GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 55, NO.2 (FEBRUARY 1990); P. 134-146, 9 FIGS.
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Geophysical exploration for gold-A review**
Hugh A. Doyle*
ABSTRACT
It is almost impossible to get a direct geophysical
response from gold because of the low grades in
deposits, except when electromagnetic detectors are
used for individual shallow nuggets. However, indirect
geophysical indications may occur through association
of gold with particular host rocks, marker beds, or
structures which are, for example, of unusual magne-
tization, density, electric polarization, or conductivity/
resistivity. Useful markers may be magnetic dolerites,
banded iron formations, shales with magnetite, con-
ductive and/or polarizable pyrites, or other sulfide
(detectable by IP methods) and silicified zones more
resistive than surrounding rocks. Mapping of faults
and shear zones, with which gold may be associated, is
INTRODUCTION
The main sources of the world's gold are in the Precam-
brian shields of South Africa, the USSR, Canada, Brazil,
and Australia; the Paleozoic fold belts of a number of
countries and in Mesozoic to Quaternary volcanic arcs,
particularly of the Pacific rim. In the case of Australia,
Archaean, Paleozoic, and Tertiary/Recent regions have, in
the past, been of approximately equal importance in produc-
ing gold (Woodall, 1979), whereas the Proterozoic regions
have had low productivity.
At present, the Western Australian shield produces most
of Australia's gold and, in turn, most of this is from the
Norseman-Wiluna belt, 700 km long, which includes the
Kalgoorlie Golden Mile. However, the Kidston mine in
Queensland is at present (1986) the biggest single producer.
The total world production throughout history was esti-
mated to be about 90 000 t (Woodall, 1979) and may now be
approaching 100 000 1. Australian annual production has
risen to about 57 t (Bureau of Mineral Resources announce-
ment) with the opening of many new projects (thanks to the
rise in the price of gold), the development of open-cut
*Department of Geology, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Perth, W.A. 6009, Australia.
**Reprinted from Exploration Geophysics (December 1986), 17, 169-180.
134
also valuable (e.g., by magnetic, EM surveys, etc).
Magnetite depletion is characteristic of some deposits,
resulting in zones of low anomalies; for example,
ferromagnetic minerals in mafic volcanics are de-
stroyed by carbonatization. Resistivity patterns may
indicate altered rocks which contain mineralization,
thus the use ofVLF-EM methods in Canada and MMR
in Australia. Geophysical methods have been impor-
tant in the search for gold in the Witwatersrand Basin
of South Africa (magnetic, gravity, and even seismic
reflection methods), various areas of Canada, e.g., the
Abitibi greenstone belt (magnetic, EM, and IP sur-
veys), and to a smaller extent in Australia (e.g.,
Tennant Creek, NT and Water Tank Hill, WA). How-
ever, the value of geophysical methods should not be
exaggerated since physical contrasts are often low.
methods of mining shallow deposits, and the recovery of
low-grade gold by carbon-in-pulp technology (Louthean,
1985). Such methods have allowed mining of many deposits
which would have been considered uneconomic previously.
Previous booms in gold in Australia occurred in the
mid-1850s and early 1900s (Blainey, 1969). In the 1930s, the
rise in the price of gold encouraged the formation of the
Western Mining Corporation in London expressly to dis-
cover gold in Western Australia (Finucane, 1979). Air pho-
tography and geophysics were among the techniques used by
the company.
Much of the early geophysical work in Australia was
magnetic surveying for gold, such as Rayner's (1931, 1940)
surveys at Gulgong, NSW, for the NSW Geological Survey,
and the work of the Aerial Geological and Geophysical
Survey of Northern Australia at Tennant Creek (Rayner and
Nye, 1936; Daly, 1957) and Wiluna, Western Australia
(Richardson et al., 1942). The magnetic surveys at Tennant
Creek provided the first important success for such explora-
tion in Australia.
There have been comparatively few papers published on
the use of geophysics for gold exploration, although in 1984
 Geophysical Exploration for Gold-A Review
there were two symposia on the subject; one in Val d'Or,
Quebec and one in Perth, WA (Doyle, 1984).
Despite the high density (19.3 g/cm') and electrical con-
ductivity (5 x 107 S/m) of gold, it is almost impossible to get
a direct response, apart from very shallow nuggets when
using metal detectors. The small direct responses are a result
of the low grades involved today (usually only a few grams
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per ton) because of the high value of gold. However, indirect
geophysical indications may occur through some association
with particular host rocks, marker beds, or structures which
are unusually magnetic, electrically polarizable, or conduc-
tive/resistive, etc. Association of deposits with faults and
shear zones is also common (see Groves et al., 1984), so that
mapping of faults and shear zones by magnetic and electrical
methods is valuable.
Thus, geophysical surveys are often used as mapping
zoo
400
m basement below. The horizontal separation of the anomalies
600
800 800
m m
DEPTH
1000 1000
,WOF,,o
m
',0 1Z00-
m .
DEPTH .. ;~
L~.!_~ __ J
FIG. 1. The smoothed magnetic susceptibility is plotted
against bore core lengths for two boreholes in an Archaean
granitic pluton near Atikokan, Ontario. Four levels of alter-
ation in the cores are indicated (after Lapointe et al., 1986).
135
tools, aeromagnetic and ground magnetic surveys being the
most common, with gravity less so. Remote sensing from
satellites may precede these. Other methods are induced
polarization (IP), magnetic IP (MIP), magnetometric resis-
tivity (MMR), or electromagnetic (EM) methods such as
ground transient EM (TEM) in Australia or airborne EM
(such as VLF) in Canada.
Examples of marker beds which may be useful are mag-
netic dolerites, banded iron formations (magnetic quartz-
ites), shales with magnetite, conductive and/or polarizable
pyrites, or other sulfides (detectable by IP or MIP), and, at
s N
50 0
nT
[
a
5 km - -
FIG. 2. A ground magnetic profile observed by Krahmann
showing the three magnetic markers in the Lower Witwa-
tersrand, with Upper Witwatersrand above and granitic
allowed the dip of the Lower Wits beds to be calculated and
thus their position beneath overlying dolomite, since the
thickness of the geologic section was already known (after
van Zijl, 1986).
100
GU
[
o
o Karroo cover ~ Ventersdorp lava ~ Upper Wits with
~
DLower Wits,with D
Ld Basal Reef
Granitic basement
three magnetic markers
FIG. 3. Ground magnetic and gravity profiles over the St.
Helena area in the Orange Free State showing a gravity low
and associated magnetic anomalies. The gravity low is
related to the gold-bearing Upper Witwatersrand rocks and
the magnetic anomalies to the Lower Witwatersrand. Grav-
ity units equal 0.1 mGal (after van Zijl, 1986).
 136
least in North America, silicified zones made more resistive
than the surrounding rocks. Resistivity patterns may indi-
cate altered rocks which could contain mineralization;
hence, the use of VLF methods in Canada, often from
aircraft (Limion and Downing 1984). Measurements of mag-
netic susceptibility of core samples have also been used to
define levels of alteration (Figure 1) (Lapointe et al., 1986).
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Where gold is directly associated with pyrrhotite, magne-
tite skarns, or massive sulfides, magnetic or EM surveys are
specific (Jones, 1983). The association of gold mineralization
with iron sulfides, which is often the case (Seigel et al.,
1984), is important in making IP and EM methods useful.
According to Dowsett and Krause (1984), airborne EM and
magnetic surveys initially led to the Casa Berardi Area, NW
Quebec. Ground EM work was a great help in mapping
lithology, and IP results helped indicate where gold may
occur within the prospective geologic units. A good example
of a purely geophysical discovery using similar methods is
that of the Detour Lakes gold deposit in NE Ontario (Jack-
son, A., 1984, Amoco Pet. Canada Report).
Otherwise geophysical methods may provide structural
and general mapping information or outline the limits of a
hydrothermal system. In South Africa, for example, mag-
netic and gravity surveys have played major roles in the
study of the structure of the Witwatersrand Basin (Roux,
1970; Comer et al., 1986a, b; van Zijl, 1986) and in the
discovery of new gold fields and the extension of known
fields (Figures 2 and 3). The ferruginous shales of the West
Rand group produce substantial magnetic anomalies. Seis-
mic reflection and magnetotelluric surveys have also been
used in structural studies (Comer, 1985). In Russia, as
elsewhere, areas which are promising for gold are located
with the help of regional geophysical surveys (Fedynsky et
al., 1970). In Kazakhstan electrical and gravity methods
were also used to help map small diorite intrusions and faults
which control quartz bodies.
However, the value of geophysical methods should not be
exaggerated. For example, Seigel et a1. (1984) state that the
magnetic and EM properties of the traditional Canadian
lode-gold deposits are not significantly different from many
normal, unmineralized rock types. The small dimensions of
the structures also result in responses of low amplitude and
width, requiring more detail and care than in surveys for
base-metal deposits. Short station and electrode spacings are
required, encouraging the use of microprocessor-based
semiautomatic instruments with memory to simplify and
speed up surveys.
The general procedure in carrying out an exploration
program is first to determine a geologic model for the gold
and its environment and then to identify the likely geophys-
ical properties of the host and nearby rocks.
Types of gold deposits
Some main types of gold deposits are as follows (for a
summary of types of gold deposits, see Boyle, 1984):
(1) Deposits in Archean greenstone belts, mainly in
mafic-ultramafic rocks or in banded iron formations
(ElF). Examples occur in Western Australia (WA),
Doyle
Canada, Brazil, Zimbabwe, South Africa, the Baltic
Shield, and in India.
(2) Deposits in Archean-Proterozoic continental ba-
sins, such as the Witwatersrand basin of South Africa,
Blind River basin of Canada, and at Jacobina, Brazil.
(3) Proterozoic deposits of variable type such as
those in Australia at Tennant Creek, Northern Terri-
tory; Olympic Dam, South Australia; and Telfer, WA.
(4) Palaeozoic turbidite-hosted deposits; for exam-
ple, Ballarat and Bendigo, Victoria, Australia.
(5) Paleozoic-Tertiary volcanic-subvolcanic grani-
toid-related deposits; as at Kidston, Charters Towers
and Mt Morgan, Queensland, Australia.
(6) Mesozoic-Quaternary epithermal deposits such
as those of the western USA (e.g., Round Mountain,
Nevada), eastern USSR, and the Pacific rim (e.g.,
Mount Mum, Kalimanton, Indonesia, and Waiotapu,
New Zealand).
(7) Tertiary-Quaternary alluvial-deep leads; as in
Victoria and NSW, Australia, and California, Alaska,
New Zealand, and Indonesia.
Most of the examples given in this paper are from the
Archean greenstones of Australia and Canada. A large
variety of lithologies host gold deposits in Australian
Archean areas (Groves et al., 1984), but gold lodes occur
mostly in mafic volcanics and intrusives (e.g., dolerite) and
BIF. Production from deposits hosted in sediments other
than ElF is generally low.
Archean gold deposits provide potentially difficult targets
for geophysical exploration (Groves et al., 1984), since they
have a wide diversity in size and shape of oreshoots; extent
and homogeneity of iron-sulfide alteration; concentrations of
sulfides; sulfide mineralogy; extent of carbonate alteration;
and extent of magnetite and ilmenite consumption in altera-
tion reactions. Thus, generalizations that cover all deposit
types are invalid (Groves et al., 1984).
GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES
Magnetic surveys
The magnetic survey is the most commonly used geophys-
ical tool in gold exploration, as it is in exploration for other
metals. Aeromagnetic surveys are particularly useful in the
early stages of exploration, providing information about the
broad geology and structure of the area quickly and cheaply.
Of course magnetic maps are essential where outcrops are
sparse.
Commonly, there are many magnetic anomalies in an
igneous or metamorphic area, and the geologic controls of
mineralization must be understood to make reasonably clear
which magnetic rocks may be related to the gold mineraliza-
tion (Boyd, 1984).
Magnetite is by no means always a marker for gold. In
fact, magnetite depletion is characteristic of some deposits in
Canada and Australia. Ferromagnetic minerals in mafic
volcanics (e.g., basalts) are destroyed by carbonatization
resulting in areas of low magnetic values (Middleton and
Campbell, 1979; Middleton et al., 1984). On the other hand,
magnetic halos may occur areound silicic intrusions.
Grant (1984) has made a study of the occurrence of
 Geophysical Exploration for Gold-A Review
magnetite in various rock types. He concluded that guides to
volcanic-associated gold environments could include the
identification of (a) greenstone belts on a regional scale, (b)
major fault zones, (c) areas of alteration, (d) serpentinized
ultramafic rocks and BIF within or near alteration zones, and
(e) highly altered mafic-ultramafic layers within volcanic
zones.
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Techniques in magnetometry
In recent years, companies in Australia have made great
use of aeromagnetic maps produced by the Bureau of
Mineral Resources (BMR) for all types of geologic environ-
ments. Jones (1983) found that interpretation of the BMR
aeromagnetic data was greatly facilitated by reprocessing.
Most of Australia is covered by BMR I: 250 000 aeromag-
netic maps which were flown at 1.5 km line spacing and
contoured at 25 or 50 nT intervals, but using only every tenth
data point. Jones used every data point to produce
I: 100 000 maps contoured at 5 nT intervals, and a similar
approach is also being made now by the BMR.
Companies are also flying additional, more detailed aero-
magnetic surveys in their exploration areas since 1.5 km line
spacing is too broad. Smith (1983) shows an example from
Victoria, in which additional magnetic data revealed palae-
odrainage patterns prospective for gold. Line spacing of 250
m enabled contouring at 2 nT. Detailed low-level surveys in
which flight-line spacing may be as little as 100 m and
detector height at 30 m are being used in gold exploration in
some areas of Australia (thanks to the largely flat terrain).
This technique was developed during the nickel boom in
Western Australia for rapid coverage of large areas of
ultramafic rocks beneath magnetically "noisy" laterites. The
use of color displays or shading is preferable to contours and
stacked profiles (Tucker et aI., 1985).
Rock relationships are best appreciated by using small-
scale magnetic maps with the same scale geologic maps plus
magnetic profiles (Boyd, 1984). A scale of 1:25 000 or
greater is necessary for detailed work. The study of major
lineaments from magnetic and geologic maps and also from
Landsat images is now common (see below).
In Canada, horizontal magnetic gradiometry is used to add
further detail and reduce the required line spacing (Hood et
al., 1982). This is also being tried in Finland (Korhonen,
1983) and lately in Australia, in the Kalgoorlie area. These
gradiometer measurements can be converted to vertical
gradients (if detailed enough) and can also eliminate time
variations of the field and regional gradients. They sharpen
anomalies but emphasize shallow sources, a disadvantage in
many Australian regions.
Gravity
Gravity surveys are not as common in gold exploration as
are magnetic surveys and are about three times as expen-
sive. However, according to Roux (1970) and Corner (1985),
gravity (as well as magnetic) work has played an important
role in the discovery of new mines in the Witwatersrand
basin. Examples are the Free State gold field, extensions of
the West Wits Line and the Klerksdorp gold field and, as
well, the Evander gold field in the Kinross basin (Roux,
1970: Durrheim et aI., 1986).
137
Satellite imagery and airborne scanning
Satellite imagery is a comparatively new technique assist-
ing the resurgence of the gold industry. The five Landsat
satellites have proven the most successful in providing
detailed information for mapping (Longman, 1984), while
NOAA satellites with lower resolution have provided data
for regional appraisal. More recently, radar mapping from
satellites has been used for structural mapping.
Landsat satellites include multispectral scanners with res-
olutions of 80 m in four wavelength bands. Landsat I, 2, and
3 also operated video cameras and Landsat 3, a thermal
infrared channel (Longman, 1984). Landsats 4 and 5 intro-
duced the Thematic Mapper which had six sensors with
narrower ranges and 30 m resolution and one thermal
infrared channel. This improved the definition in the data.
The Thematic Mapper (TM) in Landsat 5, launched in 1984,
has potential for use in geoscience, but only experimental
TM data have so far been recorded in Australia.
Visual interpretation of the satellite data includes the use
of computer-processed color-composite images on a scale of
I: 50 000. The multispectral scanner (MSS) band 6 (near
infrared) is particularly useful in some lateritic areas of
Australia according to Longman (1984) and shows the great-
est variation with minor compositional changes. By combin-
ing MSS bands 4, 5 and 7, color composites can be made (in
false color), which are useful for general mapping purposes
and give better detail than single-band images. For maximum
information, each area should be processed independently.
Images produced by enhancement techniques developed for
agriculture or range management tend to suppress geologic
information (Longman, 1984), particularly in areas of high
laterite content. However, specialized processing can en-
hance chemical and textural variations in laterite, alteration
zones can be defined and lineament and fracture maps can be
produced (see also Spray and Burgess 1985).
Remotely sensed infrared thermal data have been received
from the NOAA-AVHRR satellite series, which are near-
polar-orbiting spacecraft at an altitude of 870--930 km. The
AVHRR is a five-channel multispectral scanner with a
ground resolution of 1.1-5.5 km (Wilson, 1986).
Research into the use of scanners in aircraft is being
carried out by the CSIRO Division of Mineral Research.
Geoscan is operating the Carr Boyd/CSIRO designed 15-
channel multispectral scanner. The scanner has shown up
areas of high clay and carbonates produced by weathering
and/or hydrothermal alteration (Honey and Daniels, 1985).
The device in the aircraft scans a 4 km wide swath from an
altitude of 2000 m, and data are processed for each 10m 2 .
Research work is also being carried out in the USA/
Australia Joint Scanner Project, ajoint project by Australian
groups (e.g., CSIRO and BMR) and the US space agency
NASA (Bureau of Mineral Resources, 1986). In 1985, joint
flights were made simultaneously, using the NASA and
CSIRO aircraft and instrumentation.
Seismic and radar reflection methods
Seismic reflection surveys have been used in the Witwa-
tersrand basin in South Africa to map deep horizons associ-
ated with gold. Encouraging results have been obtained,
especially in resolving structures (Campbell and Peace,
 138 Doyle
1984). Seismic refraction surveys have been conducted in a
few areas of North America and Australia to map buried
river channels for placer gold deposits. More recently seis-
mic reflection and even radar techniques have been at-
tempted (e.g., Davis et al., 1984). Radar transmitter anten-
nas were placed on the ground for maximum ground
coupling, and penetration of up to 30 m through sands and
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gravel was achieved.

High-resolution seismic reflection surveys for gold have
recently been tested in the Telfer area of Western Australia
with some success (S. Tobin, Pers. comm.). The aims were
to delineate faults as well as old river channels.

Electrical methods

Resistivity.-It is well known that areas of low resistivity

are usually produced by sulfides, graphite, and salty over-
burden. According to Gaucher (1979), occasionally small
sulfide or even graphite concentrations correspond to very
valuable gold or uranium orebodies, such as the Detour Lake
gold discovery in Ontario. On the other hand, a high-
resistivity zone may be a distinctive signature of a near-
surface zone of silicification associated with gold concentra-
tions (Limion and Downing, 1984). The resistivity map is
then a guide to alteration-silicification patterns and the
high-resistivity areas to the near-surface drill targets, at least
in North America. An example is the discovery of the
Broulan-Porcupine prospect in Ontario (Kelly, 1957). The
orebodies were found in the silicified zones underlying the
high-resistivity bands, but in Australia such silicification
may be rare (Groves et al., 1984).
Resistivity surveys were used by the Western Mining
Corporation (1979, Gold, a review of the technology of
exploration and mining) in Victoria to determine basalt
thicknesses overlying prospective ground. Resistivity mea-
surements are usually made today as part of induced-
polarization surveys.
Scintrex developed the magnetometric resistivity method
(MMR) specifically for areas of conductive overburden
common in Australia (Seigel and Howland-Rose, 1983). This
technique has been used in gold exploration. It is rapid and
o, 200
I
400
, 600m
,
does not respond to uniform horizontal overburden layers
but does detect horizontal changes in resistivity (Figure 4).

~'+'--XB drill sections Induced polarization.-The serious application of IP sur-

~~lSA1-r--Ore body
CORK TREE WELL BLOCK
MMR
FIG. 4. Magnetometric resistivity (MMR) contours (in %) at
Cork Tree Well, north of Laverton, Western Australia. The
data reveal a zone of moderate conductivity. Detailed anal-
yses of MIP data showed chargeable material slightly more
resistive than adjacent rocks (after Howland-Rose, 1984). A
second zone can be seen displaced to the north and east of
the Cork Tree Well zone but has not yet been drilled.
veys to gold exploration has only occurred in recent years.
Even in the richest ore zone, the gold concentrations them-
selves are too small to make a significant contribution to the
IP effect. However, many, perhaps most, ofthe gold depos-
its discovered in Canada in recent years are associated with
metallic sulfides (e.g. the Hemlo area of Ontario and Val
d'Or in Quebec; Hallof and Yamashita, 1984). It is also true
for many of the more traditional types of gold deposits in
Canada, such as those associated with quartz veins. How-
ever, the amount of gold present does not appear to be
related to the sulfide concentration in the zone (Hallof and
Yamashita, 1984). The same probably applies to many
Australian deposits.
The sulfides are often pyrite or arsenopyrite and occasion-
ally chalcopyrite. Pyrite occurs in 82% of the deposits in the
 Geophysical Exploration for Gold-A Review
Abitibi belt of Quebec (Seigel et al., 1984). However, targets
are usually small and responses are of low amplitude.
Hallof and Yamashita (1984) conclude that, with very few
exceptions, zones of weak to moderate concentrations of
sulfides, that could contain gold, can be expected to have a
significant true IP effect. However, there is no way to
determine which of several narrow zones of weak pyritiza-
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tion is of the greatest economic importance. They must all be
tested with detailed measurements. If there is intense silici-
fication which has eliminated all porosity, there will be no
true IP effect but a higher resistivity.
Both time-domain and frequency IP (plus phase) measure-
ments are used, typically with dipole-dipole, pole-dipole, or
gradient arrays when there is moderately conductive over-
burden. Dipole-dipole arrays are recommended because the
effects of a small local source are larger than for other
configurations (Hallof and Yamashita, 1984). Short receiver-
electrode spacings are necessary.
Spectral IP measurements may have an advantage in
making possible further discrimination between sources us-
ing the values of the time constants. Spectral IP involves
amplitude and phase measurements at six or more frequen-
cies. An interesting finding at the Hemlo mine in Canada was
that the time constant in spectral IP data appeared to be
larger where gold values occur, indicating larger grain sizes
for pyrite with gold present (Hallof and Yamashita, 1984).
Webster and Johnson (1985) used time-constant mapping
over a variety of Canadian volcanogenic deposits to reveal
fine-grained disseminated sulfides.
The magnetic induced-polarization method (MIP) of Scin-
trex has been used in Australia, South Africa, and China to
reduce the effect of conductive overburden (A. W. Howland-
Rose, Pers. comm.). The rapid reconnaissance MIP version
(RRMIP) is used for reconnaissance with large current-
electrode separation of about 1 km. Where interesting con-
trasts in IP responses are located, detailed arrays are used.
Electromagnetic methods.-EM methods are used where
massive sulfides, conductive faults or fracture zones, or
more resistive silicified rocks may be associated with gold.
Some Archaean deposits in Australia are associated with
semimassive to massive sulfides, and in these cases EM
surveys are an obvious choice (e.g., Lindeman, 1984).
At Wiluna (WA), early EM surveys were carried out by
the North Australia Survey (AGGSNA) in 1937. Frequencies
of 300 and 600 Hz were used with long grounded transmitter
cables (Blazey et al., 1940). This pioneering work helped to
locate important fault zones offsetting volcanics related to
gold mineralization. The VLF method is quite commonly
used in North America as a rapid conductivity mapper but
has not been used much in Australia because of the conduc-
tive overburden and comparatively high frequency of VLF
systems (20 kHz) and so small depth of penetration.
In Australia, in the areas of low surface resistivity, the
magnetometric resistivity method (MMR) is better than VLF
and is also rapid. In such areas there is no airborne EM
technique which is generally effective. In ground EM, tran-
sient EM methods (TEM) have largely replaced other EM
methods (Doyle and Lindeman, 1985).
139
Downhole and in-mine geophysics
Geophysical loggingof deep, small-diameter diamond-drill
boreholes has been used in South Africa and Canada to
evaluate the intersections of mineralized horizons. For ex-
ample Simpson (1951) used radiometric logging regionally to
correlate and locate auriferous and uraniferous conglomer-
ates of the Witwatersrand System in the Orange Free State
gold fields.
Gamma-ray spectrometry, IP, and resistivity downhole
methods have provided information on the changes in phys-
ical properties of rock near drillholes in the Timmins area of
Canada (Mwenfumbo et al., 1983).
Sobolev et al. (1984), of the Soviet Union, have experi-
mented with piezoelectric and other mechanoelectrical ef-
fects for in-mine surveys. Tests were carried out at the Giant
Yellowknife Mine in Canada in 1983, Where ore-grade gold
zones occur within large quartz lenses in a shear zone in
Archaean volcanics. Strong signals were produced in the 8
kHz range, similar to piezoelectric signals produced in the
laboratory from quartz samples.
Scheelite luminescence
A number of gold deposits are associated with scheelite.
Examples are in the Abitibi belt of the Superior Province,
the Kolar gold fields of India, and the greenstone belts of
Zimbabwe and Western Australia (Boyle, 1979). Scheelite
can be a difficult mineral to distinguish by eye so that its
fluorescence may be the only simple test.
Scintrex (Linford, 1983; Seigel and Robbins, 1983) has
developed Luminex instruments which detect luminescence
under daylight conditions. The method is based on the
time-resolved luminescence (emission life-time) produced by
an ultraviolet source and can detect a group of minerals
including scheelite. Airborne reconnaissance is claimed to
be possible using a laser-based remote-sensing system (Sei-
gel et al., 1984).
GEOLOGIC SETTINGS
Archaean regions
Virtually all of the mines of the Superior Province of
Canada lie within greenstone belts. Greenstone belts appear
to be magnetite-rich in some cases, but deficient in others
(Grant 1984). In Canada, greenstone belts and former green-
stone belts can usually be recognized in large-scale aeromag-
netic survey data by their overall deficiency compared to
normal granitoid rocks (Grant, 1984).
In the Abitibi greenstone belt, the relation of gold to
magnetic anomalies has been described by Hood et al.
(1982). The principal gold deposits occur in limited areas of
volcanic complexes, and most of these areas are close to the
edges of more magnetic portions of the greenstone belts. In
the Val d'Or gold field of Canada, many of the mines lie near
a marked change in magnetic intensity, possibly representing
a contact between mafic and felsic rocks. According to
Koulomzine and Brossard (1957), the East Sullivan orebody
was discovered by a magnetometer survey in an area totally
devoid of outcrop. Even more important was the contribu-
tion of geophysics to the understanding of the geologic
structure masked almost entirely by glacial overburden
 140 Doyle

(Koulomzine and Brossard, 1947), for example, the mapping

WILUNA - INTERPRETED GEOLOGY of batholiths associated with ore. In some localities, small
isolated magnetic features (e.g., from granitoid stocks) are
~ Mafic flows, unit 1
associated with gold, and detailed magnetic traverses are

I
N
B
W
~
....
Mafic flows, unit 2

Mafic flows, unit 3

Microgabbro
employed. A cautionary note is that only 9% of discoveries
in the Abitibi belt can be credited to geophysics (Boniwell,
1983).
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..... Magnetic zones in unit 1 Very old faults which may have important economic
significance are sometimes easier to recognize from aero-
1/ Faults
magnetic maps than on the ground. An example is the
!! Main shaft Porcupine-Quetiev fault system in Ontario and Quebec,
(J Open cuts
which extends over at least 400 km and appears to control a
mineralized belt with gold and base-metal mines (Grant,
o SOOm
, ! I ! , r

--,
(
1984). Faults oblique to strike can be recognized where they
displace magnetic layers, perhaps as narrow zones less
i magnetic than surrounding rocks (Boyd, 1984). Graded
i
\\ intensity maps or color displays show up such features well.
'\ In Ghana, West Africa, gold quartz veins at the Ashante
~
mine occur in greenstones, the one prominent magnetic rock
( group within the Upper Birrimmian (Cudjoe, 1970). The
\ mineralization occurs where the magnetic character of the
greenstone belt changes and where it is cut by other struc-
\ tures.
In Western Australia, many of the Archaean gold deposits
are associated with banded iron formations (BIF) or with
basic or ultrabasic rocks which are magnetic. Of the ten
largest deposits in WA listed by Woodall (1979), only one is
not clearly associated in some way with a magnetic anomaly
on BMR 1:250 000 aeromagnetic maps (Boyd, 1984).
At Wiluna (WA), the pioneering surveys of the North
Australia survey (Richardson et aI., 1942) and the more
recent work described by Coggon (1984) show that the
FIG. 5. Rocks in the vicinity of the Wiluna Gold mine consist orebody occurs in contact with mafic flows and in a cross-
of a series of basic lava flows (units 1, 2 and 3), intruded by cutting fault (Figure 5). At the Sons of Gwalia Mine (WA)
a microgabbro sill. The three major ore bodies that were gold occurs in a schist zone with an adjacent magnetic
mined occur along shear zones of three north-south trending horizon of the same strike. At Mt. Magnet (WA) gold in BIF
faults. Parts of flow unit 1 are magnetic and they indicated and chert is also at fault intersections (Groves et aI., 1984).
continuation to the southeast with faulting. Targets for gold
mineralization lie on these faults (after Coggon, 1984). The exploration by the Western Mining Corporation
(WMC) in the Mt. Magnet greenstone belt of the Murchison
gold field led to the discovery of several new gold deposits
WATER TANK HILL W.A.
50:~~R:::1l0L
TS 76,400 N PROFILE
including Water Tank Hill and Brittania Well (Lindeman,
4m sec
, 200 metres
1984). The Water Tank Hill body is associated with sulfides
ell)
25 ~ 6m.sec at depth. The host bed is a 20 m thick iron formation.
TRANSIENT
_
JI\~ 8m ••• c ELECTRO MAGNETICS
Aeromagnetic data, followed at a later stage by detailed
NOISE~ (100m loops-50m overlaps) ground and aeromagnetic work, were used to predict strike
o MM068 MM092 MMD55
extensions, thicknesses and dip of the BIF. Transient EM
GEOLOGY (TEM) ground surveys indicated the presence of the sulfides
II > 10% SULPHIDE (Figure 6).
1< 49/t Au Ore at the Hill 50 mine contains both massive pyrrhotite
and narrow layers of sulfide within an iron formation. TEM
INDUCED POLARISATION surveys were used to locate sulfides under conductive sur-
{'>(Om)
face rocks, and IP was used in the detailed stage. The IP
showed anomalies plus an apparent resistivity high, perhaps
related to the banded iron formation. The third TEM anom-
F.E.% aly drilled was the discovery (Lindeman, 1984).
Daytime reflected imagery and night-time thermal imagery
FIG. 6. Transient EM and IP data from Water Tank Hill, Mt can highlight sharp lineaments in the Eastern gold fields of
Magnet area, Western Australia. The apparent resistivity the Yilgarn Block of WA which have strong affiliations with
high appears to relate to banded iron formations (BIF). The
discovery hole MMD 55 was drilled to test the TEM and IP the main gold producing areas. For example, many of the
anomalies. The intersection was 35.6 m at 7.0 g/t of gold dominant dikes in the Yilgarn Block can be traced by their
associated with iron sulfides in BIF (after Lindeman, 1984). airborne magnetic and remote-sensing thermal responses.
 Geophysical Exploration for Gold-A Review 141

MAX MIN EM
1777 Hz
IP,'--'
.--' __ \
/'-+20%
~
op·- .-- '\ ' - 0

RESISTIVITY
(ohm-metres)

CHARGEABILITY '01
~:l~~<---->~t:::
.Ii~ Q.. , ..,,---- -
f~
s:
<il 1000 [

'" E,
Q)

;;,
2°1
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(ms l .r ..•• _...•....•. <1> E

10~ ~~ ... , ...... a:'c
TOTAL .... OJ. J:.I·~
......:-..:....·
•• -e..
.~ ..
'--_----.::..::. ~ a
FIEL 0 51500 • '-'-,
I •
MAGNETICS ~".501
(Gammas)
B
f~<il 1000[ \ LII1e

:.

'" E,
;;,
<1> E
a:,C
Q)

\L
:
Line E
......--.........
~ a
50
I

FIG. 7. A composite section through a zone in the Timmins

area of Ontario, Canada, showing the relationship of the
geophysical surveys to the geology, which includes gold-
bearing carbonatized volcanic rocks. Graphite rocks corre- <il
"<1>
.~=
1000[
spond to chargeability highs and are magnetically subdued. t; ~
These could be confused with carbonatized zones, but for ~
a:,C
E .:, .
the fact that graphites are associated with resistivity lows ~ a /:
and EM conductors (after Middleton et aI., 1984). Bounds of the Primary Mineralized Zone

a
1
100
I
200 300 metres
! !

They have a spatial association with some of the known gold FIG. 8. VLF electromagnetic resistivity profiles at the Haile
gold mine, South Carolina. The resistivity highs were suffi-
and base-metal sulfide deposits and can be traced for 100- ciently distinctive to map extensions of the mineralized
500 km or more (Tucker and Wilson, 1986), a greater zones along strike (after Wynn and Luce, 1984).
distance than geologically mapped.
The WMC has used the gravity method to help trace the
Golden Mile dolerite under sediment in the Kalgooriie area, schist belt of mafic schists metamorphosed to amphibolite
and also to trace felsic intrusives near Norseman that were facies (Menon and Bose, 1981).
expected to be less dense than the enclosing basalts (Cog- RRMIP has been used extensively in the Western Austra-
gon, 1984). One company found the gravity method to be lian gold fields to map beneath laterites, salt lakes, sand, etc.
useful, during gold exploration in the Yilgarn, for recogniz- (Howland-Rose, 1984). Where interesting contrasts in IP
ing cross-fold structures. response are located, detailed arrays are used.
In 1948, Urquhart (1956) of the BMR began gravity and In Canada geophysics and geochemistry have been used to
seismic refraction surveys near Kalgoorlie in an attempt to delineate stratigraphy, structures, and carbonate alteration
map buried channels on behalf of the WMC; however, the known to have gold associations. Time-domain IP and
gravity data were not very useful. Two possible buried magnetic surveys were used by Middleton et al. (1984) in the
channels were revealed at depths down to over 100 m, but Timmins area of Ontario to map zones of high chargeability
they may have been only deeply weathered sections. and carbonate alteration (Figure 7). Scott (1984) has even
An example of the use of resistivity is the location of a carried out waterborne IP surveys over Canadian lakes.
quartz reef under recent sediments by the WMC (1979) near Gold-bearing carbonate alteration zones were outlined by
Norseman (WA), using a gradient array. This revealed a the mise-a-la-masse borehole method in the Timmins area
linear high-resistivity feature. IP has been used by the WMC (Mwenifumbo, 1984). The gold was in quartz veins within
(1979, Gold; a review of the technology of exploration and structurally controlled alteration zones in basalt with dis-
mining) to map a marker horizon of graphite sediments at seminated pyrite.
Reedy's Prospect (WA), and also to map sulfides in the Beria Occasionally small sulfide concentrations or even graph-
area and at Water Tank Hill, Mt. Magnet (Lindeman, 1984) ites correspond to valuable gold or uranium orebodies (Gau-
(Figure 6). IP and magnetic surveys were used for the cher, 1979). Isolated anomalies may be targets for drilling
Gladiator lode northwest of Laverton (WA). This is a quartz whereas the extended conductors are often graphite layers,
reef in a 25 m wide structure in banded iron formation and especially in the Precambrian shield of Canada.
quartz porphyry. EM methods have been popular in Canada in the search
In India the Geological Survey has used IP to delineate for massive sulfides and now are being used for gold,
sulfide-bearing lodes in the Kolar gold field which is within a although of course this is a more subtle problem. An
 142
example is the Detour Lake deposit in Ontario, on the edge
of the Abitibi belt, which was a purely geophysical discovery
in an area mapped by geologists as granitoid (Jackson, 1984
Amoco Pet. Canada report). INPUT and aeromagnetic sur-
veys were used in this area, first in a search for massive
sulfides. The gold is associated with sulfides which give a
response to INPUT (airborne TEM), ground EM, magnetic,
Downloaded 08/22/14 to 134.148.29.34. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
and IP surveys. The gold occurred with pyrrhotite in arkosic
and graphitic sediments with occasional interbedded ultra-
mafic flows and tuffs. The main zone of mineralization is
centered in the cherty tuff.
VLF surveys are rapid and economical for reconnaissance
and can be carried out in conjunction with an aeromagnetic
survey. In North America the VLF-EM method is flown as
a conductivity mapping tool and used to locate sulfide bodies
or, by contrast, higher resistivity zones which may be
signatures of near-surface zones of silicification associated
with gold (Limion and Downing, 1984). Another example is
the Haile mine of South Carolina (Figure 8). VLF data
showed high-resistivity zones correlating with siliceous host
rocks which were metasediments. Magnetic data also clearly
identified mafic and ultramafic dikes which cut the metased-
iments. IP was also useful to identify the pyrite content
(Wynn and Luce, 1984).
Some examples from Palaeozoic fold belts
In the Lachlan fold belt of eastern Australia, gravity and
magnetic data have been useful in mapping regional struc-
ture, thanks to the high physical contrasts between shallow
volcanic units and deeper basement sediments and granites
(Tenison-Woods and Webster, 1985). They claim that copper
and gold mineralizing systems can be detected, because of
magnetite depletion.
In central-western NSW, gold-copper porphyry deposits
occur in association with andesitic volcanics. Regional aer-
omagnetic interpretation suggests the presence of a further
belt of prospective andesites (Jones, 1983). On the other
hand, ground magnetic lows indicate the presence of altered,
mineralized porphyries.
In the Drake mineral field in northeastern NSW, covered
by the Drake volcanics, the mapping of subtle IP effects
showed that the gold-silver mineralization can be outlined by
its association with hydrothermal alteration. The IP and
resistivity study effectively resulted in alteration mapping,
whereas geologic mapping mainly outlined lithologic and
textural boundaries (Staltari, 1985). At Gidginbung (NSW)
mineralization associated with sulfides is capped by a highly
silicified zone of alteration making IP difficult to measure
(Webster, 1985). At Cripple Creek, Colorado, negative grav-
ity and magnetic anomalies occurred over a Tertiary vol-
canic subsidence basin within Precambrian granite and
gneiss (Kleinkopf et al., 1970).
Archaean-Proterozoic sedimentary basins
The distribution of gold fields in the Witwatersrand basin
of South Africa is related to the pattern of structural depres-
sions and highs in the form of domes of basement granite.
The gold fields are located in the depressions between domes
and have the forms of fluvial fans or fan deltas (Campbell and
Peace, 1984). The main features of the basin are clearly
Doyle
mapped by the gravity and magnetic fields along the entire
perimeter (Corner et aI., 1986a, b).
A famous example of the use of magnetic surveys is that of
the young German, Rudolph Krahmann (1936), who went to
South Africa in 1930. He had worked for Elbof Geophysical
Prospecting in several countries, including Australia, and
had introduced the method to that company. Krahmann
noticed highly magnetic shales occurring several hundred
meters below reef conglomerates of the Witwatersrand dur-
ing an outing and suggested to the New Consolidated Gold
Fields Co. that the new Askania magnetometer should be
tried in the search for extensions of the gold reef (Cart-
wright, 1967; Roux, 1970; van Zijl, 1986). He was given
several months trial, and found the bed of Lower Witwa-
tersrand magnetic shales and some other beds to be excellent
markers that could be detected at depths of 1000 m.
The ferruginous shales were traced for more than 50 km
along the strike direction in the Far West Rand and so
indicated likely extension of the auriferous conglomerate
beneath hundreds of meters of overburden, mainly dolomite.
The horizontal separation of three prominent anomalies
allowed calculation of the dip of the beds (Figure 2). Drilling
proved the discovery (van Zijl, 1986). Magnetic surveys
were also carried out in the East Rand and into the Orange
Free State. Aeromagnetic surveys have been efficient in the
Evander gold field area in reducing the magnetic 'noise' from
the surface dolerites of the Karoo system and again in
identifying the Lower Witwatersrand rocks (Roux, 1970;van
Zijl, 1986).
The gravity data have been used to determine the thick-
ness of Ventersdorp lavas above the deposits and locate the
less dense Upper Witwatersrand rocks where the lavas are
thin (Figure 3). Density contrasts between the light granites
under the basin, the heavy Lower Witwatersrand, the less
dense Upper Witwatersrand, and the dense lavas on top, all
of great thickness, cause substantial gravity anomalies
(Roux, 1970; Corner et al., 1986a; Durrheim et al., 1986).
The reefs of the Witwatersrand basin are typically found at
depths of 500-4000m, where the deepest mines now operate.
Today's search targets comprise deeply buried basins and
structurally complex basin-edge areas, requiring more de-
tailed information than the traditional magnetic and gravity
data can provide (Campbell and Peace, 1984); a situation
akin to the search for hydrocarbons.
Experimental seismic surveys for mapping the Witwa-
tersrand basin had been conducted by the Union Corpora-
tion in the 1950s, but proved of limited use because of poor
resolution (Campbell and Peace, 1984). Since then, of
course, advances in equipment and digital processing have
greatly improved seismic records.
In 1982 and 1983, several wells in the West Rand and
Orange Free State were geophysically logged, producing
plots of sonic velocity and density. Reflection coefficients
were calculated and synthetic seismograms produced. In
1983, seismic reflection tests were made, using a 96-channel
Vibroseis system. Vertical seismic profiles were also mea-
sured in selected boreholes (Campbell and Peace, 1984).
Despite relatively unpromising reflection coefficients found
in the original logging, good reflections were recorded and
major geologic features identified. The vertical seismic pro-
 Geophysical Exploration for Gold-A Review 143
WEST with some success (S. Tobin, Pers. comm.). The aims are to
/'
,.-.-........
'<, RESIDUAL GRAVITY PROFILE,.,- . ........-
- EAST
delineate faults and old river channels.
ro
DOl 'y ./
0'
E
04

08
,

"'._./',.,- /'

1
Placer deposits

In the search for alluvial gold in interior Alaska, Joesting

(1945) found the magnetic method of value for mapping
28 \ ...~,,, many of the gold placer deposits through association with
Downloaded 08/22/14 to 134.148.29.34. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/

'\~ magnetite. Rayner (1940) had some success near Gulgong

24
\~ (NSW) using ground magnetic surveys to map basalt infillsin
/, "<, REGIONAL GRAVITY TREND
Tertiary gold-bearing river systems covered by alluvium.
=: 20 Later Whiteley (1971) used the gravity and magnetic meth-
ro

'"
0' GRAVITY PROFILE \ \ -:
E ods in the Gulgong area. Some broad depressions were
16 indicated, thanks to a density contrast of 0.5 with bedrock.
.
12 " -. "" "" " _._.-.~
The Imperial Geophysical Experimental Survey (IGES) had
also attempted to follow the deep leads (channels) at Gul-

E
08

14SOl
BROWN SHAFT

FOREST SERVIC
E ROAD
'" gong, using a torsion balance, seismic refraction, and fan
shooting (Broughton Edge and Laby, 1931).
In California, Chapman et al. (1980) used gravity and
.- seismic refraction work to map partially buried channels of
c 1850-2000mp CLAY & ._
0 BASEMENT GRAV~l. J '-;~SEMENT SURFACE early Tertiary age (Figure 9). Here, also, there was a density
1400 . -.. ' " FR~~AFT
+-
ro
>
QJ I
-
.-....... ".... ..",
•_ FROM SEISMIC DATA
contrast of 0.5 between basement rocks and, in this case,
BASEMENT ROCKS auriferous gravels in channels. The gravity and refraction
W

1350 l 2800-5500mpl
100

(V.rt. .... g. _3)

data proved useful, but magnetic work did not.
Radar techniques plus seismic refraction and reflection
FIG. 9. Gravity profile and seismic refraction data from the methods have been used to map old river channels for placer
Port Wine gold mining district of the Sierra Nevada, Cali- gold deposits (Davis et aI., 1984). Penetration of up to 30 m
fornia, showing a buried Tertiary channel (after Chapman et through sands and gravel was achieved with the radar, with
al., 1980). a spatial resolution of about 1 m. The radar provided
excellent resolution of the bedrock surface with continuous
reflections, except when the two-way traveltime was over
0.5 ms. Seismic refraction surveying was also used to map
files proved invaluable for correct identification of specific the bedrock but with substantially less resolution, and seis-
reflections. mic reflection prospecting was attempted where bedrock
Radiometric logging was used by Simpson (1951) region- exceeded 25-30 m. A shotgun slug in a 40 em deep hole
ally to correlate and locate auriferous and uraniferous con- provided a satisfactory high-frequency source. In Canada,
glomerates of the Witwatersrand System in the Orange Free where many deposits may occur under the numerous lakes,
State gold field. high-resolution marine seismic surveys have been used to
Besides the palaeoplacer deposits of the Witwatersrand map lake-bottom topography and define shear zones where
conglomerates (locally called banket), other examples are deposits may occur (Goldak, 1984).
the Tarkwa conglomerate in Ghana and the Jacobina con- The NOAA-AVHRR day and night imagery has assisted in
glomerate of Brazil (Boyd, 1984). the reconstruction of structurally controlled palaeodrainage
networks within the Cenozoic sediments of Australia's cen-
Proterozoic deposits tral and western sedimentary basins (Wilson, 1986). These
palaeodrainage systems have potential as sources of placer
The deposits at Tennant Creek in the Northern Territory
deposits, especially when associated with mineralized Pre-
occur in Proterozoic turbidites and are associated with
cambrian provinces.
hematite and magnetite (Daly, 1957). These orebodies at
Tennant Creek are of high grade, but limited extent. For the Epithermal deposits
past 50 years magnetic methods have been used sucessfully;
ground and airborne magnetic surveys located deposits at Middleton and Campbell (1979) described the application
much greater depths than had been proven by the existing of geophysical and geochemical methods in Nicaragua for
underground workings (Thyer, 1979). A drillhole magnetom- outlining gold-bearing epithermal veins and a low-grade
eter system comprising three orthogonal fluxgate magnetom- disseminated sulfide gold-zinc deposit. Time-domain IP and
eters has recently been developed to search for gold-bearing magnetic surveys outlined the gold-bearing disseminated
magnetite bodies at Tennant Creek (Hoschke, 1985). pyrite-sphalerite in Tertiary volcanic breccia altered by deep
At Telfer in Western Australia, gold occurs in Proterozoic tropical weathering. The IP data defined an extensive dis-
pyritic siltstones (Groves et al., 1984), but the magnetic and seminated pyrite-kaolinite-sericite alteration zone, also
gravity methods were not very useful there, because of the shown by a geochemical anomaly. Gold patterns were
lack of sufficient contrast in the rock properties in the mine controlled by the lithology and the alteration zone and
area (S. Tobin, Pers. comm.). High-resolution seismic re- correlated best with the IP, resistivity, and magnetic anom-
flection surveys have recently been tested in the Telfer area alies. Areas of unaltered basalt were defined magnetically
 144 Doyle
and also showed as high resistivity (Middleton and Camp-
bell, 1979). Most of the main deposit had low resistivity (less
than 100 n·m). VLF-EM surveys were also used to map
fractures and alteration zones. Tropical weathering appeared
to enhance the conductivity of the fracture.
According to Reid and Hedenquist (1984), patterns of low
magnetic signature were the guide to initial drilling and
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discovery of the epithermal Hishikari deposit in Japan,
based on a geophysical model developed from the nearby
Kushikino mine.
DISCUSSION
Exploration for gold is one of the most difficult applica-
tions of geophysics. Much depends on the nature of the host
rocks and structures as to whether geophysical methods will
be successful, and their main use will probably always be in
improving geologic mapping and detection of associated
rocks, faulting, alteration, old river channels, etc. Shaded or
colored detailed magnetic maps have become more common
as has the use of induced polarization to locate associated
sulfides.
More recent developments have been the application of
modern seismic reflection methods where the geology is
reasonably simple, satellite remote sensing, radar for very
shallow "leads", and even piezoelectric effects for location
of quartz veins and pegmatites in mines.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the geological advice of
Associate Professor D. I. Groves, University of Western
Australia, and thank Dr. B. Corner, University of Witwa-
tersrand, and Dr. J. S. V. Van Zijl, NPRL Pretoria, for
sending me copies of their papers.
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In the last several years, geophysical methods have be-
come important as indirect indicators in gold exploration,
particularly for mapping and structural information. Many
previously unrecognized geologic features have become
apparent with modern image processing techniques, which
greatly enhance the detail recognized in high resolution
magnetic data (Isles et al., 1988).
In Nevada aeromagnetic and gravity regional surveys
have been employed to outline the margins of granite plutons
and buried faults associated with disseminated gold (Grauch,
1988). Many deposits of the Carlin trend in north-central
Nevada lie near the eastern edge of a granite pluton that is
mostly concealed.
Investigations by Eisenlohr et al. (1989) have shown that
 146
many of the largest Archaean gold deposits in Western
Australia are spatially related to the regional lineaments,
although in detail they are sited in subsidiary brittle-ductile
and brittle faults (second-order structures.) In such areas,
aeromagnetic surveys are particularly useful in aiding struc-
tural interpretation of poorly exposed portions.
In remote sensing, sensors are being designed for mineral
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exploration, whereas the Landsat Multispectral Scanner
(MSS) is a vegetation sensor operating at frequencies where
there is least mineralogic information (Huntington & Green,
1988). Some sensors, such as SPOT, are improving resolu-
tion, approaching that of aerial photography. Short-wave
infrared spectra for minerals that occur in alteration zones
surrounding mineralization are being studied by the Austra-
lian CSIRO with a view to producing expert systems for
aerial surveys.
Aeromagnetic and Landsat data, and also total count and
potassium scintillometer data, proved very useful at the
Boddington mine in Western Australia for mapping and
structure. This mine, which is now Australia's largest pro-
ducer of gold, is in a lateritic weathering profile. Cunneen
and Wellman (1987) also report high potassium counts asso-
ciated with mineralization in the eastern goldfields of West-
ern Australia.
Schwartz and Wright (1988) have carried out model stud-
ies for river sediments with magnetite concentrations which
could contain the highest concentrations of heavy minerals
such as gold. Relatively small (thickness 1 m, width 10 m)
plate-shaped volumes with magnetite contents of 0.5% can
be detected by detailed surveys with a sensitive (0.1 nT)
magnetometer. In New Zealand Locke and de Ronde (1987)
used gravity data to delineate gold-bearing hydrothermally
altered rocks of low density.
Macnae and Irvine (1989) have used the UTEM system as
an alternative method for mapping resistivity. Combined
measurements of electric and magnetic data from an induc-
tive source (ungrounded loop, with a grounded electric
Doyle
receiver) can explore both resistive and conductive features,
plus IP.
Johnson et al. (1989) claim that the use of spectral IP (time
domain) was useful where conventional IP response was
weak, providing better quality and better diagnostic data.
da Costa and Byron (1988) used the NW Cape VLF
transmitter in Western Australia to detect conductors in the
Pietersburg Greenstone Belt of South Africa.
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