CHAPTER 28 - Animal Nutrition

THE NEED to FEED!

Every mealtime is a reminder that we (animals) are heterotrophs, dependent on a regular supply of
food.
Regardless of what an animal eats, an adequate diet must satisfy three (3) nutritional needs. These
are:

1. Fuel (chemical energy) for all cellular work

2. Organic raw materials for biosynthesis
3. Essential nutrients (substances such as vitamins that the animal cannot make for itself)

Classes of Essential Nutrients

1. essential amino acids

 nine essential amino acids in infants (histidine the 9th amino acid).
 eight essential amino acids in adult human (tryptophan, methionine, threonine, phenylalanine, leucine,
isoleucine, lysine, valine)

sources: animal protein (complete source of essential amino acids), plant protein (incomplete source of
essential amino acids)

2. essential fatty acids

 these are the unsaturated fatty acids.

sources: fish oil and vegetable oil

3. vitamins

 organic molecules needed in minute quantities.

sources: fruits and vegetables

Types of Vitamins:
1. water-soluble vitamins
example: vitamin B1 (thiamine), vitamin B2 (riboflavin), niacin, vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
2. fat-soluble vitamins
example: vitamins A, D, E, K

4. minerals

 simple inorganic molecules needed in minute quantities.

 example: calcium, chlorine, iron, iodine

AUTOTROPHS VS. HETEROTROPHS

Autotrophs or autotrophic organisms – organisms that can synthesize their own food.
Types of autotrophs:

1. photoautotrophs – make food through photosynthesis (example: plants)

2. chemoautotrophs – make food through chemosynthesis (example: bacteria)

Heterotrophs or heterotrophic organisms – organisms that are dependent on other organism's

prefabricated high-energy nutrients or foods (example: animals).

Feeding Mechanisms of Heterotrophs

1. suspension – feeders

 animals that feed or sift on particles suspended in water

example: clams, oysters, whales

2. substrate – feeders
 animals that live in or on their food source
 feed on dead or decaying organic materials
 sometimes called saprophytes
example: maggots, leaf miners, earthworms
3. fluid – feeders

 animals that feed on nutrient-rich fluid from a living host

 act as parasites feeding on other living organisms

example: mosquito, aphid, leech

Types of parasites:
ectoparasites – external parasites (example: headlice, bedbugs)
endoparasites – internal parasites (example: fluke, hookworm)
4. bulk – feeders

 animals that eat relatively large pieces of food

 known as holozoic, ingesting bulky food

example: man, tiger, snake

Types of Holozoic organisms
 herbivores – feed mainly on plants (example: cow, carabao, horse)
carnivores – feed mainly on meat (example: lion, cat, dog)
omnivores – feed both in plants and meat (example: man)

CHAPTER 28 - Types of Digestion and

Types of Digestive Tract
Because heterotrophs and their food consist of the same types of chemicals, digestive enzymes
could just as easily attack an animal‘s body as its food. Digestion, therefore, occurs within specialized
compartments that are protected from enzyme action.
These compartments may be located inside or outside of cells. Intracellular digestion occurs
entirely inside a cell; sponges are the only animals that rely solely on intracellular digestion. Collar
cells lining the body wall of a sponge take in nutrients and enclose the food in a food vacuole. A
loaded food vacuole fuses with another sac containing digestive enzymes that break down nutrient
molecules. More complex animals use extracellular digestion, releasing enzymes into a digestive
cavity connected with the outside world. The enzymes dismantle large food particles; cells lining the
cavity then absorb the products of digestion. Food remains outside the body‘s cells until it is digested
and absorbed.
Extracellular digestion eases waste removal because indigestible components of food never enter the
cells. Instead, the digestive tract simply ejects the waste.

Intracellular and Extracellular Digestion. (a) A sponge uses intracellular digestion, which occurs
entirely inside cells. (b) Extracellular digestion occurs in a digestive cavity containing enzymes that
break down food. Cells lining the digestive cavity absorb the nutrients.
The cavity in which extracellular digestion occurs may have one or two openings. An incomplete
digestive tract has only one opening: a mouth that both ingests food and ejects wastes. The animal
must digest food and eliminate the residue before the next meal can begin. This two-way traffic limits
the potential for specialized compartments that might store, digest, or absorb nutrients. Cnidarians
such as jellyfish and Hydra have incomplete digestive tracts, as do flatworms. In these organisms, the
digestive tract is also called a gastrovascular cavity because it doubles as a circulatory system that
distributes nutrients to the body cells.
Most animals have a complete digestive tract with two openings; the mouth is the entrance, and the
anus is the exit. This tubelike digestive cavity is called the alimentary canal or gastrointestinal (GI)
tract. Notice that food passes through in one direction, so the animal can digest one meal at the same
time that it acquires its next one. Another advantage is that regions of the tube can develop
specialized areas that break food into smaller particles, digest it, absorb the nutrients into the
bloodstream, and eliminate wastes. A complete digestive tract, therefore, extracts nutrients from food
more efficiently than an incomplete digestive tract does.

Incomplete and Complete Digestive Tracts. (a) In flatworms and other animals with an incomplete digestive
tract, the mouth acquires food and eliminates wastes. (b) A complete digestive tract has two openings: the
mouth and anus.

CHAPTER 28 - Stages of Food

Processing
Although diets differ, all animals have the same four-step process of obtaining and using food.
First, ingestion is the entrance of food into the digestive tract. The second stage, digestion, is the
physical and chemical breakdown of food. In mammals, this process begins with chewing, which
tears food into small pieces mixed with saliva. Chewing therefore softens food and increases the
surface area exposed to digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes split large nutrient
molecules into smaller components. In the third stage, absorption, the nutrients enter the cells lining
the digestive tract and move into the bloodstream to be transported throughout the body. Fourth,
in elimination, the animal‘s body expels undigested food. Feces are the solid wastes that leave the
digestive tract. One potential source of confusion is the distinction between feces and urine, both of
which are animal waste products. Feces are composed partly of undigested food that never enters
the body‘s cells. Urine, on the other hand, is a watery fluid containing dissolved nitrogen and other
metabolic wastes produced by the body’s cells.
CHAPTER 28 - Human Digestive
System

A. Muscles Underlie the Digestive Tract

How does food make its way along an animal‘s digestive tract? Layers of smooth muscle underlying
the entire digestive tract undergo peristalsis or rhythmic waves of contraction that propel food in one
direction. These contractions also churn the food, mixing it with enzymes to form a liquid. Unlike
skeletal muscle, smooth muscle contraction is involuntary: It does not require input from motor
neurons. Instead, the autonomic nervous system stimulates the smooth muscle to contract. Muscles
also control the openings between digestive organs. Sphincters
are muscular rings that can contract to block the passage of materials. The sphincters at the mouth
and anus are composed of skeletal muscle and are under voluntary control, so we can decide when
to open our mouth or eliminate feces. The remaining sphincters within the digestive tract, however,
are composed of involuntary smooth muscle.
B. Digestion Begins in the Mouth
A tour of the digestive system begins at the mouth. The taste of food triggers salivary glands in the
mouth to secrete saliva. This fluid contains an enzyme that starts to break down starch (a
polysaccharide) into sugars. Meanwhile, the teeth— mineral-hardened structures embedded in the
 jaws—grasp and chew the food. Chewing is a form of mechanical
digestion: Water and mucus in saliva aid the teeth as they tear
food into small pieces, increasing the surface area available for
chemical digestion. The muscular tongue at the floor of the
mouth mixes the food with saliva and pushes it to the back of the
mouth to be swallowed.
The chewed mass of food passes first through the pharynx, or
throat, the tube that also conducts air to the trachea. During
swallowing, the epiglottis temporarily covers the opening to the
trachea so that food enters the digestive tract instead of the lungs.
From the pharynx, swallowed food and liquids pass to the
esophagus, a muscular tube leading to the stomach. Food does
not merely slide down the esophagus under the influence of
gravity; instead, contracting muscles push it along in a wave of
peristalsis.

The Mouth. Mechanical digestion begins with the teeth, which grasp, cut, crush, and grind food into pieces
small enough to be swallowed. Salivary glands (such as those under the tongue) contribute fluid and some
enzymes.

C. The Stomach Stores, Digests, and Churns Food

The stomach is a muscular bag that receives food from the esophagus. The stomach is about the
size of a large sausage when empty, but when very full, it can expand to hold as much as 3 or 4 liters
of food. Ridges in the stomach‘s lining can unfold like the pleats of an accordion to accommodate a
large meal.
The stomach‘s main function is to continue the mechanical and chemical digestion of food.
Swallowed chunks of food break into smaller pieces as waves of peristalsis churn the stomach‘s
contents. At the same time, the stomach lining produces gastric juice, a mixture of water, mucus,
ions, hydrochloric acid, and enzymes.
This gastric juice comes from specialized cells housed in pits in the lining of the stomach. Some cells
produce mucus; others secrete a protein that becomes pepsin, an enzyme that digests proteins. Still,
others release hydrochloric acid. The pH of the gastric juice is therefore low, about 1.5 or 2. The
acidity denatures the proteins in food, kills most disease-causing organisms, and activates pepsin.
If gastric juice breaks down protein in food, how does the stomach keep from digesting itself? First,
the stomach produces little gastric juice until food is present. Second, mucus coats and protects the
stomach lining. Tight junctions between cells in the stomach lining also prevent gastric juice from
seeping through to the tissues below. Although digestion begins in the stomach, this organ absorbs
very few nutrients. It can absorb some water and ions, a few drugs (e.g., aspirin), and, like the rest of
the digestive tract, alcohol. As a result, we feel alcohol‘s intoxicating effects quickly. Chyme is the
semifluid mixture of food and gastric juice in the stomach. At regular intervals, small amounts of
chyme squirt through the sphincter that links the stomach and the upper part of the small intestine.
The Stomach. (a) The stomach receives food from the esophagus, mixes it with gastric juice and passes it to
the small intestine. (b) The stomach lining contains cells that secrete mucus and gastric juice.
D. The Small Intestine Digests and Absorbs Nutrients
The small intestine is a tubular organ that completes digestion and absorbs nutrients and water.
Although narrow in comparison with the large intestine, the small intestine‘s 3- to 7-meter length
makes it the longest organ in the digestive system.

Anatomy of the Small Intestine

The duodenum makes up the first 25 centimeters of the small intestine. Glands in the wall of the
duodenum secrete mucus that protects and lubricates the small intestine. In addition, ducts from the
pancreas and liver open into the duodenum.
The rest of the small intestine absorbs nutrients from digested food and passes them to the
bloodstream. Close examination of the hills and valleys along the small intestine‘s lining reveals
millions of intestinal villi, tiny fingerlike projections that absorb nutrients. The epithelial cells on the
surface of each villus bristle with hundreds of microvilli, extensions of the cell membrane. Villi and
microvilli increase the surface area of the small intestine at least 600 times, allowing for the efficient
extraction of nutrients from food.
The capillaries that snake throughout each villus take up the newly absorbed nutrients and water,
then empty into veins that carry the nutrient-laden blood to the liver. Also inside each villus is a lymph
capillary that receives digested fats. Cells throughout the body use all of these nutrients to generate
energy and to build new proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

The Lining of the Small Intestine. (a) Fingerlike villi project from each ridge of the small intestine’s
lining. (b) Within each villus, blood-filled capillaries absorb digested carbohydrates and proteins, and
lymph capillaries absorb digested fats. (c) Microvilli extending from the epithelial cells add
tremendous surface area for absorption.
 The Role of the Pancreas, Liver, and
Gallbladder
The small intestine absorbs water, minerals, free
amino acids, cholesterol, and vitamins without
further digestion. Most molecules in food,
however, require additional processing.
Digestive enzymes released by cells lining the
small intestine act on short polysaccharides and
disaccharides to release simple sugars, which
the small intestine immediately absorbs. These
enzymes are called carbohydrases. People
who lack one such enzyme, lactase, cannot
digest milk sugar.
Most of the digestive enzymes in the small intestine, however, come from the pancreas. This
accessory organ sends about a liter of
pancreatic juice to the duodenum each day. The fluid from the pancreas contains many
enzymes. Trypsin and chymotrypsin break polypeptides into amino acids; pancreatic
amylase digests starch; pancreatic lipase breaks down fats, and nucleases split nucleic acids such
as DNA into nucleotides. In addition to these enzymes, pancreatic juice also contains
alkaline sodium bicarbonate, which neutralizes the acid from the stomach.
Fats present an interesting challenge to the digestive system. Lipase enzymes are water-soluble, but
fats are not. Therefore, lipase can act only at the surface of a fat droplet, where it contacts
water. Bile is a greenish-yellow biochemical that disperses the fat into tiny globules suspended in
water. The resulting mixture, called an emulsion, increases the surface area exposed to lipase.
Bile comes from the liver, a large accessory organ with more than 200 functions. The liver‘s only
direct contribution to digestion is the production of bile. The gallbladder is an accessory organ that
stores this bile until chyme triggers its release into the small intestine. The cholesterol in bile can
crystallize, forming gallstones that partially or completely block the duct to the small intestine.
Gallstones are very painful and may require removal of the gallbladder. A person can survive without
this organ because surgeons simply redirect the flow of bile from the liver to the small intestine.
The liver‘s other functions include detoxifying alcohol and other harmful substances in the blood,
storing glycogen and fat-soluble vitamins, and producing blood-clotting proteins. Nutrient-laden blood
arrives from the intestines and passes through the liver‘s extensive capillary beds, which remove
bacteria and toxins. The liver gets ―first dibs‖ on the nutrients in the blood before it is pumped to the
rest of the body. (In a condition called cirrhosis, scar tissue blocks this vital blood flow through the
liver.)
Like the stomach, the small intestine protects itself against self-digestion by producing digestive
biochemicals only when food is present. In addition, mucus protects the intestinal wall from digestive
juices and neutralizes stomach acid. Nevertheless, many cells of the intestinal lining die in the caustic
soup. Rapid division of the small intestine‘s epithelial cells compensates for the loss, replacing the
lining every 36 hours.
E. The Large Intestine Completes Nutrient and Water Absorption
The material remaining in the small intestine moves next into the large intestine, which extends to the anus
while forming a “frame” around the small intestine. At 1.5 meters long, the large intestine is much shorter than
the small intestine, but its diameter is greater (about 6.5 centimeters). Its main functions are to absorb water and
ions and to eliminate the remaining wastes as feces.
The start of the large intestine is the pouchlike cecum. Dangling from the cecum is the appendix, a thin, worm-
shaped tube. Trapped bacteria or undigested food can cause the appendix to become irritated, inflamed, and
infected, producing severe pain. A burst appendix can spill its contents into the abdominal cavity and spread the
infection.
The colon forms the majority of the large intestine. Here, the large intestine absorbs most of the remaining
water, ions, and minerals from chyme. Veins carry blood from vessels surrounding the large intestine to the
liver. The remnants of digestion consist mostly of bacteria, undigested fiber, and intestinal cells. These
materials, plus smaller amounts of other substances, collect in the rectum as feces. When the rectum is full, the
feces are eliminated through the anus.
Our partnership with our intestinal microbes deserves special mention. Trillions of bacteria, representing about
500 different species, are normal inhabitants of the large intestine. These microscopic residents produce the
characteristic foul-smelling odors of intestinal gas and feces, but they also provide many benefits. Most notably,
they help prevent infection by harmful microorganisms. They also decompose cellulose and some other
nutrients, produce B vitamins and vitamin K, and break down bile and some drugs. Antibiotics often kill these
normal bacteria and allow other microbes to take over. This disruption causes diarrhea that may accompany
treatment with antibiotics. Interestingly, a baby is born with a microbe-free digestive tract. The infant begins
acquiring its microbiota with its first meal of milk or formula. Bacteria from the mother’s skin and the
environment gradually colonize the baby’s intestines, establishing populations that will persist throughout life.

CHAPTER 28 - Chemical Digestion and

Absorption (A Closer Look)
As you have learned, the process of mechanical digestion is relatively simple. It involves the physical
breakdown of food but does not alter its chemical makeup. Chemical digestion, on the other hand, is
a complex process that reduces food into its chemical building blocks, which are then absorbed to
nourish the cells of the body. In this section, you will look more closely at the processes of chemical
digestion and absorption.

Chemical Digestion
Large food molecules (for example, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and starches) must be broken
down into subunits that are small enough to be absorbed by the lining of the alimentary canal. This is
accomplished by enzymes through hydrolysis. The many enzymes involved in chemical digestion are
summarized in Table 1.
 Carbohydrate Digestion
The average American diet is about 50
percent carbohydrates, which may be
classified according to the number of
monomers they contain of simple sugars
(monosaccharides and disaccharides) and/or
complex sugars (polysaccharides). Glucose,
galactose, and fructose are the three
monosaccharides that are commonly
consumed and are readily absorbed. Your
digestive system is also able to break down
the disaccharide sucrose (regular table
sugar: glucose + fructose), lactose (milk
sugar: glucose + galactose), and maltose
(grain sugar: glucose + glucose), and the
polysaccharides glycogen and starch (chains
of monosaccharides). Your bodies do not
produce enzymes that can break down most
fibrous polysaccharides, such as cellulose.
While indigestible polysaccharides do not
provide any nutritional value, they do provide
dietary fiber, which helps propel food through
the alimentary canal.
In the small intestine, pancreatic
amylase does the ‗heavy lifting‘ for starch
and carbohydrate digestion. After amylases break down starch into smaller fragments, the brush
border enzyme α-dextrinase starts working on α-dextrin, breaking off one glucose unit at a time.
Three brush border enzymes hydrolyze sucrose, lactose, and maltose into
monosaccharides. Sucrase splits sucrose into one molecule of fructose and one molecule of
glucose; maltase breaks down maltose and maltotriose into two and three glucose molecules,
respectively; and lactase breaks down lactose into one molecule of glucose and one molecule of
galactose. Insufficient lactase can lead to lactose intolerance.
Protein Digestion

Proteins are polymers composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds to form long chains.
Digestion reduces them to their constituent amino acids. You usually consume about 15 to 20 percent
of your total calorie intake as protein.
The digestion of protein starts in the stomach, where HCl and pepsin break proteins into smaller
polypeptides, which then travel to the small intestine. Chemical digestion in the small intestine is
continued by pancreatic enzymes, including chymotrypsin and trypsin, each of which acts on specific
bonds in amino acid sequences. At the same time, the cells of the brush border secrete enzymes
such as aminopeptidase and dipeptidase, which further break down peptide chains. This results in
molecules small enough to enter the bloodstream.
Lipid Digestion

A healthy diet limits lipid intake to 35 percent of total calorie intake. The most common dietary lipids
are triglycerides, which are made up of a glycerol molecule bound to three fatty acid chains. Small
amounts of dietary cholesterol and phospholipids are also consumed.
The three lipases responsible for lipid digestion are lingual lipase, gastric lipase, and pancreatic
lipase. However, because the pancreas is the only consequential source of lipase, virtually all lipid
digestion occurs in the small intestine. Pancreatic lipase breaks down each triglyceride into two free
fatty acids and a monoglyceride. The fatty acids include both short-chain (less than 10 to 12 carbons)
and long-chain fatty acids.
Nucleic Acid Digestion

The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are found in most of the foods you eat. Two types of pancreatic
nuclease are responsible for their digestion: deoxyribonuclease, which digests DNA,
and ribonuclease, which digests RNA. The nucleotides produced by this digestion are further broken
down by two intestinal brush border enzymes (nucleosidase and phosphatase) into pentoses,
phosphates, and nitrogenous bases, which can be absorbed through the alimentary canal wall. The
large food molecules that must be broken down into subunits are summarized below.
 Absorption
The mechanical and digestive
processes have one goal: to convert
food into molecules small enough to
be absorbed by the epithelial cells of
the intestinal villi. The absorptive
capacity of the alimentary canal is
almost endless. Each day, the
alimentary canal processes up to 10
liters of food, liquids, and GI
secretions, yet less than one liter
enters the large intestine. Almost all
ingested food, 80 percent of
electrolytes, and 90 percent of water
are absorbed in the small intestine.
Although the entire small intestine is
involved in the absorption of water
and lipids, most absorption of
carbohydrates and proteins occurs in
the jejunum. Notably, bile salts and
vitamin B12 are absorbed in the
terminal ileum. By the time chyme
passes from the ileum into the large
intestine, it is essentially indigestible
food residue (mainly plant fibers like
cellulose), some water, and millions
of bacteria.
Absorption can occur through five mechanisms: (1) active transport, (2) passive diffusion, (3)
facilitated diffusion, (4) co-transport (or secondary active transport), and (5) endocytosis. As you will
recall from Chapter 3, active transport refers to the movement of a substance across a cell membrane
going from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration (up the concentration
gradient). In this type of transport, proteins within the cell membrane act as ―pumps,‖ using cellular
energy (ATP) to move the substance. Passive diffusion refers to the movement of substances from
an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, while facilitated diffusion refers to
the movement of substances from an area of higher to an area of lower concentration using a carrier
protein in the cell membrane. Co-transport uses the movement of one molecule through the
membrane from higher to lower concentration to power the movement of another from lower to
higher. Finally, endocytosis is a transportation process in which the cell membrane engulfs material. It
requires energy, generally in the form of ATP.
Because the cell‘s plasma membrane is made up of hydrophobic phospholipids, water-soluble
nutrients must use transport molecules embedded in the membrane to enter cells. Moreover,
substances cannot pass between the epithelial cells of the intestinal mucosa because these cells are
bound together by tight junctions. Thus, substances can only enter blood capillaries by passing
through the apical surfaces of epithelial cells and into the interstitial fluid. Water-soluble nutrients
enter the capillary blood in the villi and travel to the liver via the hepatic portal vein.
In contrast to the water-soluble nutrients, lipid-soluble nutrients can diffuse through the plasma
membrane. Once inside the cell, they are packaged for transport via the base of the cell and then
enter the lacteals of the villi to be transported by lymphatic vessels to the systemic circulation via the
thoracic duct. The absorption of most nutrients through the mucosa of the intestinal villi requires
active transport fueled by ATP. The routes of absorption for each food category are summarized
below.

Carbohydrate Absorption

All carbohydrates are absorbed in the form of monosaccharides. The small intestine is highly efficient
at this, absorbing monosaccharides at an estimated rate of 120 grams per hour. All normally digested
dietary carbohydrates are absorbed; indigestible fibers are eliminated in the feces. The
monosaccharides glucose and galactose are transported into the epithelial cells by common protein
carriers via secondary active transport (that is, co-transport with sodium ions). The monosaccharides
leave these cells via facilitated diffusion and enter the capillaries through intercellular clefts. The
monosaccharide fructose (which is in fruit) is absorbed and transported by facilitated diffusion alone.
The monosaccharides combine with the transport proteins immediately after the disaccharides are
broken down.
Protein Absorption

Active transport mechanisms, primarily in the duodenum and jejunum, absorb most proteins as their
breakdown products, amino acids. Almost all (95 to 98 percent) protein is digested and absorbed in
the small intestine. The type of carrier that transports an amino acid varies. Most carriers are linked to
the active transport of sodium. Short chains of two amino acids (dipeptides) or three amino acids
(tripeptides) are also transported actively. However, after they enter the absorptive epithelial cells,
they are broken down into their amino acids before leaving the cell and entering the capillary blood
via diffusion.
 Lipid Absorption

About 95 percent of lipids are

absorbed in the small intestine.
Bile salts not only speed up
lipid digestion, they are also
essential to the absorption of
the end products of lipid
digestion. Short-chain fatty
acids are relatively water
soluble and can enter the
absorptive cells (enterocytes)
directly. Despite being
hydrophobic, the small size of
short-chain fatty acids enables
them to be absorbed by
enterocytes via simple
diffusion, and then take the
same path as
monosaccharides and amino
acids into the blood capillary of
a villus.
The large and hydrophobic
long-chain fatty acids and
monoacylglycerides are not so
easily suspended in the watery
intestinal chyme. However, bile salts and lecithin resolve this issue by enclosing them in a micelle,
which is a tiny sphere with polar (hydrophilic) ends facing the watery environment and hydrophobic
tails turned to the interior, creating a receptive environment for the long-chain fatty acids. The core
also includes cholesterol and fat-soluble vitamins. Without micelles, lipids would sit on the surface of
chyme and never come in contact with the absorptive surfaces of the epithelial cells. Micelles can
easily squeeze between microvilli and get very near the luminal cell surface. At this point, lipid
substances exit the micelle and are absorbed via simple diffusion.
The free fatty acids and monoacylglycerides that enter the epithelial cells are reincorporated into
triglycerides. The triglycerides are mixed with phospholipids and cholesterol, and surrounded with a
protein coat. This new complex, called a chylomicron, is a water-soluble lipoprotein. After being
processed by the Golgi apparatus, chylomicrons are released from the cell. Too big to pass through
the basement membranes of blood capillaries, chylomicrons instead enter the large pores of lacteals.
The lacteals come together to form the lymphatic vessels. The chylomicrons are transported in the
lymphatic vessels and empty through the thoracic duct into the subclavian vein of the circulatory
system. Once in the bloodstream, the enzyme lipoprotein lipase breaks down the triglycerides of the
chylomicrons into free fatty acids and glycerol. These breakdown products then pass through
capillary walls to be used for energy by cells or stored in adipose tissue as fat. Liver cells combine the
remaining chylomicron remnants with proteins, forming lipoproteins that transport cholesterol in the
blood.
Nucleic Acid Absorption

The products of nucleic acid digestion—pentose sugars, nitrogenous bases, and phosphate ions—
are transported by carriers across the villus epithelium via active transport. These products then enter
the bloodstream.
Mineral Absorption

The electrolytes absorbed by the small intestine are from both GI secretions and ingested foods.
Since electrolytes dissociate into ions in water, most are absorbed via active transport throughout the
entire small intestine. During absorption, co-transport mechanisms result in the accumulation of
sodium ions inside the cells, whereas anti-port mechanisms reduce the potassium ion concentration
inside the cells. To restore the sodium-potassium gradient across the cell membrane, a sodium-
potassium pump requiring ATP pumps sodium out and potassium in.
In general, all minerals that enter the intestine are absorbed, whether you need them or not. Iron and
calcium are exceptions; they are absorbed in the duodenum in amounts that meet the body‘s current
requirements, as follows:
Iron—The ionic iron needed for the production of hemoglobin is absorbed into mucosal cells via
active transport. Once inside mucosal cells, ionic iron binds to the protein ferritin, creating iron-ferritin
complexes that store iron until needed. When the body has enough iron, most of the stored iron is lost
when worn-out epithelial cells slough off. When the body needs iron because, for example, it is lost
during acute or chronic bleeding, there is increased uptake of iron from the intestine and accelerated
release of iron into the bloodstream. Since women experience significant iron loss during
menstruation, they have around four times as many iron transport proteins in their intestinal epithelial
cells as do men.
Calcium—Blood levels of ionic calcium determine the absorption of dietary calcium. When blood
levels of ionic calcium drop, parathyroid hormone (PTH) secreted by the parathyroid glands
stimulates the release of calcium ions from bone matrices and increases the reabsorption of calcium
by the kidneys. PTH also upregulates the activation of vitamin D in the kidney, which then facilitates
intestinal calcium ion absorption.
Vitamin Absorption

The small intestine absorbs the vitamins that occur naturally in food and supplements. Fat-soluble
vitamins (A, D, E, and K) are absorbed along with dietary lipids in micelles via simple diffusion. This is
why you are advised to eat some fatty foods when you take fat-soluble vitamin supplements. Most
water-soluble vitamins (including most B vitamins and vitamin C) also are absorbed by simple
diffusion. An exception is vitamin B12, which is a very large molecule. Intrinsic factor secreted in the
stomach binds to vitamin B12, preventing its digestion and creating a complex that binds to mucosal
receptors in the terminal ileum, where it is taken up by endocytosis.
Water Absorption

Each day, about nine liters of fluid enter the small intestine. About 2.3 liters are ingested in foods and
beverages, and the rest is from GI secretions. About 90 percent of this water is absorbed in the small
intestine. Water absorption is driven by the concentration gradient of the water: The concentration of
water is higher in chyme than it is in epithelial cells. Thus, water moves down its concentration
gradient from the chyme into cells. As noted earlier, much of the remaining water is then absorbed in
the colon.
CHAPTER 28 - Disorders of the
Digestive System
The entire length of the human digestive tract is subject to numerous disorders. Some are a nuisance
or easily treated, whereas others can be deadly. A few are listed here:
Tooth decay: Bacteria living in the mouth secrete acids that eat through a tooth‘s surface, causing cavities.
This decayed area can extend to the interior of the tooth, eventually killing the tooth‘s nerve and blood supply.

Acid reflux: Gastric juice, normally confined to the stomach, sometimes emerges through the sphincter
guarding the stomach entrance. The acid burns the esophagus, causing ―heartburn.‖ Antacids can neutralize
the acidity.

Vomiting: When a person vomits, the medulla (in the brainstem) coordinates several simultaneous events.
The muscles of the diaphragm and abdomen contract, while the sphincter at the entrance of the stomach
relaxes. These actions force chyme out of the stomach and up the esophagus. Alcohol, bacterial toxins from
spoiled foods, and excessive eating can trigger queasiness and vomiting.

Appendicitis: The appendix can become inflamed or infected. If it ruptures, it can release bacteria into the
abdominal cavity, causing serious infection and sometimes even death when left untreated.

Diarrhea: If the intestines fail to absorb as much water as they should, the feces become loose and watery.

Constipation: An obstructed large intestine, loss of peristalsis, dehydration, starvation, or anxiety might cause
hard, dry feces that are difficult to eliminate.

Colon (colorectal) cancer: Cancerous tumors may arise in the rectum, colon, or appendix. Colon cancer is a
leading cause of death worldwide; a diet high in fiber aids in prevention.

The synthesis and breakdown of glycogen are central not only to energy storage, but also to maintaining
metabolic balance through glucose homeostasis. In humans, the normal range for the concentration of glucose
in the blood is 70–110 mg/100 mL. Because glucose is a major fuel for cellular respiration and a key source of
carbon skeletons for biosynthesis, maintaining blood glucose concentrations near this normal range is
essential.

Insulin and Glucagon

Glucose homeostasis relies predominantly on the antagonistic (opposing) effects of two hormones,
insulin and glucagon. When the blood glucose level rises above the normal range, the secretion
of insulin triggers the uptake of glucose from the blood into body cells, decreasing the blood glucose
concentration. When the blood glucose level drops below the normal range, the secretion
of glucagon promotes the release of glucose into the blood from energy stores, such as liver
glycogen, increasing the blood glucose concentration.
The liver is a key site of action for both insulin and glucagon. After a carbohydrate-rich meal, for
example, the rising level of insulin promotes biosynthesis of glycogen from glucose entering the liver
in the hepatic portal vein. Between meals, when blood in the hepatic portal vein has a much lower
glucose concentration, glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen, convert amino acids
and glycerol to glucose, and release glucose into the blood. Together, these opposing effects of
insulin and glucagon ensure that blood exiting the liver has a glucose concentration in the normal
range at nearly all times.
Insulin also acts on nearly all body cells to stimulate glucose uptake from blood. A major exception is
brain cells, which can take up glucose whether or not insulin is present. This evolutionary adaptation
ensures that the brain almost always has access to circulating fuel, even if supplies are low.
Glucagon and insulin are both produced in the pancreas. Clusters of endocrine cells called pancreatic
islets are scattered throughout this organ. Each islet has alpha cells, which make glucagon,
and beta cells, which make insulin. Like all hormones, insulin and glucagon are secreted into the
interstitial fluid and enter the circulatory system.
Overall, hormone-secreting cells make up only 1–2% of the mass of the pancreas. Other cells in the
pancreas produce and secrete bicarbonate ions and the digestive enzymes active in the small
intestine. These secretions are released into small ducts that empty into the pancreatic duct, which
leads to the small intestine. Thus, the pancreas has functions in both the endocrine and digestive
systems.

Homeostatic regulation of
cellular fuel (glucose). After
a meal is digested, glucose
and other monomers are
absorbed into the blood from
the digestive tract. The
human body regulates the
use and storage of glucose, a
major cellular fuel

Diabetes Mellitus
In discussing the role of insulin and glucagon in glucose homeostasis, we have focused exclusively
on a healthy metabolic state. However, a number of disorders can disrupt glucose homeostasis with
potentially serious consequences, especially for the heart, blood vessels, eyes, and kidneys. The best
known and most prevalent of these disorders is diabetes mellitus.
The disease diabetes mellitus is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to
insulin in target tissues. The blood glucose level rises, but cells are unable to take up enough glucose
to meet metabolic needs. Instead, fat becomes the main substrate for cellular respiration. In severe
cases, acidic metabolites formed during fat breakdown accumulate in the blood, threatening life by
lowering blood pH and depleting sodium and potassium ions from the body.
In people with diabetes mellitus, the level of glucose in the blood may exceed the capacity of the
kidneys to reabsorb this nutrient. Glucose that remains in the kidney filtrate is excreted. For this
reason, the presence of sugar in urine is one test for this disorder. As glucose is concentrated in the
urine, more water is excreted along with it, resulting in excessive volumes of urine. Diabetes (from the
Greek diabainein, to pass through) refers to this copious urination, and mellitus (from the Greek meli,
honey) refers to the presence of sugar in urine.
There are two main types of diabetes mellitus: type 1 and type 2. Each is marked by high blood
glucose levels, but with very different causes.

Type 1 Diabetes
Also called insulin-dependent diabetes,
type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune
disorder in which the immune system
destroys the beta cells of the pancreas.
Type 1 diabetes, which usually appears
during childhood, destroys the person‘s
ability to produce insulin. Treatment
consists of insulin injections, typically
given several times daily. In the past,
insulin was extracted from animal
pancreases, but now human insulin can
be obtained from genetically engineered
bacteria, a relatively inexpensive source.
Stem cell research may someday
provide a cure for type 1 diabetes by
generating replacement beta cells that
restore insulin production by the
pancreas.
Type 2 Diabetes
Non-insulin-dependent diabetes, or type
2 diabetes, is characterized by a failure
of target cells to respond normally to insulin. Insulin is produced, but target cells fail to take up
glucose from the blood, and blood glucose levels remain elevated. Although heredity can play a role
in type 2 diabetes, excess body weight and lack of exercise significantly increase the risk of
developing this disorder. This form of diabetes generally appears after age 40, but even children can
develop the disease, particularly if they are overweight and sedentary. More than 90% of people with
diabetes have type 2. Many can control their blood glucose levels with regular exercise and a healthy
diet; some require medications. Nevertheless, type 2 diabetes is the seventh most common cause of
death in the United States and a growing public health problem worldwide.