         And summer's lease hath all too short a date;

          

It is understood that "summer" is very beautiful for temperate countries, and it implies
distinguished beauty. But the cultural equivalents or near equivalent of "summer" does not mean
so for Indonesia, for example. And to translate any expression containing such words, the
translator should, once again, consider each expression carefully in term of the importance and
expressiveness. If the expression is very important seen from the whole meaning of the poem and
very expressive seen from the originality of the expression, there is no reason not to supply the
cultural or near equivalent in the TL (See Newmark, 1981: 50).

In the above case the translator does not have any choice; he has to supply the cultural equivalent
in the TL. Let the reader learn and understand what a certain word means for others in the other
part of the globe. "Summer's day" is a day when the sun shines brightly and the flowers,
especially the sweet-scented roses, are blossoming everywhere in England. Meanwhile, the
Indonesian "musim panas" means agony of life where irrigation channels are dry, the rice fields
crack all over, and the dust scatters everywhere. Later, however, the reader will learn the beauty
pictured with "summer" or "musim panas" when he notices that the poem was written by an
Englishman.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aminuddin., ed. 1990. Pengembangan Penelitian Kualitatif dalam Bidang Bahasa dan Sastra.
Malang: YA3

Bassnett-McGuire. 1980. Translation Studies. NY: Mathuen & Co. Ltd.

Finlay. F. Ian. 1971. Teach Yourself Books: Translating. Edinburgh: The English Universities
Press Ltd.

Frawley, William., ed. 1953. Translation: Literary and Philosophical Perspectives. Associated
University Press.

Kasbolah, Kasihani. 1990. Linguistics and Literature: a Translation Analysis of "Senja di

Pelabuhan Kecil. Unpublished paper.

McGlynn, John H., ed. and trans. 1990. On Foreign Shores. Jakarta: Lontar Foundation.

Newmark, Peter. 1981. Approaches to Translation. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Newmark, Peter. 1988. Textbook of Translation. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Reaske, Cristopher C. 1980. How to Analyze Poetry. Monarch Press.

Rosidi, Ajip. 1993. Terkenang Topeng Cirebon. Jakarta: PT. Dunia Pustaka Jaya.

Said, Mashadi. 1994. Socio-cultural Problems in the Translation of Indonesian Poems into
English (A Case Study on "On Foreign Shores"). Unpublished Thesis. IKIP Malang.

Savory, Theodore. 1969. The Art of Translation. London: Jonathan Cape Ltd.

Suryawinata, Z. 1982. Analisis dan Evaluasi terhadap Terjemahan Novel Sastra the Advanture of
Huckelbery Finn dari Bahasa Inggris ke Bahasa Indonesia. Unpublished Dissertation, IKIP
Malang.

Suryawinata, Z. 1989. Terjemahan: Pengantar Teori dan Praktek. Jakarta: P2LPTK,

DEPDIKBUD.

Widyamartaya, A.. 1989. Seni Menerjemahkan. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius.

Wills, Wolfram. 1982. The Science of Translation. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen

Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to

identifying their structural differences and similarities. Historically it has been used to
establish language genealogies.

Contrastive analysis
2893 words (12 pages) Essay in Languages

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Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are

those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays.

Contrastive analysis(CA) is a method to distinguish between what are needed and not
needed to learn by the target language(TL) learner by evaluating languages (M.Gass &
Selinker, 2008). In addition, CA is a technique to identify whether two languages have
something in common, which assess both similarities and differences in languages,
conforming to the belief in language universals. (Johnson, 1999).
 Both statements indicate that CA holds a principle which is important in order to
identify what are required by the TL learner to learn in TL and what are not. If there is no
familiar characteristic in the languages, it indicates that the learner might have difficulty
in learning the TL. While much could be said about comparing languages, a more
important aspect is about the influence from TL in first language (L1).

“Contrastive analysis stresses the influence of the mother tongue in learning a second
language in phonological, morphological, lexical and syntactic levels. It holds that
second language would be affected by first language” (Jie, 2008, p. 36).

On the same score, Wardhaugh asserts that first language of TA learners can clarify all
“errors” that are constantly made them. These arguments prove that the errors make by
the TL learner are explainable in the L1. Indeed, this idea is conformed to the rule of CA,
which believes in language universal.

However, this analysis has disadvantages. In Susan M. Gass and Larry Selinker words,
they believe that this analysis is questioned because of the concept of difficulty as the
basic theory of the CA is concerning the difficultness. If an error is made by a person,
this shows that the person has a problem in some area, not because of the native
language.

Thus, we cannot presume that fluency of a target language learner is depending on the
nature of L1. There are more aspects that related to this matter.

“There are other factors that may influence the process of acquisition such as innate
principle of language, attitude, motivation, aptitude, age, other languages known…”
(M.Gass & Selinker, 2008).

in·nate
/iˈnāt/

Learn to pronounce

adjective

1. inborn; natural.
"her innate capacity for organization"

Similar:
 Inborn, natural, inbred, congenital, inherent, intrinsic

instinctive, intuitive, spontaneous, unlearned, untaught

hereditary, inherited, in the blood, in the family, quintessential, organic, essential

basic, fundamental, constitutional, built-in, inbuilt

ingrown, deep-rooted, deep-seated, connate, connatural

Opposite:

acquired

o PHILOSOPHY
originating in the mind.

Innate immunity refers to nonspecific defense mechanisms that come into play

immediately or within hours of an antigen's appearance in the body. These mechanisms
include physical barriers such as skin, chemicals in the blood, and immune system
cells that attack foreign cells in the body.

Next, CA cannot detect some difficulties experienced by the TL learners. For example,

“Je vois les/elle/la/le” . “I see them/her/her/him” (this phrase is impossible in French)

(Choi, 2009).

Error analysis (EA) is “a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners
make” (M.Gass & Selinker, 2008). This analysis is almost the same with the weak version
of CA which is comparing the errors which made by TL learners.

However, EA is not evaluating the errors with TL native language (NL), but it compares
with the TL. “ Error analysis provides a broader range of possible explanations than
contrastive analysis for researchers/teachers to use account for errors, as the latter only
attributed errors to the native language” (M.Gass & Selinker, 2008). I do agree with Gass
and Selinker because as Corder (1967) says that by producing errors, it shows that the
learners are progressing and participating. This statement is supported by the
interlanguage theory, as according to Christina Gitsaki;

“…interlanguage is seen as a kind of interim grammar gradually progressing towards the

target language grammar”
There are two categories of sources of errors which are interlingual and intralingual.
Interlingual errors are kind of errors produced because of influence of the NL.
Intralingual error happens when learners try to make a new rule for the target language.
Example of interlingual error is, the word “rumah-rumah” in Malay Language can be said
in English as “houses”. However, the learners would say as “house-house”. The TL
learners mixed the lexical from the NL with the TL. Example of intralingual error is the
word “telah” in Malay Language represents “was/were/had” in English. That is no doubt
that a Malay learner would construct a sentence like this,

1. “She were playing badminton” (wrong)

2. “Dia telah bermain badminton”
3. “She was playing badminton” (correct)

The first sentence happens because there is no past tense marker in Malay language. So
it becomes a problem for Malay learners since the TL and NL share different tenses.

EA gives an important role because it makes the errors not as unwanted but as guidance
to assess how the learners progress in TL. It also detects lots of errors, more than CA
does. EA also recognizes the learners’ acknowledgement of language system. Besides, it
also can categorized errors made by learners according to a system. However, EA is
totally depends on errors made by learners. It is also cannot explain about what are
classified as errors and non errors. In addition, EA as a mode of inquiry was limited in its
scope and concentrated on what learners did wrong rather than on what made them
successful (Larsen-Freeman, 1991).

This shows that EA cannot cover lots of aspects since it is bounded by its range and
errors are temptation for error analyzer.

Statements
a) There may be covert errors, A classic example from Corder (1981) is the German
speaker who says “You must not take off your hat” when the intent is “You don’t
have to take off your hat”. In what sense is this error? In what sense it is not?
According to Joachim Wagner (2007), James (1998) uses the term covert error to
describe a genuine language error which results in a sentence which is syntactically well-
formed under some interpretation different from the intended one. This means that
there is no wrong about a dubious sentence but the understanding by both speaker and
receiver are important.
The statement “You must not take off your hat” is not wrong in the sense of German
speaker but in English, the choice of the word or modal verb is wrong. The modal verb
“must not” is not appropriate in this context. That modal verb means to prohibit or
disallow the action of taking off the hat. The German speaker, literally, wants to say that
the person does not have to take off his hat. However, instead of trying to convey a
positive transfer sentence, the German speaker makes a negative transfer sentence.
According to Jie (2008):

“In the course of language learning, L1 learning habits will be transferred into L2
learning habits. Therefore, in the case of L1 transfer into L2, if structures in the MT have
their corresponding structures in the TL and L1 habits can be successfully used in the L2,
learners would transfer similar properties successfully and that would result in positive
transfer. Contrastingly, in the case of negative transfer or interference, certain elements
of the MT have no corresponding counterparts in the TL, L1 habits would cause errors in
the L2, and learners would transfer inappropriate properties of L1”

In other words, the German speaker forms a sentence in English, which has the same
properties with the German language but unfortunately, the sentence is wrong in the
sense of CA. Error in this statement can be referred to the L1 speaker. In Robert Lado’s
words (1957:p.2):

“The ‘fundamental assumption’ is transfer; ‘individuals tend to transfer the forms and
meanings, and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and
culture to the foreign language and culture”.

I agree with Robert Lado since the German speaker tends to use direct translation if
both languages properties are same to make a complete sentence. In this context, both
German Language and English have the same grammatical order. For example, in
German Language and English, the word order is subject + verb + other elements
sentences.

1. er schlagt mir.
(Subject) (Verb) (Other element)
2. He beats me.
(Subject) (Verb) (Other element)
Because of the structure similarity between German language and English, there is no
syntax problem.

Though, in the context of lexicon, the German speaker seems to confuse because in
German language, there is no auxiliary verb “do”. German language only has “must” and
the German speaker uses “must” as the word is quite similar to “do”, in his or her
judgment. This error also happens to a Malay leaner. In Malay language, “tidak” is
represented by “is not” and “do not”. For example, in Malay, the sentence,

1.“Dia tidak sempurna”

(Subject) (Negation) (Predicate)
Is written in English as

2.“He is not perfect”

(Subject) (Negation) (Predicate)
However, because of there are two negations that represent the word “tidak”, there is
no doubt the sentence below, will be produced by Malay learners.

3. “He does not perfect”

(Subject) (Negation) (Predicate)
The first statement is logical but the second statement shows that errors and transferred
inappropriate properties those made by TL learners because of the differences between
the L1 and the TL.

Clearly, the German speaker is struggling in choosing the right vocabulary although the
error does not give an obvious picture of the difficulty. This is because, in his or her
point of view, the usage of “must not” is correct even though the sentence has covert
error. However, this justification cannot measure the degree of difficulty that the
German speaker has.

We cannot say that the German speaker is weak in English and not progressing. This
error shows that the German speaker is in the process of improving his or her target
language.

From EA point of view, the German speaker made an intralingual error. The German
speaker made an error in his or her sentence because of native language influence. He
or she over generalizes the function of modal verb to make this sentence.

Overgeneralization means

“The introduction of a nonstandard or previously non-existent spelling or verb form

when a speaker or writer makes an analogy to a regular spelling or a regular verb”
(Wheeler, 2009)
“You do not have to take off your hat”(correct sentence)
“You must not take off your hat”(Over generalize the modal verb function)
The German speaker believes that the statement is grammatically correct. The
German speaker tries to simplify his or her task by employing this rule. He or
she makes his or her own analogy by taking words that do not carry contrast
for him or her. However, due to cross linguistic action, the modal verb being
used is wrong, in terms of its function.

In addition, this speaker seems that he or she does not master the function of
the modal verb although the sentence is correct, literally. Besides, the German
speaker does not know the correct modal verb in English to carry his or her
intentional meaning. As a result, an ambiguous sentence has come out
although the German speaker intention is to give suggestion.

This also happens to Spanish learners. They would say

1. “He went to the market and buy a chicken”

instead of

2. “He went to the market and bought a chicken”.

They choose wrong tense and alter the word meaning.

b. It might be more appropriate to talk about TL-behaviour. The fact that a

learner has produced a correct form/sentence in a language does not necessarily
mean that it is right.
Target language like behavior from the grammatical point of view is happen
when target language learners construct a sentence or a phrase because they
have learnt the target language grammatical rules. However, the construction
of sentence might or might not correct. As example, Malay learners would
create a sentence like this

“I eated the fruit”

instead of

“I ate the fruit”.

From CA point of view, this error occurs because past tense is a new category
for Malay learners. Although, the learners seem alert with the past tense rule
which is -ed and subject verb agreement but they forget about past irregular
form. They think that they have mastered the rules but they forgot about
irregular verb rule.

However, CA does not explain about the difficulty from the target language
point of view. CA cannot give the correct degree of difficulty. Moreover,
from the speakers’ perspective, they might think that the sentence is no wrong
even with the covert error. So, we cannot say that the speakers are having
difficulty to understand the rule since they can produce a correct form of
sentence but with covert error.

On the other hand, from error analysis point of view, a sentence like “You must
not take off your hat” evens the intention of the speaker is “You do not have
to take off your hat” is correct. The structure of the sentence is correct and
there is no mistake produces. However, the meaning of the sentence is
distorted. This is because, error analysis is totally depends on errors but not
the usage of the sentence. Though, to the speaker perspective, this is a correct
sentence since there is no grammatical mistake. On the other hand, the
solidness of the first sentence makes the EA is useless to explain this sentence.
So, even the sentence is wrong according to CAH, but it is consider as correct
to EA.

C.It is not always possible to provide a single explanation for interlanguage data.
Interlanguage is the way the learner develops the target language knowledge.
This term was produced by Selinker (1972)

“ Interlanguage refers to the structured system which learner constructs at any

given stage in the development”.

There are strategies apply by the learners to progress in target language such
as transfer. Transfer is

“Influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target
language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps
imperfectly) acquired (Ellis, 1997).
Interlanguage is systematic and dynamic. Interlanguage is systematic because
the rules are efficiently selected by the learners and the way the TL learners
acquired TL is the same with native speaker acquires NL. Interlanguage is
dynamic because the learners’ interlanguage is continuously shifting. The
learners tend to make new rules in one context and so on. In addition, this
process form the approach to study the way the target language acquires by
the learner. Though, this strategy does not apply to the target language
learner alone, they also depict the way the children learn their native
language. For example, an English child might come out with non-English like
sentence.

English Like Non-English Like

She came yesterday. She comed yesterday
This happens because the children generalize the rules. It is possible to say
that the children already acquired the rule of tenses but they failed to apply
them in certain circumstances. This also happens to the target language
learners. For example, problem in pluralizing word.

English Like Non-English Like

Singular-mouse Singular-mouse

Plural-mice Plural-mouses
The word “mice” is always forgotten as plural form of a mouse. Instead of
saying “mice”, the target language learners who apply interlanguage
generalization strategy would say “mouses”. This might occur because of L1
interference. For instance, in Malay Language, the word “mouse” is “tikus”.
However, there is no such word as “mice” in Malay language. So, Malay
learners would go for “mouses” instead of “mice”. From CA perspective, these
examples show that the learners have difficulties in pluralizing because of
differences between the L1 and the TL. However, the first example proves that
the NL speaker can make the same mistake as the TL learners. CA can be used
to analyze the second example but it is not valid for the first example.

In addition, from EA point of view, the learners would find that they make
errors. On the other hand, EA still does not give the correct view of learners’
linguistic behavior. The first example explains that errors made by NL speaker.
This is because the child overused the rule of past tense. EA can help the child
 to progress in leaning the NL by classifying the errors. However, there is no
clear path to understand about the child linguistic behavior because the child
already knew the rule of regular verb tense but not irregular verb tense. The
second example happens because of cross linguistic error. The learners have
knowledge in plural rule but due to difference between languages and NL
interference, the rule is generalized and error occurs.

Conclusion
As conclusion, both CAH and EA have their own strength and weaknesses. The
analysis of the sentence is important in order to detect error or to notify the
progress of the second language learners. However, CAH and EA cannot work
alone. For the sake of the language learners, these analyses should be worked
hand in hand in order to improve the quality of the target language learners.

Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their
structural differences and similarities. Historically it has been used to establish language
genealogies.

Contents

 1Second language acquisition

o 1.1History

o 1.2Criticism and its response

 2Applications

 3See also

 4References

Second language acquisition[edit]

Contrastive analysis was used extensively in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) in the
1960s and early 1970s, as a method of explaining why some features of a target language were
more difficult to acquire than others. According to the behaviourist theories prevailing at the time,
language learning was a question of habit formation, and this could be reinforced or impeded by
existing habits. Therefore, the difficulty in mastering certain structures in a second language (L2)
depended on the difference between the learners' mother language (L1) and the language they were
trying to learn.
History[edit]
The theoretical foundations for what became known as the contrastive analysis hypothesis were
formulated in Robert Lado's Linguistics Across Cultures (1957). In this book, Lado claimed that
"those elements which are similar to [the learner's] native language will be simple for him, and those
elements that are different will be difficult". While it was not a novel suggestion, Lado was the first to
provide a comprehensive theoretical treatment and to suggest a systematic set of technical
procedures for the contrastive study of languages. That involved describing the languages
(using structuralist linguistics), comparing them and predicting learning difficulties.
During the 1960s, there was a widespread enthusiasm with this technique, manifested in the
contrastive descriptions of several European languages, many of which were sponsored by
the Center for Applied Linguistics in Washington, DC. It was expected that once the areas of
potential difficulty had been mapped out through contrastive analysis, it would be possible to design
language courses more efficiently. Contrastive analysis, along with behaviourism
and structuralism exerted a profound effect on SLA curriculum design and language teacher
education, and provided the theoretical pillars of the audio-lingual method.

Criticism and its response[edit]

In its strongest formulation, the contrastive analysis hypothesis claimed that all the errors made in
learning the L2 could be attributed to 'interference' by the L1. However, this claim could not be
sustained by empirical evidence that was accumulated in the mid- and late 1970s. It was soon
pointed out that many errors predicted by Contrastive Analysis were inexplicably not observed in
learners' language. Even more confusingly, some uniform errors were made by learners irrespective
of their L1. It thus became clear that contrastive analysis could not predict all learning difficulties, but
was certainly useful in the retrospective explanation of errors.
In response to the above criticisms, a moderate version of the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
(CAH) has developed which paradoxically contradicts Lado's original claim. The new CAH
hypothesizes that the more different the L2 is with one's L1, the easier it is for one to learn the target
language. The prediction is based on the premise that similarities in languages create confusion for
learners.
With the help of technological advancement, contrastive analysis has adopted a more efficient
method in obtaining language data, a corpus-based approach, which generates vast amount of
juxtapositions of language differences in various fields of linguistics, for example lexis and syntax.

Applications[edit]
There are multiple fields in the realms of linguistics to which Contrastive Analysis (CA) is applicable:

 Historical linguistics, a former application of CA, which is subsumed under the

name comparative linguistics, a branch in linguistics not to be confused with CA.
 Second language teaching: Despite CA's limitation in the prediction of L2 learners' errors, it
provides insights to at least some of the major mistakes that are frequently made by L2 learners
irrespective of their L1. Hence, more tailor-made language design can be adopted; examples
include awareness raising teaching method and hierarchical learning teaching curriculum.
 Second language learning: Awareness raising is the major contribution of CA in second
language learning. This includes CA's abilities to explain observed errors and to outline the
differences between two languages; upon language learners' realization of these aspects, they
can work to adopt a viable way to learn instead of rote learning, and correct fossilized language
errors.
  Sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, bilingualism, pragmatics and others cultural-related areas:
CA is, in itself, a cross-linguistic/cross-cultural study, and its ability to apply both linguistic and
non-linguistic features is one of its major merits. This permits a better linguistic-cultural
understanding, which is essential for learning a language in its entirety.
 Translation: CA provides better understanding of linguistic difference between two languages
and therefore may be applied to the field of translation. Primarily, CA certainly lays a foundation
for translation as it is integral that translators and interpreters have a thorough understanding of
not only the languages they work between, but of the differences between them as well. Also, it
might balance the word-for-word vs. sense-for sense debate by developing strategies to
overcome the linguistic hindrance. Moreover, it may avoid awkward translations such
as translationese and Europeanization.
 Language therapy: Distinguishing the difference between language disorder patients from
non-standard dialect speakers. This is essential in identifying speech pathology and their
corresponding treatment.
 Criminal investigation: CA research offers insight to subtle differences among languages.
Language patterns can be used as clues to investigate criminal activities, for example
analyzing phishing texts designed to deceive users into giving away confidential information.

See also[edit]
 Comparative linguistics
 Contrastive linguistics
 Pseudoscientific language comparison

References[edit]
 Connor, Ulla M. (1996), Contrastive Rhetoric: Cross-cultural aspects of second-language
writing. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
 Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition Oxford: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-437189-1
 Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across cultures: Applied linguistics for language teachers.
University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor.
 Stern, H.H. 1983. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching Oxford: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-437065-8

A review study of contrastive analysis theory

Article (PDF Available) · December 2016 with 15,486 Reads 

Cite this publication

Mohammad Hamad Al-khresheh

o 19.54
o Northern Borders University
Abstract

Abstract

Perhaps one of the most controversial issues in the field of second language acquisition is
whether the mother tongue affects the language learning process at all. For decades,
researchers from different first language background have been studying this issue to find an
accurate answer to the influence of the native language on learning a foreign language.
Unfortunately, this issue is still a point of polemic debate. However, among language teaching
professionals as well as linguists, there is broad-spectrum consensus that the first language
shapes second language acquisition; nevertheless, there is no agreement at present on what
precisely it contributes or how. Therefore, this research paper aims at reviewing one of the most
influential theories of second language acquisition, which is Contrastive Analysis theory,
exploring and discussing its theoretical foundations along with assumptions and then
elaborating on the achievements and limitations of this theory. This review study reveals that in
spite of all the adverse criticism, Contrastive Analysis theory has proved to be one of the most
significant studies ever made in describing systems of languages. It should be also noted that
current research has revived interest in this theory as a complementary and necessary part of
the theory of second language acquisition, one that cannot be ignored. Moreover, Contrastive
Analysis theory remains an influential construct in the field of second language acquisition;
using comparisons of languages to explain areas of difficulty for learners. Following such a
theory may contribute to a better understanding of the acquisition process of second language
structures. Keywords: First language, Second language, Errors, language learning, Acquisition

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Journal of Advances in Humanities

and Social Sciences JAHSS
2016, 2(6): 330-338
PRIMARY RESEARCH
A review study of
contrastive analysis (2)

References (30)

 ... The second issue in translation is the syntactic errors which are due to the
variation in the language structure. In the case of English and Arabic, this variation is
more prom- inent as they belong to two unrelated families (Al-khresheh, 2016b;&
Miremadi,1991). In case of Arabic, for instance, the absence of pronoun 'it', lack of
auxiliary verbs, lack of corresponding prepositional phrase, wrong word order, verb
agreement, the different types of subjects and objects, the agreement of adjectives and
 nouns and many other grammatical functions that a language deals with might be one
of the reasons for the errors in the output. ...
English Proverbs into Arabic through Machine Translation

ViewShow abstract

 ... The second issue in translation is the syntactic errors which are due to the
variation in the language structure. In the case of English and Arabic, this variation is
more prom- inent as they belong to two unrelated families (Al-khresheh, 2016b;&
Miremadi,1991). In case of Arabic, for instance, the absence of pronoun 'it', lack of
auxiliary verbs, lack of corresponding prepositional phrase, wrong word order, verb
agreement, the different types of subjects and objects, the agreement of adjectives and
nouns and many other gram- matical functions that a language deals with might be one
of the reasons for the errors in the output. ...

English Proverbs into Arabic through Machine Translation

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Preface Like any other learning process, learning a new language might be accompanied with
various problems, which includes errors. Errors may be considered as markers of the learner's
transitiona ... [more]

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Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis, Interlanguage and the Implication to Language Teaching
Katharina Rustipa Stikubank University (Unisbank) Semarang

Abstract: Students learning a foreign language meet with many kinds of learning problems
dealing with its sound system, vocabulary, structure, etc. Linguists try to find out the causes of
the problems to be applied in language teaching, to minimize the problems. They propose
contrastive analysis, error analysis, interlanguage theory. Contrastive analysis is the systematic
study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities
between the first language and the target language based on the assumptions that: the similarities
facilitate learning while differences cause problems.
Via contrastive analysis, problems can be predicted and considered in the curriculum. However,
not all problems predicted by contrastive analysis always appear to be difficult for the students.
On the other hand, many errors that do turn up are not predicted by contrastive analysis.
A counter-theory to contrastive analysis is error analysis. A key finding of error analysis is that
many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new
language. These errors can be divided into three subcategories: overgeneralization, incomplete
rule application, and the hypothesizing of false concepts. Error analysis was criticized for
misdiagnosing student learning problems due to their "avoidance" of certain difficult L2
elements. Most researchers agree that contrastive analysis and error analysis alone can't predict
or account for the myriad errors encountered in learning English. In the mid-1970s, Corder and
others moved on to a more wide ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage.
The scholars reject the view of learner language as merely an imperfect version of the target
language.

Interlanguage is continuum between the first language and the target language. Interlanguage is
dynamic (constantly adapting to new information) and influenced by the learners.
Key words: Contrastive analysis, error analysis, interlanguage, learning problem
INTRODUCTION If someone wants to learn a foreign language, he will obviously meet with
many kinds of learning problems dealing with its sound system, vocabulary, structure, etc. This
is understandable since the student learning the foreign language has spoken his own native
language, which has been deeply implanted in him as part of his habit. Very often, he transfers
his habit into the target language he learns, which perhaps will cause errors.
Contrastive analysis theory pioneered by Fries assumed that these errors are caused by the
different elements between the native language and the target language (Fisiak, 1981: 7). Thus,
contrastive analysis followers suggest that teachers do contrastive analysis between the native
language and the target language so as to predict the learning problems that will be faced by the
students.
However, not all problems predicted by contrastive analysis always appear to be difficult for the
students. On the other hand, many errors that do turn up are not predicted by contrastive analysis.
This shortcoming has inspired the appearance of error analysis Ragam Jurnal Pengembangan
Humaniora Vol. 11 No. 1, April 2011 17 which was pioneered by Corder in the 1960s. The key
finding of error analysis is that many learner errors are produced by the learners making faulty
inferences about the rules of the target language.
To overcome the shortcoming of contrastive analysis, it is suggested that teachers accompany
contrastive analysis with error analysis. It is carried out by identifying the errors actually made
by the students in the classroom.
Selinker (1992) in (Ho, 2003) states that errors are indispensable to learners since the making of
errors can be regarded as 'a device the learner uses in order to learn.' Thus, error is a proof that
the student is learning. The error is the route that the student must pass to achieve the target
language. And, at this stage, the language produced by the student is called interlanguage.
In this paper, the writer will focus on the discussion of what is contrastive analysis, error
analysis, interlanguange; and what’s the implication to the language teaching. Thus, the
problems in this paper can be stated as follows: 1. What is contrastive analysis? 2. What is error
analysis? 3. What is interlanguage? 4. What is the implication to the language teaching?
CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of a pair of languages
with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities. Contrastive Analysis was
extensively used in the 1960s and early 1970s as a method of explaining why some features of a
Target Language were more difficult to acquire than others.
According to the behaviourist theories, language learning was a question of habit formation, and
this could be reinforced by existing habits. Therefore, the difficulty in mastering certain
structures in a second language depended on the difference between the learners' mother
language and the language they were trying to learn.

The theoretical foundations for what became known as the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis were
formulated in Lado's Linguistics across Cultures (1957). In this book, Lado claimed that "those
elements which are similar to the learner's native language will be simple for him, and those
elements that are different will be difficult".
While this was not a novel suggestion, Lado was the first to provide a comprehensive theoretical
treatment and to suggest a systematic set of technical procedures for the contrastive study of
languages. This involved describing the languages (using structuralist linguistics), comparing
them and predicting learning difficulties (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_
language_acquisition, January 25th 2011).
Thus, the languages comparison is aimed at assisting language learning and teaching. The goals
of Contrastive Analysis can be stated as follows: to make foreign language teaching more
effective, to find out the differences between the first language and the target language based on
the assumptions that: (1) foreign language learning is based on the mother tongue, (2) similarities
facilitate learning (positive transfer), (3) differences cause problems (negative
transfer/Interference), (3) via contrastive analysis, problems can be predicted and considered in
the curriculum. However, not all problems predicted by contrastive analysis always appear to be
difficult for the students.
On the other hand, many errors that do turn up are not predicted by contrastive analysis. Larsen,
et al (1992: 55) states “predictions arising from were subjected to empirical tests. Some errors it
did predict failed to materialize, i.e. it overpredicted.” This prediction failure leads to the
criticism to the Contrastive Analysis hypothesis.
The criticism is that Contrastive Analysis hypothesis could not be sustained by empirical
evidence. It was soon pointed out that many errors predicted by Contrastive Analysis were
inexplicably not observed in learners' language.
Even more confusingly, some uniform errors were made by learners irrespective of their L1. It
thus became clear that Contrastive Analysis could not predict learning difficulties, and was only
useful in the 18 Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis, Interlanguage and the Implication to
Language Teaching (Katharina Rustipa) retrospective explanation of errors. These
developments, along with the decline of the behaviourist and structuralist paradigms
considerably weakened the appeal of Contrastive Analysis.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_language_acquisition, January 25th 2011). Fisiak (1981: 7)
claims that Contrastive Analysis needs to be carried out in spite of some shortcoming because
not all Contrastive Analysis hypotheses are wrong.

To overcome the shortcoming of contrastive analysis, it is suggested that teachers accompany

contrastive analysis with error analysis. It is carried out by identifying the errors actually made
by the students in the classroom.
 Contrastive Analysis has a useful explanatory role. That is, it can still be said to explain certain
errors and mistakes. He further explains “…error analysis as part of applied linguistics cannot
replace Contrastive Analysis but only supplement it.” Schackne (2002) states “research shows
that contrastive analysis may be most predictive at the level of phonology and least predictive at
the syntactic level.” A counter-theory was error analysis, which treated second language errors as
similar to errors encountered in first language acquisition, or what the linguists referred to as
"developmental errors." By the early 1970s, this contrastive analysis theory had been to an extent
supplanted by error analysis, which examined not only the impact of transfer errors but also
those related to the target language, including overgeneralization (Schackne, 2002).
ERROR ANALYSIS
Error analysis was established in the 1960s by Stephen Pit Corder and colleagues.
Error analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis. Error analysis showed that contrastive
analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects have
been incorporated into the study of language transfer.
A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners
making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language. Although error analysis is still
used to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner
errors has largely been abandoned.
Contrastive analysis emphasized the study of phonology and morphology. It did not address
communicative contexts, i.e. contrasting socio-pragmatic conditions that influence linguistic
production. Recent work in error analysis has emphasized errors as a source of knowledge of a
learner’s interlanguage and linguistic hypotheses. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_
language_acquisition). Brown (1993: 205) differentiates between mistakes and errors. A mistake
refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or slip in that it is a failure to utilize a
known system correctly. All people make mistakes, in both native and second language
situations.
Native speakers are normally capable of recognizing and correcting such mistakes, which are not
the result of a deficiency in competence but the result of some sort of breakdown in the process
of production.
Corder in Larsen (1992) claims that a mistake is a random performance slip caused by fatigue,
excitement, etc. and therefore can be readily self-corrected.
An error is a noticeable deviation, reflecting the competence of the learner. It is a systematic
deviation made by the learner who has not yet mastered the rules of the target language.
The learner cannot self correct an error because it is a product reflective of his or her current
stage of L2 development, or underlying competence (Larsen, 1992: 59).
Error analysis is the study of kind and quantity of error that occurs, particularly in the fields of
applied linguistics.
These errors can be divided into three sub-categories: overgeneralization, incomplete rule
application, and the hypothesizing of false concepts, reflected a learner's competence at a certain
stage and thereby differed from learner to learner (findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_7571/, January
26th, 2011).
The methodology of error analysis (traditional error analysis) can be said to have followed the
steps below: Ragam Jurnal Pengembangan Humaniora Vol. 11 No. 1, April 2011 19 1.
Collection of data
2. Identification of errors (labeling with varying degree of precision depending on the linguistic
sophistication brought to bear upon the task, with respect to the exact nature of the deviation.
 3. Classification into error types
4. Statement of relative frequency of error types
5. Identification of the areas of difficulty in the target language;
6. Therapy (remedial drills, lessons, etc.). While the above methodology is roughly
representative of the majority of error analyses in the traditional framework, the more
sophisticated investigations went further, to include one or both of the following: 1. Analysis of
the source of the errors (e.g. mother tongue interference, overgeneralization, inconsistencies in
the spelling system of the target language, etc.);
2. Determination of the degree of disturbance caused by the error (or the seriousness of the error
in terms of communication, norm, etc.). (vsites.unb.br/il/let/graham/conan, January 27th 2011)
Error analysis was criticized for misdiagnosing student learning problems due to their
"avoidance" of certain difficult L2 elements.
The result today is that both contrastive analysis and error analysis are rarely used in identifying
L2 learner problem areas. The debate over contrastive analysis and error analysis has virtually
disappeared in the last ten years.
Most researchers agree that contrastive analysis and error analysis alone can't predict or account
for the myriad errors encountered in learning English (Schackne, 2002).
INTERLANGUAGE In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a more wide-ranging
approach to learner language, known as interlanguage. It is a term coined by Selinker (1972).
Interlanguage scholars reject the view of learner language as merely an imperfect version of the
target language (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_language_acquisition, January 27th 2011).
Interlanguage is a continuum between the first language and the target language along which all
learners traverse (Larsen, et. al., 1992: 60). The term ‘interlanguage’ was firstly used by John
Reinecke in 1935.
He always used ‘interlanguage’ to refer to a non standard variety of a first or second language,
used as a means of intergroup communication. Many of the utterances produced by language
learners are perceived as ungrammatical.
They contain a lot of mistakes in lexis, pronunciation, and grammar. Ellis (1989: 135) mentions
the characteristics of learners’ talk as follows: interlanguage is dynamic (constantly adapting to
new information) and influenced by the learners. Ellis (1994: 351) quoted Selinker’s idea about
the characteristics of interlanguage as follows:
(1) Language transfer (some, but certainly not all, items, rules, and subsystems of a learner’s
interlanguage may be transferred from the first language)

(2) Transfer of training (some interlanguage elements may derive from the way in which the
learners were taught)
(3) Strategies of second language learning (Selinker talks about an ‘identifiable approach by the
learner to the material to be learned)
(4) Strategies of second language communication (an identifiable approach by the learner to
communication with native speakers of the target language)
(5) Overgeneralization of the target language material (some interlanguage elements are the
result of a ‘clear overgeneralization’ of target language rules and semantic features) 20
Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis, Interlanguage and the Implication to Language Teaching
(Katharina Rustipa) An interlanguage is developed by a learner of a second language who has
not become fully proficient yet but is approximating the target language: preserving some
features of their first language, or overgeneralizing target language rules in speaking or writing
the target language and creating innovations.
The interlanguage rules are shaped by: L1 transfer, transfer of training, strategies of L2 learning
(e.g. simplification), strategies of L2 communication (or communication strategies like
circumlocution), and overgeneralization of the target language patterns.
Interlanguage can fossilize in any of its developmental stages. Interlanguage fossilization is a
stage during second language acquisition.
It refers to a permanent cessation of progress toward the TL. This linguistic phenomenon, IL
fossilization, can occur despite all reasonable attempts at learning (Selinker, 1972). Fossilization
includes those items, rules, and sub-systems that L2 learners tend to retain in their IL, that is, all
those aspects of IL that become entrenched and permanent.
It has also been noticed that this occurs particularly in adult L2 learners’ IL systems (Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Second_language_acquisition, January 27th 2011). Interlanguage is
a theoretical construct which underlies the attempts of SLA researchers to identify the stages of
development through which L2 learners pass on their way to L2 (or near L2) proficiency (Ellis,
1989: 42). The research result indicated that there were strong similarities in the developmental
route followed by L2 learners.
The errors made by the learners are routes that that must be passed. An error is a proof of
hypothesis testing.
The hypothesis testing is not only done by foreign language learners but also by children
learning their mother tongue. The child builds up his knowledge of his mother tongue by means
of hypothesis testing.
The child’s task is connecting his innate knowledge to the language he is learning. Thus, both L1
and L2 learners make errors in order to test out certain hypotheses about the nature of the
language they are learning.
Making errors is a strategy, evidence of learner-internal processing. Making errors constitutes a
strategy or attempt to master the target language. And mastering the TL (or near TL) can only be
achieved by good learners. Good language learners will always make attempts to practice the
target language they learn, and, then, their target language mastery will approach the standard
one. Ellis (1989: 122) mentions a list of characteristics of good learners as the following: (1) Be
able to respond to the group dynamics of the learning situation so as not to develop negative
anxiety and inhabitations
(2) Seek out all opportunities to use the target language
(3) Make maximum use of the opportunities afforded to practice listening to and responding to
speech to meaning rather than to form
(4) Supplement the learning that derives from direct contact with speakers of the L2 with
learning derived from the use of study technique (such as making vocabulary lists)- this is likely
to involve attention to form
(5) Be an adolescent or an adult rather than a young child at least as far as the early stages of
grammatical development are concerned
(6) Possess sufficient analytic skills to perceive, categorize, and store the linguistic feature of the
L2, and also to monitor errors.
(7) Posses a strong reason for learning the L2 which may reflect an integrative or an instrumental
motivation) and also develop a strong ‘task motivation’ (i.e. respond positively to the learning
tasks chosen of provided)
(8) Be prepared to experiment by taking risks, even if this makes the learner appear foolish
(9) Be capable of adapting to different learning conditions.
Ragam Jurnal Pengembangan Humaniora Vol. 11 No. 1, April 2011 21 THE IMPLICATION TO
LANGUAGE TEACHING
Teachers of languages are aware of the same errors appearing so regularly. Errors are
indispensable to learners since the making of errors can be regarded as 'a device the learner uses
in order to learn' (Selinker, 1992 in Ho, 2003).
Language learners cannot correct their errors until they have sufficient knowledge.
These errors occur in the course of the learner’s study because they haven’t acquired enough
knowledge.
Once they acquire additional knowledge, they will be able to correct their errors and the more
errors the learners correct the more conscious of language they will become.
The teachers need to ask to themselves how to help learners to correct their errors: (a) at what
level of error does the teacher correct?,
(b) what methodology should be used to correct? It is not easy to find a systematic method that
helps learners. There is a danger in too much attention to learners’ errors. Too much attention on
the learners’ errors may cause the correct utterances in the second language go unnoticed.
Prodromou (1995) in (vsites.unb.br/il/let/graham/conan.htm, January 27th 2011) put forward
method of correction as follows: (a) Putting responsibility for error correction primarily on the
student.
This balanced approach offers the learner the chance to participate in the process of bringing
performance closer to standard production, while giving room for the teacher to exercise the
responsibility of guiding, informing and explaining.
The student’s discovery of patterns of error would be more effective.
(b) Postlesson feedback. Correcting every single error is avoided by giving the feedback to both
written and spoken production after the event.
There is absolutely no point in correcting one student in front of the rest of the class – this is
demotivating and inefficient.
The teacher encourages the learners to take risks for making mistakes, losing marks and thus
slipping down the classroom hierarchy. Research into the good language learner has highlighted
the fact that these risk-takers are able to learn from their mistakes. Brown (1993: 219) claims that
one of the keys to successful learning lies in the feedback that a learner receives from others.
The feedback can be cognitive, affective, can be negative, positive. The feedback given can be
termed as “green light”, “red light”, “yellow light.” “The green light” of the affective feedback
such as “I like it” allows the sender to continue attempting to get a message across.
A “red light” feedback such as “I don’t like it” causes the sender to abort such attempts. The
traffic signal of cognitive feedback (such as “I understand”, “I don’t understand”) is the point at
which error correction enters in.
A “green light” here symbolizes non corrective feedback that says “I understand your message.”
A “red light” symbolizes corrective feedback that takes on a myriad of possible forms and causes
the learner to make some kind of alteration in production. Note that fossilization may be the
result of too many green lights there should have been some yellow or red lights. Cognitive
feedback must be optimal in order to be effective. Too much negative cognitive feedback – a
barrage of interruptions, corrections, and overt attention to malformations – often leads learners
to shut off their attempts at communication. The students perceive that so much is wrong with
their production that there is a little hope to get anything right. On the other hand, too much
positive cognitive feedback – willingness of the teacher hearer to let errors go uncorrected –
serves to reinforce the errors of the speaker learner. The result is the persistence, and perhaps the
eventual fossilization of such errors. The task of the teacher is to discern the optimal between the
positive and negative cognitive feedback: providing enough green lights to encourage continued
communication, and providing enough red lights to call attention to those crucial errors. What we
must avoid is the punitive reinforcement, or, correction that is viewed by learners as an affective
red light – devaluing, dehumanizing, or insulting their personhood. 22 Contrastive Analysis,
Error Analysis, Interlanguage and the Implication to Language Teaching (Katharina Rustipa)
CONCLUSION From the previous discussion, some conclusions can be drawn as follows:
contrastive analysis is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their
differences and similarities with the assumption the different elements between the native and
the target language will cause learning problems, while similar elements will not cause any
problems. Contrastive analysis hypothesis is criticized for not all problems predicted by
contrastive analysis always appear to be difficult for the students. On the other hand, many errors
that do turn up are not predicted by contrastive analysis. Error analysis was an alternative to
contrastive analysis. Error analysis was criticized for misdiagnosing student learning problems
due to their "avoidance" of certain difficult L2 elements. Interlanguage is a continuum between
the first language and the target language along which all learners traverse. It is dynamic
(constantly adapting to new information) and influenced by the learners. Some methods for error
correction are: putting responsibility for error correction primarily on the student, post-lesson
feedback. The cognitive, affective, negative, positive feedback should be given sufficiently and
appropriately. We must avoid is the punitive reinforcement. REFERENCES Brown, H. Douglas.
1993. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. San Francisco: Prentice Hall Regents.
Ellis, Rod. 1989. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. ……….. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. Fisiak, Jacek. Contrastive Linguistics and The Language Teacher. Oxford: Pergammon
Press. Ho, Caroline Mei Lin, 2003. Empowering English Teachers to Grapple with Errors in
Grammar. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. IX, No. 3, March 2003. (http://iteslj.org/Techniques/
Ho_Grammar_Errors.html, accessed March 2010) Larsen, Diane, et al. 1992. An Introduction to
Second Language Acquisition Research. London: Longman Schackne, Steven. 2002. Language
Teaching Research. Journal of Language and Linguistics. Volume 1 Number 2, ISSN 1475 –
8989 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_language_acquisition (January 27th 2011)
findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_7571/, January 26th, 2011 vsites.unb.br/il/let/graham/conan.htm,
January 27th 2011
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