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GTRII]IGIIION GOUN$ TOR

IilffitR OPTRRTIIN$
 ECOLOGY
The study of the
interrelationships and
interdependencies of organisms
with their environment. lt ls also
known as the SCTENCE OF
LIVING ENVIRONMENT.
.....ecology is just the study of the
inclusive nature society dealing with
interactions of organisms with other
organisms and with the physica!.
e nvi ronme nt. Specifically speakin g,
ecology talks about the processes
that determines the distribution and
abundance of organisms and the
interrelationships among them. ln
addition, transport and
transformation of energy and mafter
in the biosphere.

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATIOBI OF EGOLOGY

2'POPULATION - group of individuars of the
same species in a cetain
area at a given time.

3.COI\4MUNlry - group of populations occupying

a given area (e.g. the
population of a mirkfish together with
otner gioupi of fish found in t]he
pond make up a community.)

4.ECOSYSTEM - interrelation between the organism and its

environment

The forest with ail riving organisms in it

- rike the birds, trees, flowers,
insects, and many more and how they
- are affected by the physicai'
environment - like the soil, moisture, temperature,
lighi and others
comprise an ecosystem.
 LAWS OF ECOLOGY
LAWS OF ECOLOGY
3. CONSUI{PTION ItiUST NOT EXGEED PRoDUcTIoN
2.EVERYTHING IS GONNECTED
TO EVERYTHING ELSE An ecosystem has the capacity to sustain life. This called its carrying
capacity. For an ecosystem to exist, ability to provide for the necessities
The "food chain" and food web have
of life (carrying capacity) should not exceeded by consumption. ln this
always been used to illushate the
way, homeostasis or balance of nature is maintained.
relationship of the different living
components of the ecosystem. Earth is not infinite. lts resources are limited and in the face of an
increasing population, one's acquisition of resources beyond that which
Being connected is seen not only in
is required to satisfy one's basic needs is tantamount to stealing from
the relationship among the
others.
organisms but also in the
relationship of organisms with
l46EmB ti Mndry
physical factors.
tt
The type and distribution of soil, for
example, affects the distribution of
organisms.

LAWS OF ECOLOGY
]AWS OF ECOLOGY

2. THERE IS A STRENGTH AND STABI.]rY

4. EVERYTHING HAS A PURPOSE
IN THE UNIW OF
DIFFERENCES why are flowers colorful? so that the birds can be attracted to pollinate
them.
The ecosystem has different components. and each is needed for the
ecosystem to function. Why are cactuses succulent? So that they can store water in their
bodies to enable them to survive in the desert.

ffi
Fishes have scales to protect them from the heat

The plants grow tall so they can hap the energy from the sun.

ln nature, evefihing has a purpose. Every structure corresponds to a

function.

Ttre pioOuCers{ilaiid), ttuoft ['tne'iiio&istt:,i'

photosynthesis, produce orygen (Or) which is needed by
the consumers (animals)which, in turn, relea$e carbon
dioxide (C0,) needed by the producer.

I
 INTERDEPENDENCE OF BI.ATIITS.ANIMAIS.SOIL trru
THE ECOSYSTEM
2. The SOIL gives nourishment for the plant to grow.
3. The PI,ANTS in turn provide food to animals.
4. The wAsrEs of animals and the dead leaves, twigs and branches of
plants provide ORGANIC NUTRIENTS for the soil to keep fertile
and u{A:
healthy for PLANT growth and smallANIMALS and MICR0- primary
consumSrs
ORGANISMS to thrive.
5. when plants and animals die, their bodies likewise contribute the
necessary nutrients to the soil.

6. Therefore, one cannot live without the others. Each contributes to

maintain a balanced ecosystem,

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM OR ECOSYSTEM or L|FE COMPONENT OF

SUPPORT SYSTEM ECOSYSTEM A \\
/p#\'
/coNsuM$s ilr'
The interaction of the community and the non-living environment 2 COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

c.STRUCTUML - is made up of the living

tivir / *,,,s\
(biotic) and non-living (abiotic) parts of ti
ts ofthe
ecosystem.
/**
ll\ \'
CONSUMERS I

d.FUNCTIONAL * is made up of
interactions and inter-relationships of the
/&@,*o0,"*, ffi \
]lollo latu6 (orgaiic) IABOT|C tadors (non tivin(

living parts of the ecosystem.

PITNTS
Soilgiws bod
planr.

Both the Biotic and Abiotic components are equally important in the ecosystem
because without one of them, the ecosystem would not function.
 3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONSUMERS
STRUCTUML COMPONENTS ' HERVIVORES - those that eat plants only
LIVING COMPONENTS ' CARNIVORES - those that eat animals only
e. PRODT CERS - mostly green plants. They capture the energy from ' OMNIVORES - those that eat both plants and animals (e.g. Human)
the sun and together with carbon dioxide (COr) in the air and water
(HrO) convert this into food energy.

Since plants are able to manufacture their own food they are also ,*_***
known as (AUTOTROPHS)or "Self-Nourishing,'. They are able to
food throuoh the orocess of PH

rr I
-t h'
4D&
RabbitsSquirrels yif" Seed-eating Herbivorcus
Predaceous
insects

"

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
LIVING COMPONENTS
LIVING COMPONENTS

b" c. DECOITiPOSERS - They

CONSUIJiERS - chiefly animats, obtain their food from ptants or
use the bodies of dead
other animals. They ar:e known as (HETEROTROpHS)which
animals and plants for their
means that they feed others and cannot manufacture their own food
food. The materials contained
unlike green plants.
in these dead bodies are
broken down by the
decomposers, thus they get
the energy they need and
release the minerals and
other nutrients back into the
environment for use again by
other organisms. (Janitor of
Nature)..
 FUNCTIONAL GOMPoNENTS (PATHWAYS

$TRUCTUML COMPONENTS oF ENERGY)

FEEDIT.{ G RELATIONS}iIP

c.
'
FOOD CHAIN

Energy is needed by all organisms for

&r
growth, for maintenance and repair, and for
*
ffi
M
life.
Wh
' Organisms obtain energy in two ways:

6) by producing their own food (Autotrophy) or

tu trc
E8rgfiI
M

7) by eating other organisms (Heterotrophy). $i#

*T*
Plants and certain protista and bacteria are the
only organisms that can manufacture their
own food. Known as producers, these
k
organisms trap the energy from the sun and
convert it to compound which they need in
order to grow.

FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS (PATHWAYS OF ENERGY)

FUNCTTONAL COMPONENTS (PATHWAYS OF ENERGY) FEEDING REIATIONSI{IP
The energy from the SUN is the ultimate factor that enables an c. FOOD CllAlN
ecosystem to function. Through green plants, solar energy is
converted into chemical energy in the process of photosynthesis. ' Animals, fungi and many other
organisms obtain their energy
needs by eating

consumers,
they are classified as hervibore
carnivores, or on
depending

' Feedino levels constitute a food

chain.

' A food chain consists of the sequence of organisms that eat other
organisms through which energy is transferred.
 FUNCTTONAL COMPONENTS (PATHWAYS OF ENERGY)
FUNCTTONAL COMPONENTS (PATHWAYS OF ENERGY)
FEEDENG REI"ATmNSFW
FEEEING RELATMNSHIP

C. FOOD CHAIN
b. FOODWEB

Food chain always starts with a

' The transfer of energy involving several pathways is called a food
web.
producer and ends with

The decomposers can direcfly act

' Food web is consist of several interlocking food chains

on each
. ln a food web, an aniEal occupy more than one position. lt may be
trophic a primary consumer in one food chain, but cnuld be a secondary or
a tertiary consumer in another food chain.
Trophic level are position occupied
bY
food chain.
When plants die, the bacteria direcfly
act on them. The herbivores can
die and be acted by the

FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS (PATHWAYS OF ENERGY)

FUNCTTONAL COMPONENTS (PATHWAYS OF ENERGY)
FEEEING RELATIONSF{IP
c. FOOD CHAIN
ln food chains, the energy
transfened from one trophic
level to the next is decreasing.
As the organism goes
from the producer, the
receives lesser
. ln most cases
chain, hence,
FEEDSNG REI.ATIO}TSF{IP
. Food chain and food webs are responsible for the continuous flow
of energy and recycling of materials in the ecosystem.
' Plants use energy from the sun in the production of gluqose during
photosynthesis. (Energy is stored in glucose and later transferred
from one organism to another through the food chain or food web).
. lnprganic.mqterials-from the soil like phosporous, magnesium, and
,at ilf,& nitrogen become incorporated in the plant material as nutrients.
' When plants are eaten, these nutri-e"nts enter the food chain and
are passed from primary consumer to the environment by
decomposers when the last consumer in the food chain die.

energy.

Each level organism use some energy for life activities.

During these processes, energy is lost in the form of heat in the

atmosphere.
 FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS (PATHWAYS OF ENERGY)

FEEOING REMTiONSTIOP

C. BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION

' is the accumulation of chemical substances in organisms in

succeeding higher trophic level.

' Example:DDT
' DDT sprayed in insecls contaminate plants;

' the chemical passes on to the herbivores and then to lhe camivores, induding
humans.

' some maybe washed into bodies of water rike rivers or seeps to he ground water;

' The chemicals may be absorbed by the fish and tlren by the birds that eat
he fish.
' The organisms in the last trophic level receive the highest amount of DDT.

This phenomena is what is called Biological Magnification. lt is the

transfer of toxins from one trophic to another. Biological
magnification happens because organisms cannot metabolize the
poisons. As a result, 100 % of these poisons is retained and
absorbed by the tissues of organisms and is not eliminated.

'fY"'lercr*r5
. Pet\;<, Ar: , \ +.-D-
i t=ig;#,il
Qlarvl+ - s-nal\ a.1r.wu-lri .l,,tEa in a ,Jr<--lrcr
'
i*5 i5\l''r'*i5n'
6te,^ Abt- tat s ia rr,.crra.rrr1
{rn
Stn*ll ?nuflankfr^- <a+ *\y*
I Ee)
Sry.ott f,s\
; --:-- -- ----::: --q)i-h [A,i -::: -:--: _ : : : : : : : : : : hfr..c0,,.,
-: -- -: --
-._ _ :
&iol+gicol l$qgnlficqlipn st Ssrne P0llutonts .{'
EET N-ras been fuurrd t@ prevent eggs fronft l'ratehring. lt hras also rnany hanrnrful hu,rlan.[
side effeats. lt causes genetic a[rnonrnalitles, eanoen, and disorders of the
cenirafl nenvous systenn like hallucinatlons, coravu{sions, and paralysis.
 FUNCTTONAL COMPONENTS (PATHWAYS OF ENERGY)

FEEESNG RELATIONSHIP

C. BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATIO}I

' Radioactive isotopes from fallouts of atomic bomb testing and

wastes from nuclear reactors: metals like mercury and lead,
which may come from broken thermometers; industrial
wastes; gasoline additives; and agricultural fungicides. All
these poisons remain in the biosphere and accumulate there
as more are released into the environment.

THEf,E ANE MOBE

- PLANTS THAN PI..ANT €.AIEBS
PUM EATENS THAI{ MEAT UENS

LIFE PYRAIIID
PYMMIDS OF ENERGY
2. At the base of the pyramid are the PRODUCERS followed by the
' There is another way of showing the path of energy from one
FIRST-ORDER CONSUMERS or HER.BIU0RES which feed directly on
type of organism to another. The energy pyramid shows the
the producers.
amount of energy at each trophic level.
3. On the hird tratum are the SECOI\B.ORDER, CONSUMERS or
' The energy pyramid also provide information on the number
CARNMR.ES which feed on the herbivores.
of organisms at each level.
4. Note that there are MORE PR.0DUCERS han hIERBWORES
' ln most ecosystems, the producers have the highest number
of organisms. - and MORE HERBIVORES THAN SECOND-ORDER CARNIBORES

The first-order consumers are less numerous than the - and MCIR.E SECOND-OR.DER CARNIIVORES TI{AN TF0XRE-CIR.DER
producers the first-order consumers must eat many plants to CAR.fl0WORES and so forth.
obtain enough energy.
MEAftit$G: That a large amount of plant material is needed to feed a
The top consumers found at the highest levels are fewest in few insects and more insects are needed to feed a few animals.
number.
At the Top of the food pyramid is the HAWK who generally is not
eaten by another animal,

A disruption 0r imbalance in any part 0f the f00d chain will result in

food shor&Ee since each paft of the chain is dependent or
connected to other pafts,

)
I

BIOCHEMICAL CYCLES AND THEIR

Land food
IMPORTANCE
pyramid ) B.THE HUTRIENT CYCLE
SCAVENGEBS
(Canion eaters)
)

ffi
IMPORTA}ICE OF NUTRIE}.IT GYCLE

d.What happens to the dead bodies of plants and animals during the
CARNIVORES
(Meal eaters) process of decomposition?

e.What happens to the energy from the sun that is trapped by the green
N^., plants?
HEREIVORES / g'h f.ls there difference between the two process?
(Plant eaters) >o)-t
Man eats
kom the The energyfrom the sun flows to tre plant, to
lower levels
the camivore, and to the last consumer
untilthe energy is lost into the ecos
The blocks represent the energy available from the same mass of food at The energy does nol go
each level. The higher the level the less energy available It car
over again gants absorL sunliqht and cirbon
diolide fror, ths ar,
8od water and nunienis frDm the 3oi. A dead b3r.
dead insecl. 0r animil droppanq retonrs !o lhe goi

Ocean food pyramid

& iBINE FALCOII I UNIT
BIOCHEiTICAL CYCLES AND THEIR
IMPORTANCE
ffittt'o*'*t 'ot' IMPORTANCE OF NUTRIENT CYCLE

ffi v@4\eqqt , LARGEST FISH

MARINE BIRDS 10 uN[S 'When the bodies of dead animals decompose, these are changed into
nutrients through the action of bacteria and fungi.

@l#e ryer*B itff" 1@ UNITS

'The nuhients are stored in the abiotic environment like the soil.

ffi SMALL FISH

AND
ANIMALS
)

)
'These nutrients can be used again by
the plants.

'The plants are eaten by the animals

wtrsI and when the animals die, they

decompose into nukients.

'These nutrients can be used over and

over again.
There is a 90% reduction in energy available in each succeeding level.
'ln this way, a cycle of nutrient is formed
EXAMPLE: lt takes 50 kgs of small fish to produce S kgs of larger fish.
BIOCITEMICAL CYCLES AITD TFIEIR
IMPORTANCE The Water Cple
IMPORTANCE OF NUTRIENT GYCLE (The rydmlogtc Cyctel

'The Cycle of Nutrients is an important

ecosystem. Condensation
Condensatlon
'Through the cycle of nutrient, the
compounds found in the tttt (Clourts form)

organrsms are
cqmpounds-which
nutrients to the other
Transplrailon
t,,44 ^a :r:Surface
tttf
Evaporation
organisms.

'ln both processes of energy flow and nutrient cycles, thq plants
Brovidg the link by ytlllic.h the. bjotig and ahiqtiq comppnqntS.interact with
one another.
.Carbon, oxygen, and nutrient are the
elements that are particular
concern to ecologist, although there are others that are involved in the
biochemical process.

BIOC}IEMIGAL CYCLES AND THEIR

IMPORTANCE BIOCHEMICAL CYCLES AND T}IEIR
B. THE WATER CYCLE
IMPORTANCE
.The Water Cycle has no beginning nor end. G. THE CARBON AND OXTGEN CYCLE
.When water vapor in the atmosphere reaches 'Much of the carbon in the environment exists in the form of carbon
SATUMTION (highest amount of
moisture that air can hold), it falls as MlN. dioxide.
.The rain that FALLS on the land is absorbed by plants
through the roots and 'Plants absorb this gas through the leaves and use it in the process
drank by animals.
of
photosynthesis.
.Some penetrates the soil and becomes part
of the underground water, which
'Oxygen is given off during the process.
eventually empties into the ocean.

'The processes of CONDENSATION and PRECIPITATION are responsible for 'Animals and other consumers obtain their food as well as their oxygen
the return of water to the atmosphere into the land and other bodies of water. needs from the plants.
.The water returns to the atmosphere .ln the process of respiration, the
through the process of EVApORATION. food is broken down into CO, and
Plants by TMNSPIRATION. WHILE ANTMALS DO TH|S THROUGH water which are returned into the atmosphere
RESPITRATION.

'Water accumulates again in the atmosphere as clouds and falls as rain

 camqn dloDdds in $e

BIOGHEMICAL GYGLES AND THEIR

BIOGHEMICAL CYGLES AND THEIR
IMPORTANCE
IMPORTANCE
C. THE CARBON AND OXTGEN CYCLE
D, THE NITROGEN GYCLE
'When the animals and plants die, their bodies and wastes are broken
down by DECOMPOSERS. 'Nikogen is an element crucialto life.

'ln the process, CO2 is produced and refurned to the atmosphere. 'The nitrogen gas constitutes about 7g% of the air in the atmosphere.

'Sometimes, dead organisms failto decompose quickly. 'lt could not be used direcfly by plants and animals.

'When this happens, the dead bodies change to COAL, OlL, and GAS
WHICH BECOMES fossllfuelAFTER A LONG TIME.
'When burned, fossil fuels release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
'Plants use it un the form of NITMTES.
'Nitrogen in the atmosphere is CONVERTED in two ways:
1. By the action of LlGl{TNlNG. Etectricat
(lighting) during thunderstorms convert nitrogen
into nitrates but only into a small amount. The
nitrates produced by this process fall
with the rain.
BIOCHEMICAL CYCLES AND THEIR
IMPORTANCE
D. THE NITROGEN CYCLE

2. By the action of specialized organisms such as BAGTERIA,

AI-GAE and FuNGl. Bacteria being the most important.
' Nitrogen-fixing bacteria directly convert nitrogen into nitrates
through the process called NITROGEN FIXATION.

The compounds are then used by the plants to build proteins, or

remain in the soil.
. The mineral deposits of compound containing nitrates are rnlned
and used as lnorganic fertllizens.

BIOCHEMICAL GYGLES AND THEIR

BIOCFIEMICAL CYCLES AND T}IEIR
IMPORTA]TCE
]IUPORTA}.IGE
D. THE NITROGEN CYCLE
D.THE NITROGEN CYCLE
' DECOMPOSERS break down the proteins in the bodies of plants,
animals, and their wastes. ' The nitrates produced by the nitrogen-fixing bacteria are converted
to }.E[TR0TE$ by another group of bacteria calted N|TR|TE
' ln this process, AIWMON0A, is produced. BACTERIA.
' Ammonia may be used directly some plants but others cannot. ' Nitrites are converted to nihogen by the denitrifying bacteria in a
' They have to transform this into nitrates through the nitrogen-fixing process catted &ENflfR[Ffl CAT[0N.
bacteria. . Denikification completes the cycle of nitrogen.
' This process of converting ammonia to nitrates is known as
I\IITRIFflGATllOIT.

' The plants are then able to obtain nitrates to synthesize amino
acids and protein.
tsIOGHEMICAL CYCLES AND THEIR
HUMANKIND INTERVENTION WTH NATURE
IMPORTANGE
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
D. THE NITROGEN GYCLE
'Too much carbon dioxide and other gases emitted by factories are
. Excess nitrates from different sources (e.9. run-off of animal accumulating in the atmosphere.
wastes from livestock feed lots, run-off of inorganic fertilizer from
.These gases allow sunlight penetrate
croplands and discharge of treated and untreated sewage) enter to the earth,s atmosphere but
ecosystems, causing rapid growth of algae, depleting the water of unfortunately, they also hap radiant heat and revert its escape into outer
dissolved ox)rgen gas and causing fish kills. space.

' This is known as EUTROPHIGATION, a process that speeds up
the natural aging of lakes.
'The immediate consequence is global warming., better known as
greenhouse effect.
'The rise in the average temperature of the earth could have serious
consequences among them is the melting of ice and glaciers in the North
and South poles.

'This will raise the water level in many parts of the world, resulting in the
submersion of the low lying coastal towns and cities.

HUMANKIND INTERVENTION WTH NATURE

Humankind's interventlon with nature has its adverse efhcts too.
Thesa include the pollution prcduced by modem technology and lts
illeffect of the environment:
' Disruption of the atmosphere which causes greenhouse effect

' Ozone depletion

' Acid rain

. Pollution of the water system

' Deforestation

' lmproper disposal of solid waste

' Noise pollution

HUMANKIND INTERVENTION WTH NATURE
}IUMANKIND INTERVENTION WTH NATURE
OZONE.LAYER DEPLETION
.Between 15 to 59 kms, above the earth is a layer of ozone (Or).
ACID RAIN

.lt is formed when ultraviolet radiation (UV) splits a molecule of oxygen (Or), and
the free oxygen atoms (O) combine with other oxygen molecules.
'Ozone acts as filter in the upper atmosphere, preventing harmful ultraviolet
radiation of the sun from reaching the earth.
'Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are released from industrial factories,
electrical power plants, smelting plants, and motor vehicles.
'When these gases combine with the moisture in the atmosphere, they
return to the ground as sulfuric acids and nitric acids.

'Scientist discovered that compounds of carbon such as carbon dioxide (CO2) 'This is known as ACID RAIN.
and chloroflourocarbons (CFCs), nitrogen oxides (NO), and methane break up .Acid rain bring
ozone molecules, thereby gradually depleting it. the soil, forest qnd buildings.

'Scientist discovered Large ozone hole above the tip of South America, The
people directly below it may experience skin irritations and soreness in their eyes
which may be due to the higher intensity of harmful ulhaviolet radiation
hitting them.

'Ozone layer on the average have declined by 2% as much as 19% in

Melbourne, Australia, causing a 29% increase in ultraviolet radiation
reaching the ground.

HUiiANKIND
INTERVENTION WTH
NATURE
WATER POLLUNON
'lndushial wastes disposed of in streams
and rivers have polluted the bodies of
water, making them unfit for fish and other
aquatic animals to inhabit.
.When the water from
these streams and
rivers flows into lakes and oceans, then
these bodies of water also become
polluted.

'Wastes from industrial factories along the

riverbanks polluted the river so much that
for all practical purposes, the river is dead.
HUMANKIND INTERVENTION WTH NATURE
HUMANKIND INTERVENTION WTH NATURE
DEFORESTATION
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
'The overcutting of trees in forests has done irreparable damages to the
environment. 'Progress produces a large amount of solid waste.

'Among the more serious effects of forest destruction include 'Most of these are no-biodegradable (do not decay into useful fertilizer)
or hazardous materials.
1) soil erosion, resulting in the loss of the fertility of the land;

2) flooding during heavy rains because there are no more trees to

'The most efficient disposal of solid waste is thru sanitary landfill.
hold and store water; 'with an indifferent population, solid waste is one of the main sources of
potlution especially in large population center.
3) silting of rivers and lakes with soil and rocks carried by the
floods; 'When solid waste is not collected in time, people tend to dump then
almost everywhere, resulting in very unsanitary surroundings, clogged
4) loss of habitat to many animals and plant species, resulting in
waterways, and polluted creeks and rivers.
their extinction; and
'lmproper solid waste disposal is known to have triggered the spread of
deforested areas becoming barren and useless
diseases, epidemics, and other adverse effects on people,s health.
HUMANKIND INTERVENTION WTH NATURE
EFFECTS OF HUMAN AGTIVITIES ON TI.IE
NOISE POLLUTION
ENVIRONMENT
'Noise pollution is a direct result of industrial revolution. - Water, air and land are natural resources necessary to sustain life in
'Noise engines in factories, the noise produced by motor vehicles, the earth. These resources are quite limited, easy to pollute, and hardly
irritating noise produced by jackhammer, and almost unbearable noise replenishable.
from jet engines are some examples.
- The existence of lih depends on the delicate balance of the Earth,s
'Some ill effects of noise pollution: limited resources.
.Psychological effects including irritability,
mental stress, and short - Because of the life processes of all living things in this planet, the
temperedness are quite common; temporary or permanent loss of precise balance of the nafural cycles can be altered.
hearing.
- ln nature, the life prccesses occur slowly, allowing time br the systems
.Permanent or irreparable damages on of organisms to adjust.
the ecusystem could make the
eadh no longer pleasant place to live in and could even make it
uninhabitable.
' Of allthe planet's inhabitants, man has proven to be the most capable
of disrupting the balance of nafure.
.That is why pollution and its effect on
concern of everybody.
the environment should be the ' The rapid and large changes he exerts, place heavier pressures on the
environment, in contrast to those exerted by natural processes.