Power Electronics, Drives and Systems Power Electronics and Drives

5. POWER ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DC MOTOR DRIVES

5.1 Introduction

Electric machines in general are designed for operation with any load that is smaller or
equal to rated and they will run at more or less a constant speed if they are supplied from a
voltage source of rated value. Such an operation takes places at so-called natural torque-speed
characteristic of the machine, under rated supply conditions. This holds true for both DC and
AC machines. However, numerous applications of electric machines ask for variable speed
operation. Additionally, there is often a requirement to control the position or the torque of the
machine. Depending on which of the mechanical variables is to be controlled, electric drives
may be classified as position, speed and torque drives. The control may be performed in an
open-loop manner or in a closed loop manner. Irrespective of the type of the drive, variable
speed operation will always ask for variable voltage (and variable frequency, in AC case)
supply.
In vast majority of applications it is sufficient to perform speed control only, in an
open-loop manner. In this case there is no need for measurement and feedback of electrical
and mechanical variables, control system of the drive is very simple and speed is controlled in
steady-state only, with certain level of static error. Typical examples are pumps, compressors,
etc., that nowadays typically utilise three-phase induction machine supplied from a PWM
voltage source inverter.
On the other hand, numerous applications require very precise position control: these
applications require drives that are usually termed servo-drives and the typical examples are
robotics and machine tools. In this case the drive will be realised as a closed-loop drive, with
appropriate measurement and feedback of electrical and mechanical variables and the
structure of the control system will in a number of cases be very complicated. Unique feature
of servo-drives is the requirement that the given variable (position, speed or torque) is
controlled precisely not only in steady-state but in transient operation as well. Such control
can easily be realised with DC motors and this is the reason why DC machines were the
standard choice for servo, or high-performance, applications in the past. The application of
AC machines for high performance operation has become possible only recently: so-called
vector control (or field-oriented control) principles have to be applied if an AC machine is to
yield good dynamic response.
The emphasis in what follows is placed on power electronic converters used to supply
a given machine. In general, the same converter structures are applied in both low-
performance and high-performance drives, the difference being in control of the converter
rather than in its topology.
The variety of electric machines that are nowadays used in electric drives is enormous
and encompasses separately excited DC machines, three-phase and to a lesser extent single-
phase induction machines, three-phase synchronous machines with field winding, permanent
magnet synchronous machines with trapezoidal and with sinusoidal distribution of the flux in
the air-gap, synchronous reluctance machines, switched reluctance machines, etc. The
topologies of power electronic converters that are used in conjunction with different types of
machines vary to the great extent and it is therefore impossible to cover all the converters and
all the control schemes here. The emphasis is therefore placed on the most widely used
machines, namely separately excited DC machines, and, in the next Chapter, on three-phase
induction motors. Furthermore, only the most commonly used converter topologies for each
of these three types will be dealt with. Regardless of the type of the machine and regardless of

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the topology of the converter, open-loop low-performance drive and closed-loop high-
performance drive may be represented with block diagrams shown in Fig. 5.1.

Three-phase (or single-phase) Variable voltage

AC supply (fixed voltage and (and frequency)
frequency) supply

Single PEC or Electric

set of PECs machine

Generation of driving signals for PEC = power electronic

switches in the PECs on the basis converter
of open-loop pre-programmed
control law

Open-loop low performance electric drive

Three-phase (or single-phase) Variable voltage

AC supply (fixed voltage and (and frequency)
frequency) supply

Single PEC or Electric

set of PECs machine

Generation of driving signals for Measured

switches in the PECs on the basis electric &
of closed-loop control law and mechanic
feedback measured signals feedback signals

Closed-loop high performance electric drives

Fig. 5.1: General structure of open-loop and closed-loop electric drives.

5.2 General Considerations

Regardless of the type of the machine used in an electric drive and regardless of the
type of control (open-loop or closed loop; torque, speed, or position control), operation of the
drive can in general take place in two distinct speed regions. The first region is the so-called
base speed region or constant torque region and it encompasses all operating speeds between
zero and rated. Flux in the machine is usually kept constant in the base speed region, current
is at most rated, so that the machine can operate with rated torque at all speeds in the base
speed region. Supply voltage is normally variable and it becomes rated at rated speed of
operation. Output power, assuming rated load torque, linearly increases with speed and
becomes rated at rated speed. The second region of operation encompasses all speeds above
rated speed. A drive may or may not be required to operate with speed higher than rated; this
depends on the application. However, if the drive is required to operate at speeds higher than
rated, then it operates in the so-called field weakening region. Supply voltage of the machine

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is not allowed to exceed rated value (insulation of motor’s windings is designed for certain
rated voltage value; if this value is exceeded, insulation may fail). The voltage therefore has to
be kept constant and, in order to obtain operation with a speed higher than rated, it is
necessary to reduce the flux in the machine (hence the name field weakening). As current can
still be at most rated, then, due to flux reduction, electromagnetic torque (which is essentially
product of current and flux) reduces. However, product of speed and torque now remains
constant, so that the machine can operate at all speeds with constant power (this region is
often called constant power region). Characteristics of a variable speed drive in these two
speed regions are shown in Fig. 5.2 (index n stands for rated values).

Pout, Te V = Vn
I, V
V Pout = Pn
Te = Ten

I = In

Pout

Te

0 n 
base speed region field weakening

Fig. 5.2: Operating characteristics in base speed region and in field weakening region.

Electric machines can in general rotate in both possible directions (clockwise and anti-
clockwise). Direction of rotation is determined with connection of the voltage supply (phase
sequence in the case of an induction machines, polarity connection in the case of a DC
machine). The drive can therefore operate in motoring in two regions, which are called
forward motoring (say, clockwise rotation) and reverse motoring (anti-clockwise rotation). If
positive direction for electromagnetic torque and speed is for forward motoring, then both
speed and electromagnetic torque are negative for reverse motoring. Apart from these two
quadrants of operation, there are two more regions: one with clockwise speed of rotation and
anti-clockwise electromagnetic torque, called forward braking, and the other with anti-
clockwise speed and clockwise electromagnetic torque, called reverse braking. In these two
regions electromagnetic torque is deliberately made to oppose direction of rotation, so that it
brakes the machine (hence the names of the regions). These two regions correspond to the
second and the fourth quadrant in the speed - electromagnetic torque plane. Figure 5.3
illustrates four possible operating quadrants and directions of speed, electromagnetic torque
and load torque for each of them.
Load torque in Fig. 5.3 is assumed to be of passive nature. Passive load torque is the
one which, on its own, cannot initiate rotation of the motor in any direction. It therefore
always acts against the direction of rotation (fans, pumps, etc.). During motoring (operation in
the first and in the third quadrant) electrical energy is converted into mechanical. During
braking output power is negative, indicating that mechanical energy is converted into
electrical. Thus electric machine operates as a generator in the second and in the fourth

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quadrant. Note however that with passive load there is no source of mechanical energy at the
shaft: kinetic energy, stored in rotating masses, is converted into electrical during braking
process and this is only temporary operating state of the machine. In other words, with
passive loads, stable steady-state operation can take place only in the first and in the third
quadrant.

Te Te
 

I III

TL TL
forward motoring reverse motoring

Te
TL TL Te

II IV

 
forward braking reverse braking


Pout < 0 Pout > 0
Forward braking Forward motoring

II I Te

III IV
Pout > 0 Pout < 0
Reverse motoring Reverse braking

Fig. 5.3: Illustration of possible operating regimes of an electric drive.

Apart from passive loads there exist active loads as well, these being those that can on
its own cause rotation of the motor. Consider for example an electric train, going up the hill,
with motor rotating in the forward direction (forward motoring). The train reaches the top of
the hill and starts going downhill. Load torque now acts in the direction of rotation (which is
still forward) of the motor and attempts to accelerate the train. Hence electromagnetic torque
has to be made negative in order to keep the speed constant. This situation corresponds to
operation in the second quadrant, where load torque now acts in the direction of rotation.
Thus, in this case, stable steady-state operation in the second quadrant can take place.
Consider another example where a crane motor is lifting the load and operating in
forward motoring. Load torque always tends to drive the motor in the reverse direction.
Hence, if the crane is now lowering the load, the motor will rotate in the reverse direction,

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with load torque supporting this reverse rotation. In order to avoid lowering of the load with
excessive speed, electromagnetic torque has now to be made negative, so that steady-state
operation is achieved. This situation corresponds to operation in the fourth quadrant, where
load torque acts in the direction of rotation.
Depending on the application, a drive may be required to operate in motoring only
(single-quadrant drive), in forward motoring and forward braking (electric vehicle) or forward
motoring and reverse braking (crane), in which case we have a two-quadrant drive, or in all
the four quadrants (four-quadrant drive). Types of braking that may be used are usually
classified as regenerative, dynamic and plugging, and these are beyond the scope of interest
here. Simple power electronic converter structures, introduced in Chapter 3, will in general be
able to provide only single-quadrant operation of a drive. This is so because all of those
converters allow for current flow in only one direction, while change of the electromagnetic
torque direction essentially requires change in the direction of the current flow. It is possible
to obtain two-quadrant operation of an electric drive with relatively minor modifications of
the converters in Chapter 3. However, four-quadrant operation will in general ask for multiple
converter arrangement, where one set provides operation in two quadrants, while the other set
enables operation in the remaining two quadrants.
Load torque in electric motor drives is often dependent on speed of rotation.
Frequently met types of load torques are constant speed independent load torque, load torque
proportional to the speed, load torque proportional to the square of the speed and load torque
proportional to the inverse of the speed (constant power load). These are illustrated in Fig.
5.4. Figure 5.4 illustrates as well in speed-load torque plane passive speed independent load
torque and active speed independent load torque of electric vehicle and crane type.

TL = k
TL
TL = const.

TL = k-1 TL = k2

  

TL TL TL

Passive load Active load

(Electric vehicle type) (Crane type)

Fig. 5.4: Illustration of various types of load torques.

5.3 Speed Control of Separately Excited DC Machines

Variable speed DC motor drives nowadays utilise almost exclusively separately

excited DC motor (series excited DC motor was a dominant choice in the past in traction

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applications). A separately excited DC motor is described in steady-state operation with the

following set of equations:
Va  E  Ra I a
Vf  Rf I f
 f  c1I f
(5.1)
E  c2  f   kI f 
Te  c2  f I a  kI f I a
TL  Te

Equivalent circuit of a separately excited DC motor is shown in Fig. 5.5, where all the
variables of (5.1) are defined. Mechanical, speed-torque characteristic of the motor (speed
against electromagnetic torque) follows from (5.1):
 
Va  E  Ra I a  kI f   Ra I a  I a  Va  kI f  Ra

 
Te  kI f I a  kI f Va  kI f  Ra
Va Ra
  Te
kI f (kI f )2
(5.2)
If both voltages have rated values then
I fn  V fn R f
Van Ra
  Te
kI fn (kI fn )2
Speed-torque characteristic for rated voltage values is the natural operating characteristic and
is shown in Fig. 5.5 with bold trace. Equation (5.2) enables examination of available speed
control methods for a separately excited DC motor.
The method of speed control, used in the past, was to add a variable resistor in series
with the armature circuit. Equation for speed as function of torque then becomes
Van  Ra  Radded 
  Te (5.3)
 
2
kI fn kI fn

and speed - torque curves become as shown in Fig. 5.6.

This method of speed control enables operation with speeds below rated only and
suffers from a serious disadvantage: power loss in the added resistance significantly reduces
efficiency of the drive, meaning that there is a large waste of energy. It is for this reason that
this method is nowadays not used any more.

Example:
A separately excited DC motor has data 40 kW, 220 V, 1500 rpm, 200 A and armature
resistance is 0.1 . Voltage supply of both windings is constant and rated. The
machine is required to operate with rated load torque at one third of the rated speed.
Determine necessary resistance that has to be added in series with the armature.
Evaluate efficiency in this operating point, assuming that power loss in the excitation
winding is 1 kW.

Solution:
From motor rated data
En  Van  Ra I an  220  0.1x200  200 V
The machine has to operate with rated torque at one third of the rated speed; hence
Te  TL  Ten  I a  I an  200 A

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n1  1 3nn  E1  En 3  66.66 V
Van  E1 220  66.66
Van  E1  Ra  Radded I an  Radded   Ra   0.1  0.667
I an 200

Ra Ia
Va = E + Ra Ia

Rf Vf = Rf If

Va E If E = k If 

Vf Te = k If Ia

Pout = Pn
Te = Ten
 Va = Van
Van, reducing Vf
Ia = Ian

Van, Vfn Vf = Vfn

reducing Va, Vfn

Te
Ten 0 n 

 = (Va  Ra Ia) / k If = Va / k If  Ra Te / (k If)2

Fig. 5.5: Speed control of a separately excited DC motor by armature and field voltage
variation: equivalent circuit, steady-state equations and characteristics.


natural characteristic

increasing added resistance

Te
Fig. 5.6: Speed control by means of added resistance in series with the armature circuit.

Pin  Van I an  Pf  220 x 200  1000  45 kW

Pout  Ten1  Ten n / 3  Pn / 3  13.33 kW
  Pout Pin  13.33 / 45  0.296
However, for operation without added resistance, at rated speed
 n  Pn Van I an  Pf   40 / 45  0.89
Inspection of (5.2) reveals that there are other, better means of doing speed control. In
particular, armature voltage can be varied. This has the effect of shifting speed-torque curves

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downwards, as shown in Fig. 5.5. Speed-torque curves remain parallel to the natural
characteristic. Armature voltage can be varied from zero up to the rated value when the
machine is supplied from a power electronic converter. This will yield operation in the base
speed region, with any desired speed for the given load. Once when rated armature voltage is
reached, it cannot be increased further on. Thus, if operation above base speed is required, it
follows from (5.2) that this can be achieved by reducing excitation winding current. This
means that flux is reduced (field weakening), this being achieved by reduction in the
excitation winding voltage. Speed-torque characteristics are shown in Fig. 5.5. Additionally,
Fig. 5.5 shows how armature voltage, excitation winding voltage, torque and output power
change as function of speed, assuming operation with the rated armature current in both base
speed region and in field weakening.

Example:
A separately excited DC motor has data 40 kW, 220 V, 1500 rpm, 200 A and armature
resistance is 0.1 . Voltage supply for both windings is provided from power
electronic converters. The machine is required to operate with rated load torque at one
third of the rated speed. Determine required armature voltage value for operation at
this speed.

Solution:
From the previous example rated induced emf is 200 V. Emf at one third of the rated speed is, again
from previous example, 66.66 V. Torque is rated and, as excitation flux is rated as well, then armature
current is rated and equal to 200 A. New required armature voltage for operation at one third of the
rated speed is sum of the emf and voltage drop at armature resistance. The value is 66.66 + 0.1x200
=86.66 V.

5.4 Rectifiers and Rectifier Control of Separately Excited DC Motors

Basic fully-controllable single-phase bridge rectifier and a diode bridge rectifier were
introduced in Chapter 3. Average value of the output voltage has been determined for the case
of continuous current flow as
2 2Vi
V  cos fully controllable bridge single - phase rectifier
 (5.4)
2 2Vi
V  diode bridge rectifier

Both of these expressions neglect voltage drop at semiconductors (two of them are connected
in series and conducting at any instant in time). Typical values of the voltage drop are around
0.7 V for a diode and 1.5 V for a thyristor. Should it be required, twice this voltage drop
needs to be subtracted on the right-hand side of (5.4), leading to a slightly lower average
output DC voltage.
For high power ratings of the motor single-phase bridge rectifier has to be substituted
with a three-phase bridge rectifier, which again in general can be diode or fully controllable
thyristor based. Fig. 5.7 illustrates three-phase bridge fully controllable rectifier, whose output
is shown as supplying armature of a separately excited DC motor. Input into the rectifier is
either mains voltage or voltage at the secondary of an interconnecting transformer, whose role
will be discussed later.
Excitation winding of the motor in Fig. 5.7 is supplied from a single-phase thyristor
bridge, indicating that the drive operates in both base speed and field weakening regions. If
operation in field weakening is not required, excitation winding is fed from a single-phase
diode bridge rectifier.

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The circuit shown in Fig. 5.7 contains an additional inductance L which is deliberately
inserted between the rectifier and the armature. The purpose of this inductance is to improve
continuity of the armature current: under light loads torque required by the machine and hence
average armature current as well are small and therefore instantaneous armature current tends
to become discontinuous. If armature current is discontinuous (which will often happen
especially if the rectifier is single-phase) average armature voltage is not any more determined
with the simple relation of the form ‘constant times cosine of the firing angle’. This is so
because when armature current is zero induced electromotive force appears across armature
terminals. Discontinuous armature current is undesirable because rectifier control assumes
continuity of the armature current.

L ia if

3 phase
415 V La
50 Hz
Ra Lf
vf
va
Rf
e

armature excitation

Fig. 5.7: Rectifier-fed separately excited DC machine for operation in base and field-
weakening regions.

If the drive is required to operate in the first quadrant of the torque-speed plane only
(i.e., in forward motoring with positive torque and speed values), a flywheel diode will often
be placed across the armature. Flywheel diode is shown in Fig. 5.7 with dotted lines. Addition
of the flywheel diode prevents instantaneous armature voltage from going negative and thus
improves continuity of the current, at the expense of disabling the operation in the second
quadrant.
Output voltage of a three-phase bridge rectifier consists of portions of three input line
to line voltages. As rectification takes place, the output voltage contains six pulses, each of
which corresponds (for zero firing angle) to 60 degrees area around the peak of one of the line
to line voltages. Output voltage is shown in Fig. 5.8 for zero firing angle. Current flows at any
instant through two diodes or thyristors, so that mains current, in the case of highly inductive
load, has the quasi-square form, discussed in the section on Fourier analysis: each half-period
contains constant current value for 120 degrees, and current is zero for 60 degrees. Output DC
current is again level if the load is highly inductive.
Average value of the output voltage of a three-phase bridge rectifier is given with
(note that Vi stands for rms value of the phase to neutral voltage):
three-phase diode bridge rectifier:
1 2 1 5 / 6 2 3Vi
3  cos(   / 6) / 2
5 / 6
2 0 2 / 2
V  v ( ) d  6 2 3Vi sin(   / 6)d 


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v V

0 30 90 150 210 270 330 360 degrees

Fig. 5.8: Output voltage of a three-phase bridge rectifier for zero firing angle.

V 
2 3Vi


3 cos 60  cos120 
(5.5)
3 2 3Vi 2ViL  L
V  3
 
three-phase thyristor bridge fully-controllable rectifier:
1 5 / 6
 
2 3V
V  6  2 3Vi sin   / 6  3 cos  / 3     cos 2 / 3   
2  / 2  
(5.6)
2 3Vi 2ViL  L
V 3 cos  3 cos
 
Measurement of firing angle  is now not associated with voltage zero crossing, as the case
was in the single-phase bridge rectifier. Firing angle is of zero value for maximum output
average voltage shown in Fig. 5.8, where measurement of firing angle is graphically
illustrated. It follows from (5.6) that average output voltage is positive for firing angles up to
90 degrees; for firing angles above 90 degrees output average voltage becomes negative,
indicating inverting mode of operation. If inversion is to take place, it is again necessary that a
DC voltage source exists on DC side, of appropriate polarity. Average output voltage against
firing angle is plotted in Fig. 5.9.
The operation of a rectifier fed DC motor drive is illustrated by means of experimental
waveforms of armature voltage and current in steady-state operation. Configuration of the
experimentally examined drive is given in Fig. 5.10. Armature is fed from a single-phase half-
controlled thyristor bridge rectifier with flywheel diode (whose presence is of no significance
in this circuit), while excitation winding voltage is provided by a single-phase diode bridge
rectifier. The drive was operated without any feedback control, in pure open-loop mode.

V
323 Vi /

0 90 180 ()

-323 Vi /
Fig. 5.9: Average output voltage for a fully controllable three-phase bridge rectifier.

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ia if

va FD vf

Fig. 5.10: Separately excited DC motor drive supplied from single-phase bridge rectifiers.

Figure 5.11 illustrates instantaneous armature voltage and instantaneous armature

current for two loading conditions of the motor: relatively light load and full load operation.
Operation under light-load conditions is characterised with discontinuous armature current of
low average value. Hence the voltage is composed of a part of the rectified input sine-wave
(when current has non-zero values) and of the induced electromotive force (when current is
zero). Increase in loading leads to smaller intervals when current is zero and voltage equal to
the electromotive force of the machine. Under full loading current becomes continuous.

Fig. 5.11: Armature voltage and current in a rectifier fed DC motor drive for two loads.

Example:
Rated data of a separately excited DC motor are as follows. Armature: 50 A, 200 V,
1000 rpm, 0.4 . Excitation winding: 200 V, 2 A. Excitation current is kept constant
and equal to rated. Motor is loaded with constant speed independent load torque, equal
to the rated electromagnetic torque. Speed is controlled by armature voltage variation,
and armature is supplied from a single-phase fully controllable bridge rectifier.
Available AC voltage is 240 V, 50 Hz.
a) Determine whether an input transformer is needed between mains and the rectifier.
If so, determine the transformer turns ratio which will give rated voltage at machine
terminals for zero firing angle.

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b) The machine operates at one half of the rated speed. Determine thyristor firing
angle and rectifier output voltage, assuming continuous current mode.
c) The machine operates at 75% of the rated speed. Repeat part b.

Solution:
a) Rated voltage of the machine is 200 V. Rated voltage is always required to be delivered by the
rectifier when it operates with zero firing angle. Hence, unless rated voltage of the machine and the
mains voltage match exactly, it is necessary to insert a transformer between the mains and the rectifier.
From the expression for single-phase bridge rectifier average output voltage
2 2
V  Vi cos

2 2 200
  0  V  200 V  200 = Vi  Vi 
 222.144 V
 2 2
Available mains voltage is however 240 V. Hence a transformer is needed, with
turns ratio equa to
m  240 222.144  1.08
With the transformer, rectifier output average voltage becomes
V  200 cos
Note that excitation winding is supplied from a single-phase diode rectifier, as operation in the field
weakening region is not required. Further, rated voltage of this winding is 200 V, i.e., the same as for
armature winding, meaning that input of the diode bridge comes from the secondary of the same
transformer used for armature winding.
b) Calculation regarding operation at 0.5 of the rated speed require, as usual, analysis of the rated
operation at first. Hence
E n  Van  Ra I an  200  0.4 x50  180 V
where Van  V    0  200 cos   200 V
E n  kI fn n  Kn n E 1  kI fn1  Kn1  k 0.5n n
E 1  0.5 E n  0.5 x180  90 V
As load torque is constant and rated at all speeds, then armature current is
constant and rated at all speeds as well. Hence
V1  E 1  Ra I an  90  0.4 x50  110 V
V1  200 cos  1  110 V  cos 1  110 / 200  0.55

 1  56.63
c) For operation at 75% of the rated speed it is only necessary to repeat the procedure of part b. Thus
n2  0.75nn  E2  Kn2  K 0.75nn  0.75En  135 V
As armature current is still rated
V2  E2  Ra I an  135  0.4x50  155 V
V2  200 cos 2  155 V  cos 2  155 / 200  0.775
 2  39.2

Example:
Repeat the previous example if instead of a single-phase thyristor bridge rectifier a
three-phase thyristor bridge rectifier is used. The rectifier is to be connected to three-
phase mains of 415 V, 50 Hz either directly or through a transformer, if required.
Connection of transformer primary and secondary three-phase windings is star-star.

Solution:
a) From the expression for three-phase bridge rectifier output average voltage

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3 2ViL  L
V cos   Va

3 2ViL  L 200
V (  0)   200 V  ViL  L  148.1 V
 3 2
Mains line - to - line voltage is 415 V. Hence a transformer is needed. Its turns ratio is
415 3
m  2.8
148.1 3
With the transformer between mains and the rectifier, armature voltage becomes
V  Va  200 cos 
so that solutions to parts b) and c) remain the same as in the previous example.
Note that now it is not possible to use the same transformer for the input of the diode single-phase
bridge, which supplies excitation winding. A separate single-phase transformer needs to be used
instead. Indeed, assuming that input is taken as secondary line to line voltage,
2 2 2 2
V Vi  148.1  133.33 V  200 V
 
Hence for diode bridge
 200
Vi   222.14 V  m  240 / 222.14  1.08
2 2
which is the same as in the previous example.

Example:
A separately excited DC motor operates with constant rated flux. Rated armature data
are 50 A, 400 V, 1000 rpm, 0.4 .
The motor drives a load such that the armature current is 25 A.
a) Determine the operating speed for the given load.
b) Armature is fed from a three-phase bridge fully controllable rectifier. The rectifier
is connected directly to three-phase 415 V, 50 Hz mains. Find the thyristor firing angle
that gives rated voltage at armature.
c) The speed for the given load is required to be 400 rpm. Find the new values of
armature voltage and thyristor firing angle. Current may be regarded as continuous
and overlap and thyristor voltage drop may be neglected.

Solution:
a) Required speed is determined as follows:
En  Van  Ra I an  400  0.4x50  380 V En  kI fn n  Knn
E1  Van  Ra I a1  400  0.4x 25  390 V E1  kI fn 1  Kn1
n1  nn E1 En  1000x 390 / 380  1026.3 rpm
b) The rectifier is connected directly to the mains. This leads to operation with high value of the firing
angle for rated armature voltage, which is undesirable due to significantly worsened power factor. From
the expression for the three-phase bridge rectifier average voltage
3 2ViL  L
V  Va  cos

3 2ViL  L 400
Van  400  cos n  cos n  0.713
 3 2 415
 n  44.46
c) For operation at 400 rpm

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n2
E2  Kn2  En  380x 400 / 1000  152 V
nn
I a 2  I a1  25 A
Va 2  E2  Ra I a 2  152  0.4 x 25  162 V
3 2 x 415 162
Va 2  162  cos 2  cos 2   0.289
 3 2 x 415
 2  73.2

Previous discussion applied to line-commutated rectifiers, based on utilisation of

thyristors and diodes. However, rectifier applications nowadays often utilise Pulse-Width-
Modulation (PWM), which in turn requires semiconductor switches whose turn on and turn
off are both controllable. The idea is explained using a separately excited DC motor drive as
the load (Fig. 5.12). Much faster control is possible with this scheme as voltage delivered to
the motor is now controlled by fully controllable switch ‘S’ (shown in Fig. 5.12 as a BJT)
whose switching frequency is independent of the mains frequency and is normally in kHz
region. The rectifier used in the circuit is a diode single-phase bridge rectifier which delivers
DC voltage of constant average value to the subsequent DC circuit. In essence, circuit of
Fig.5.12 contains two converters, a rectifier (AC-DC converter) that gives uncontrollable
output voltage, and a DC-DC converter that chops the rectifier output voltage and thus
produces a variable DC voltage at motor terminals.
The rectifier output voltage is always of the same magnitude and therefore of constant
average value. Variable average voltage for the motor is provided by the action of the switch
S. The PWM technique most frequently employed is the sinusoidal PWM. For given speed of
operation a known average voltage is required. A signal of mains frequency is generated, such
that it represents rectified sine wave and its average value is the one required. This signal is
called reference and it is compared with the so-called carrier signal whose frequency is much
higher than mains frequency. Carrier is usually a triangular wave and its frequency equals
switching frequency of the switch S. Instants of turn on and turn off for the switch S are
determined as intersections of the reference signal (rectified sine wave) and the carrier signal
(triangular signal). When switch S is on, voltage applied across motor equals part of the
rectifier output voltage; when switch S is off motor voltage is zero as current flows through
the flywheel diode, which short-circuits the motor. Sinusoidal PWM is illustrated in Fig. 5.13.
It can be shown that the average value of the sequence of pulses applied to the motor
exactly equals the average value of the reference signal. By changing the amplitude of the
reference signal, while keeping the amplitude of the carrier constant, turn on and turn off
instants for the switch change. This leads to change in duration of pulses, so that average
value of the voltage applied across the load changes as well. The benefit of the PWM is that
much faster dynamic response is obtainable as output voltage waveform can be changed at the
switching frequency (rather than at mains frequency).

5.5 Choppers and Chopper Fed DC Motor Drives

Operation of a step-down chopper has already been examined in Chapter 3 for the case
of resistive load. Figure 5.14 illustrates operation of this chopper when a resistive-inductive
load is supplied. Average output voltage of the chopper remains to be given with the same
expression as before (i.e., product of input DC voltage and the duty cycle, which was defined
as ratio of on-time to switching period). Output current is assumed to be continuous. Input
current flows only during intervals when switch S is closed. In intervals when switch is open
current flywheels through the FD diode.

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FD FD = flywheel diode

Fig. 5.12: DC motor drive fed from sinusoidal PWM DC source.

Rectifier output voltage

Reference and carrier waves

Switch driving signals

Voltage across motor

Fig. 5.13: Application of sinusoidal PWM in rectifier fed DC motor drive.

Another way of realising a DC motor drive for variable speed operation is to utilise a
step-down chopper instead of a rectifier. Such an approach is especially attractive if the
available supply is DC, as the case is in battery-fed vehicles and in traction systems with DC
overhead wires. However, even when DC supply is not directly available, chopper fed drive
may be used provided that the available AC supply is at first rectified (and usually filtered,
using a capacitor at the rectifier output). Chopper fed drive offers certain advantages when
compared with a rectifier fed drive. In a rectifier fed drive firing angle and hence average
armature voltage can be altered only twice in a cycle of the input voltage (i.e., each 10 ms for
50 Hz supply). This means that achievable dynamic response is limited. Additionally,

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armature current supplied from a rectifier is rich in low order harmonics that cause additional
losses in the machine and thus limit its loading capability. In contrast to this, chopper is
essentially operated as PWM DC supply, most frequently with fixed switching frequency
which is much higher than the frequency of the AC supply. Consequently, dynamic response
obtainable with a chopper is much quicker; additionally, harmonics generated by the chopper
are of high frequency so that additional losses in the machine are greatly reduced.
Figure 5.15 illustrates a separately excited DC machine supplied from a chopper. Input
DC voltage of the chopper is shown as rectified and smoothed single-phase AC voltage. If the
capacitor in the DC link between diode rectifier and the chopper is sufficiently large, the
chopper input voltage may be regarded as approximately constant. The average armature
voltage applied across the armature is varied by varying the on and off times of the switch
within the chopper. Switch may be any of the fully controllable power semiconductors or it
may be a thyristor with auxiliary circuit for forced commutation. During intervals when the
switch is open, armature current decays through the flywheel diode.
Depending on the loading of the machine (i.e., on required average armature current)
the armature current may be continuous or discontinuous. Typical waveforms of armature
voltage and armature current for light load and full load operation are given in Fig. 5.15 as
well. Note that average voltage at the armature is equal to the product of input DC voltage and
duty cycle only when the drive operates in continuous current mode.

ii S i VDC
ton T 2T t
v V
VDC FD iFD
R,L v
i

ii

iFD

Fig. 5.14: Operation of step-down chopper with resistive-inductive load.

Example:
A 250 V separately excited DC motor has armature resistance of 2.5 . When driving
a load of constant load torque at 600 rpm, the armature takes rated 20 A. This motor is
fed by chopper with switching frequency of 400 Hz, whose input voltage is 250 V.
Determine the required duty cycle and chopper on-time if the speed of the drive is to
be 400 rpm, with the same load torque.

Solution:
As rated motor voltage is 250 V and chopper input DC voltage is 250 V, the chopper operates with duty
cycle equal to one (i.e., switch is continuously on) at 600 rpm. Then
En  Van  Ra I an  250  2.5 x 20  200 V
En  Knn E1  Kn1 E1  En n1 nn  200 x 400 / 600  133 V
Te1  Ten  I a1  I an
Va1  E1  Ra I an133  2.5 x 20  183 V

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Chopper output voltage equals armature input volt age. Hence

V  VDC  Va
Va1  VDC1  1  Va1 VDC  183 / 250  0.73
T  1 / f  1 / 400  2.5 ms ton  T1  0.73x 2.5  1.825 ms

Switch

vc ia if

C va FD
e vf

vc vc
V V

ton T 2T ton T 2T
t t

va va
V V V V V V
e e

t t

ia ia

t t
Discontinuous current mode Continuous current mode
(light load) (full load)

Fig. 5.15: Chopper-fed separately excited DC motor drive: configuration and typical wave-
forms of armature voltage and current for light and heavy loading.

5.6 Rectifier Operation with Capacitive Load

The remaining case of rectifier loading, which has not been considered so far,
corresponds to the situation in Fig.5.15. Output of the rectifier is connected in parallel with
the capacitor. The role of the capacitor is to smooth the rectifier output voltage. Capacitive
filtering is always used when an as constant as possible DC voltage is required (i.e. in all the

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devices requiring smooth DC supply). One case where this situation will be met is provision
of input voltage for a three-phase voltage source inverter supplying an induction motor.
Operation of a rectifier with capacitor connected across its output terminals will be therefore
briefly discussed next.
If a capacitor is connected in parallel to the DC terminals, as the case is when rectifier
is used to provide as smooth as possible DC voltage, it is not possible to discuss the operation
of the rectifier in simple terms. Instead, a detailed mathematical representation is necessary in
order to determine waveforms at the rectifier output. This is so because the current will flow
from the mains to the DC side only when mains voltage is higher than capacitor voltage,
which is in turn governed by differential equation. The operation of a single phase bridge
rectifier with smoothing capacitor at the DC side is therefore illustrated by means of computer
simulation results. The case analysed is a single-phase bridge diode rectifier and the DC side
of the rectifier is composed of a capacitor and a resistor (Rbus) which is connected in parallel
to the capacitor and which represents load. This resistance models power required by the load
(for example, chopper feeding a DC motor, as in Fig. 5.15). The model accounts for resistance
and inductance of the AC source as well. Two situations are shown, in order to visualise how
value of the capacitor affects DC voltage and input rectifier current. In the first case a
capacitor of 1 mF is used, while the second case applies to high capacitance of 10 mF. Steady-
state is shown in Fig. 5.16, where rectified input current and load (Rbus) current are shown, as
well as the input rectified voltage, capacitor voltage and difference between the two voltages.
It is evident from Fig. 5.16 that high value of capacitor capacitance enables operation with
very smooth, almost constant, DC voltage. Thus the DC current through the load is almost
constant as well. On the other hand, the more realistic case with 1 mF capacitor indicates that
there is some ripple in the capacitor DC voltage, leading to a corresponding ripple in the load
(Rbus) current. Which value of the capacitor is to be used depends on the application, which
dictates the allowed amount of ripple in the load voltage and current. In any case, Fig. 5.16
confirms that already used assumption regarding constancy of the capacitor voltage is
realistic.
As already mentioned, one of very frequent applications of the bridge rectifier with
capacitive smoothing is in AC motor drives, where rectifier output voltage, which appears
across the capacitor, serves as input voltage into the voltage source inverter. When three-
phase rectifier is used, almost constant DC voltage is obtained with much lower values of the
capacitor. It will be normally assumed further on that the voltage provided by a rectifier with
capacitive filtering may be regarded as constant.

5.7 Tutorial Questions

Q1. A separately excited DC motor has data 40 kW, 220 V, 1500 rpm, 200 A and armature
resistance is 0.1 ohm. Excitation flux is constant and equal to rated. The new speed-
torque curve is required to pass through the points where speed equals one third of the
no-load speed (for operation with zero armature current) and one fifth of the rated
speed (for operation with rated armature current). How can this be achieved? Calculate
all the necessary data for the new speed-torque curve.
If the load torque is linearly proportional to the speed and equals one half of the motor
rated torque at rated motor speed, calculate torque and speed for operation at the
natural characteristic and for operation at the new torque-speed characteristic.

Hint: new speed-torque characteristic is such that two methods of speed control,
armature voltage variation and addition of resistance in series with armature, have to
be combined.

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Fig. 5.16: Operation of single-phase diode bridge rectifier with capacitive filter.

Q2. Separately excited DC motor, whose data are 5 kW, 230 V, 26.1 A, 150 rad/s,
armature resistance = 1.1 ohm, operates with constant rated flux and drives a load
whose load torque is constant, TL  20 [Nm] . Calculate steady-state operating speeds
and torques for armature voltages equal to 100 %, 50 % and 25 % of the rated.

Q3. A DC load is supplied via a single-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier from 240 V,
50 Hz mains. Find the rectifier mean output voltage for firing angles of 0, 30, 45, 60
and 90 degrees. Output current may be assumed to be level. Plot all the relevant
waveforms in the circuit for each of the firing angle values.

Q4. A DC load is supplied via a three-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier from 415 V,
50 Hz mains. Find the rectifier mean output voltage for firing angles of 0, 30, 45, 60
and 90 degrees. Output current may be assumed to be level.

Q5. A separately excited DC motor, whose rated data are 300 V, 50 A, 1000 rpm, operates
with constant rated flux and has armature resistance of 0.5 ohms. The motor is loaded
with constant rated load torque and its armature is fed via
i) single-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier
ii) three-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier
from i) single-phase 240 V ii) three-phase 415 V, 50 Hz supply.
a) Determine whether input transformer is needed. If so, determine the transformer
turns ratio (assume star-star connection for the three-phase case) which will give rated
voltage at armature terminals for zero firing angle.

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Power Electronics, Drives and Systems Power Electronics and Drives

b) The machine is to operate at 60% of the rated speed. Determine average output
voltage of the rectifier and the thyristor firing angle for this operating point.
c) The machine is to operate at 20 % of the rated speed. Repeat part b).

Q6. Sketch the power circuit of a step-down chopper, plot characteristic waveforms
assuming R,L load and derive expression for the chopper output voltage average value.

Q7. A 250 V separately excited DC motor, whose armature resistance is 2.5 ohms, has
rated speed and rated armature current of 1000 rpm and 20 A, respectively. The motor
is fed from a step-down chopper that operates with constant switching frequency of 1
kHz and whose input DC voltage is 300 V. The motor drives a load whose torque is
speed-independent and equal to one third of the rated. Excitation flux is constant and
equal to rated.
a) Find the values of armature voltage that are required for operation at rated
speed and one fifth of the rated speed and sketch appropriate speed-torque curves,
indicating the two operating points.
b) Determine the necessary duty cycles and chopper on-times for the two
operating points analysed in a).
c) Sketch power circuit of the drive and the typical waveforms in the circuit,
assuming continuous conduction mode.

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