Bio C.1 Species and Communities

C.
1 Species and Communities

Essential idea: Community structure is an emergent
property of an ecosystem.
The image shows savannah grassland. The

community of animals (here grazing Antelope, Zebra
and Wildebeest) are present only due to the
grassland environment, which in itself is a function
of the grazing animals. Grazing is a key element
along with fire and soil fertility that maintains the
savannah. Without these elements in balance the
savannah would either be succeeded by bush and
forest or deteriorate into desert. A good example of
how a community can be an emergent property of
an ecosystem, whilst still being a critical part of the By Chris Paine
ecosystem.
https://bioknowledgy.weebly.com/
http://rydberg.biology.colostate.edu/knapplab/Research/SA2007%20diverse%20grazers%20comp.jpg
Understandings
Statement Guidance
The distribution of species is affected by limiting
C.1.U1
factors.
Community structure can be strongly affected by
C.1.U2
keystone species.
Each species plays a unique role within a
community because of the unique combination of
C.1.U3
its spatial habitat and interactions with other
species.
Interactions between species in a community
C.1.U4
can be classified according to their effect.
Two species cannot survive indefinitely in the
C.1.U5
same habitat if their niches are identical.
Applications and Skills
Statement Guidance
Distribution of one animal and one plant species
C.1.A1 to illustrate limits of tolerance and zones of
stress.
Local examples to illustrate the range of ways in
C.1.A2
which species can interact within a community.
The symbiotic relationship between
C.1.A3 Zooxanthellae and reef-building coral reef
species.
Analysis of a data set that illustrates the
C.1.S1 distinction between fundamental and realized
niche.
Use of a transect to correlate the distribution of
C.1.S2
plant or animal species with an abiotic variable.
C.1.U1 The distribution of species is affected by limiting factors.
Factors affecting the distribution of species:
Plants Animals
temperature
water
light (intensity/wavelength) breeding sites
soil pH food supply
soil salinity territory
mineral nutrient availability
n.b. apart from being able to list the different factors you should know examples of
how certain factors have influenced the distribution of example species.
Example factors affecting the distribution of species
Low temperature adaptation in plants
Woody species of plants (e.g. Oak and Maple

trees) synthesise ‘antifreeze proteins’ which
prevents the formation of ice crystals inside
cells. This enables these species to survive in
temperatures as low as -40 oC. These species
cannot survive at high temperatures as they
transpire readily and will therefore dehydrate
easily.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/BrockenSnowedTrees.jpg/1024px-BrockenSnowedTrees.jpg
Migration for food supply in animals
“Southern right whales migrate from their Antarctic feeding areas to temperate breeding
areas along the costs of Chile and Argentina, southern Africa, and Australia and New
Zealand, covering 2,500 km each way. Their migration is fuelled entirely by fat
accumulated during their four-month stay in the icy Southern Ocean around Antarctica,
where they skim the surface waters for zooplankton. Amazingly, they will not feed until
their return a year later.” http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/animal-migration-13259533
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Southern_right_whale6.jpg

Territory availability and distribution of animals
• Tigers are solitary

animals that require
large territories, the size
of which is determined
mostly by the
availability of prey.
• A tiger’s territory
consists of forest, to
shelter their prey, and
access to water.
• Although individuals do
not patrol their Their habitat has been lost to growing human
territories, they visit populations which require land for agriculture. Both
over a period of days or the size of forest patches has decreased, some are too
weeks and mark their small to support individual tigers and total size of
territory with urine and habitat has decreased lowering the maximum
feces. population size.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Indian_Tiger.jpg
Detail on how the factors affecting the distribution of Plant species:

Temperature - plant can only survive in a range of temperatures to which they are adapted
• Metabolic pathways are controlled by enzymes, which have optimal temperatures, too
high and the enzymes will denature
• High temperatures increase the rate of evapouration (and hence transpiration)
Water availability limits plant growth in most terrestrial ecosystems

• Needed to maintain cell turgor
• Needed for photosynthesis and respiration to occur
• Xerophytes, e.g. Cacti are adapted to low water conditions, hydrophytes, e.g. rice, are
adapted to waterlogged soils
Light (intensity/wavelength) limits the plants ability to carryout photosynthesis.

• Plants that grow in shade (lower light intensity) contain more chlorophyll, they have
darker green leaves
• Plants, e.g. Kelp (algae), appear brown, not green, and have pigments that are adapted to
absorbing the blue wavelengths as red wavelengths do not easily penetrate water
n.b. Although it is unlikely you will need to learn all of these details understanding the concepts will enable
you to better communicate your examples.
Detail on how the factors affecting the distribution of Plant species:

Most plants only tolerate a narrow Soil pH range
• pH affects the availability of mineral nutrients, e.g. minerals can either be bound more
strongly in the soil or leeched from the soil more easily at different pHs.
• pH may affect the decomposition of organic matter, and hence the rate at which nutrients
are (re-)cycled and made available to plants
Most plants have a low Soil salinity tolerance or can only tolerate a narrow range of salinity
• High salinity either makes uptake of water (osmosis) by plants more difficult, or in
extremes causes water loss
• Halophytes, e.g. Mangrove trees, are adapted to high salinity soils
Minerals nutrient availability affects plant fertility, different plants need minerals (e.g.
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium) in different quantities.
• Waterlogged soils encourage denitrifying bacteria and lower the nitrogen availability to
plants
• Weathering of rocks often increases the availability of nutrients in the soil
Detail on how the factors affecting the distribution of animal species:

Temperature must be within a viable range (based on adaptations) for survival – few animals
can survive extreme temperature conditions
• Body size (specifically SA:Vol ratio) will determine an animal's ability to conserve heat – a
large SA:Vol ratio means that heat is easily lost to /gained from the environment
• Homeotherms (organisms that maintain a stable internal body temperature) can colonise
a wider range of habitats than poikilotherms (internal temperature varies considerably)
Water must be available in quantities sufficient for the particular species concerned.
• Apart from drinking to maintain cells’ osmotic balance water can be required as a habitat,
transport medium, a place to lay eggs, a source of dissolved oxygen, food maybe filtered
from water (e.g. corals), and as a coolant. [See 2.2 Water for details]
Breeding sites are required for the maintenance of the species.

• Breeding sites need to provide protection for eggs, juveniles, and nesting adults.
• Sites are often rich in food or other resources necessary for juveniles, and breeding adults
• Juveniles may have specialised environmental requirements different from the adults, e.g.
dragonfly nymphs live underwater.
Detail on how the factors affecting the distribution of animal species:
Food availability is critical in determining the maximum population size.

• Animals maybe specialised so that they will only consume a particular species of animal
or plant, e.g. the caterpillars of the Small Tortoiseshell butterfly eat only nettle plants.
• Seasonal or geographical variation in food directly affects abundance of the population.
Territory – not all animals are territorial, but those that may do so to attracting mates,
rearing young, forage for food or to avoid predators.
• Animals may mark territories, e.g. by urinating or marking trees
• Territories can be established by individuals, breeding pairs or groups
• Territories maybe temporary (e.g. just for the duration of breeding cycle) or permanent
• Establishment of territories can lead to intra-specific (within species) or inter-specific
(between species) competition
C.1.S1 Use of a transect to correlate the distribution of plant or animal species with an abiotic
variable.
variable.
variable.
variable.
variable.
C.1.A1 Distribution of one animal and one plant species to illustrate limits of tolerance and zones of
stress.
Shelford's law of tolerance is a useful tool to understand the relative abundance of a species
and hence predict community structure. It plots the range of a biotic or abiotic factor that is
tolerated by a species,. Because their is variability but within a population the limits of
tolerance and where the zones of stress start is not always easy to measure.
http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/bpenney/teaching/BI320/elements/Krohne_Shelfords.jpg
stress.
Black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) is a very widespread

mangrove tree. It can survive and grow in a wide range of
salinity levels from 0 to 96 part per thousand (ppt). Greatest
growth rates occur at salinity levels of 24 and 48 ppt, the
optimal zone, outside of this range the Black Mangrove
trees experience the zones of stress.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Avicennia_germinans.jpg
stress.
The red dots show the
global distribution of
coral reefs.
Q - What causes
this distribution?
Here is a clue - the

blue band shows
where water
temperatures are in
excess of 20oC.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20_Grad_Isotherme.png
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coral_reef_locations.jpg
C.1.A3 The symbiotic relationship between Zooxanthellae and reef-building coral reef species.
The corals and algae have a mutualistic relationship*

Most reef-building corals contain
photosynthetic algae, called zooxanthellae,
that live in their tissues (endosymbiosis).
https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/File:Zoox_1.jpg
*Mutualistic relationship is an association between organisms of

two different species in which each member benefits.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Multy_color_corals.JPG
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral02_zooxanthellae.html
C.1.A3 The symbiotic relationship between Zooxanthellae and reef-building coral reef species.
The corals and algae have a mutualistic relationship

zooxanthellae are responsible for the unique
and beautiful colors of many corals
The coral provides the algae with:

• a protected environment - coral polyps
secrete calcium carbonate to build the
stony skeletons which house the coral
polyps (and zooxanthellae)
• compounds they need for photosynthesis
The algae provide the coral with:

• Oxygen
• helps the coral to remove wastes
• Supplies the coral with glucose, glycerol,
and amino acids (products of
photosynthesis)
The relationship between the algae
and coral polyp facilitates a tight
recycling of nutrients in nutrient- http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Multy_color_corals.JPG
poor tropical waters. http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral02_zooxanthellae.html
stress.
Favia pallida (hard coral) with signs of

bleaching Corals live in very nutrient poor waters
and have certain zones of tolerance to
water temperature, salinity, UV radiation,
opacity, and nutrient quantities.
Coral reef bleaching, the whitening of diverse
invertebrate taxa, results from the loss of
symbiotic zooxantheallae and/or a reduction in
photosynthetic pigment concentrations in
zooxanthellae
The maps show that for most coral Photosynthesis pathways in zooxanthallae are
species that the limits of tolerance impaired at temperatures above 30oC
for most species is approximately therefore for most corals the upper limit of
20oC. tolerance is 30oC
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Favia_pallida_(hard_coral)_
with_signs_of_bleaching_or_crown-of-thorns_starfish_damage.jpg
C.1.U4 Interactions between species in a community can be classified according to their effect.
C.1.A2 Local examples to illustrate the range of ways in which species can interact within a
community.
community.
community.
community.
community.
community.
C.1.U3 Each species plays a unique role within a community because of the unique combination of
its spatial habitat and interactions with other species.
C.1.U3 Each species plays a unique role within a community because of the unique combination of
its spatial habitat and interactions with other species.
C.1.U5 Two species cannot survive indefinitely in the same habitat if their niches are identical.
C.1.S1 Analysis of a data set that illustrates the distinction between fundamental and realized
niche.
C.1.S1 Analysis of a data set that illustrates the distinction between fundamental and realized
niche.
o G a u s e’s:
p h s s im ilar t
naly s e g ra ati o ns o f the
k e d to a t h e popul
e c t to be as b e deduced fro m
cies
Exp d a l niche
m enta
can erent spe
o ns of diff
fu n ul ati
• The e c i e s c e d b y the pop
s p be ded u
isolated ic he ca n
The re a l i sed n d to i nteract
• r e allow e
r t h e y a
afte
C.1.U2 Community structure can be strongly affected by keystone species.
A keystone species is one

which has a disproportionate
effect on the structure of an
ecological community.
keystone species exerts top-
down influence on lower
trophic levels and prevents
species at lower trophic levels
from monopolizing critical
resources, such as competition
for space or key producer food
sources.
http://www.nature.com/scitable/content/ne0000/ne0000/ne0000/ne0000/15829742/f1_wagner.jpg
The term keystone species was

first coined by Robert Paine
(1966):
• One of his study sites, located
at Mukkaw Bay, contained a
community consistently
dominated by the same
species of mussels, barnacles,
and the starfish, Pisaster
ochraceus, which preys upon
the other species as a top
predator.
• He selected a "typical" piece
of shoreline at Mukkaw Bay,
about 8 meters long by 2
meters wide, that was kept
free of starfish.
• This area was compared to an
adjacent, undisturbed control
area of equal size.
http://www.nature.com/scitable
/knowledge/library/keystone-species-15786127
The intertidal area where Pisaster had been removed was characterized by many changes:
• Remaining members of the ecosystem's food web immediately began to compete with
each other to occupy limited space and resources.
• Within three months of the Pisaster removal, the barnacle, Balanus glandula, occupied
60 to 80% of the available space within the study area.
• Nine months later, Blanus glandula had been replaced by rapidly growing populations
of another barnacle Mitella and the mussel Mytilus.
• This phenomenon continued until fewer and fewer species occupied the area and it
was dominated by Mytilus and a few adult Mitella species.
• Eventually the succession of species wiped out populations of benthic algae.
• This caused some species, such as the limpet, to emigrate from the ecosystem because
of lack of food and/or space.
• Within a year of the starfish's removal, species diversity significantly decreased in the
study area from fifteen to eight species.
http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/keystone-species-15786127
Within a year of the starfish's

removal, species diversity
significantly decreased in the
study area from fifteen to eight
species.
http://www.nature.com/scitable
/content/ne0000/ne0000/ne0000/ne0000/15829770/f2_wagner.jpg
Sea otters regulate sea urchin populations, which in

turn feed upon kelp and other macroalgae (Duggins 1980).
The otters keep the sea urchin populations in check, thus
allowing enough kelp forests to remain as a habitat for a
variety of other species. As a result, the entire ecosystem
is kept in balance.
http://www.vanaqua.org/files/1013/2018/0738/otter-eat.jpg
Keystone modifier species, such as the North

American beaver (Casor candensis), determine the
prevalence and activities of many other species by
dramatically altering the environment.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Beaver-Szmurlo.jpg
Species like the Saguaro cactus (Carnegiea gigantea) in desert

environments and palm and fig trees in tropical forests are called
keystone host species because they provide habitat for a variety of
other species. Keystone prey are species that can maintain their
numbers despite being preyed upon, therefore controlling the
density of a predator.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carnegiea_gigantea_Saguaro_NP_1.jpg
Bibliography / Acknowledgments
Jason de Nys

Bio C.1 Species and Communities

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C.

1 Species and Communities

The image shows savannah grassland. The

Factors affecting the distribution of species:

Example factors affecting the distribution of species

Low temperature adaptation in plants

Woody species of plants (e.g. Oak and Maple

Example factors affecting the distribution of species

Migration for food supply in animals

Example factors affecting the distribution of species

• Tigers are solitary

Detail on how the factors affecting the distribution of Plant species:

Water availability limits plant growth in most terrestrial ecosystems

Light (intensity/wavelength) limits the plants ability to carryout photosynthesis.

Detail on how the factors affecting the distribution of Plant species:

Detail on how the factors affecting the distribution of animal species:

Breeding sites are required for the maintenance of the species.

Detail on how the factors affecting the distribution of animal species:

Food availability is critical in determining the maximum population size.

Black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) is a very widespread

Here is a clue - the

The corals and algae have a mutualistic relationship*

*Mutualistic relationship is an association between organisms of

The corals and algae have a mutualistic relationship

The coral provides the algae with:

The algae provide the coral with:

Favia pallida (hard coral) with signs of

A keystone species is one

The term keystone species was

Within a year of the starfish's

Sea otters regulate sea urchin populations, which in

Keystone modifier species, such as the North

Species like the Saguaro cactus (Carnegiea gigantea) in desert

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