VNR VIGNANA JYOTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTE)

Bachupally, Nizampet (S.O.), Hyderabad 500090

Phone No: 040- 3042758/59/60 Fax .No 23042761

E-Mail:postbox@vnrvjiet.in website:vnrvjiet.ac.in

DEPARTMENT OF

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

POWER SYSTEMS LABORATORY

MANUAL
 VNR VIGNANA JYOTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTE)

Bachupally, Nizampet (S.O.), Hyderabad 500090

DEPARTMENT OF E.E.E

POWER SYSTEMS LAB

List of Experiments - B. Tech

1. Characteristics of Electromagnetic IDMT OC relay

2. Characteristics of Micro Processor based Over/Under Voltage relay
3. Finding the sequence impedances of 3-Φ synchronous machine
4. Finding the sequence impedances of 3-Φ Transformer
5. Differential protection of 1-Φ transformer
6. Finding string efficiency of insulator strings
7. Capacitance of 3-core cables
8. Fault diagnosis of cables
9. Study of CT and PT
10.Formation of Y-Bus
11.Load Flow Analysis using Gauss Siedel Method
12.Load Flow Analysis using FDLF method
13.Transient Stability Analysis using Point by Point Method
14.Frequency deviation and Power deviation of Two area Load
Frequency Control
15.Modeling and Fault Analysis of Transmission System
 VNR VIGNANA JYOTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTE)

Bachupally, Nizampet (S.O.), Hyderabad 500090

DEPARTMENT OF E.E.E

POWER SYSTEMS LAB

List of Experiments - M. Tech

1. Characteristics of Electromagnetic IDMT OC relay

2. Characteristics of Micro Processor based Over Voltage relay
3. Characteristics of Micro Processor based Under Voltage relay
4. Finding the sequence impedances of 3-Φ synchronous machine
5. Finding the sequence impedances of 3-Φ Transformer
6. Differential protection of 1-Φ transformer
7. Finding string efficiency of insulator strings
8. Capacitance of 3-core cables
9. Fault Analysis of Synchronous machine:

i. Single Line to Ground fault (L-G)

ii. Line to Line fault (L-L)

iii.Double Line to Ground fault (L-L-G)

iv. Triple Line to Ground fault (L-L-L-G)

10.Determination of Sub-transient reactance’s of a Salient Pole Synchronous

Machine.

11.Modeling and Fault Analysis of Transmission System

 VNR VIGNANA JYOTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTE)

Bachupall,(Via) Kukatpally, Hyderabad 500090

DEPARTMENT OF E.E.E, POWER SYSTEMS LAB

Vision of the Department

To excel in Education, Technology and Research in Electrical and

Electronics Engineering leading to sustainable socioeconomic
development of the nation.

Mission of the Department

Excellent teaching learning environment imbibed with professional
ethics and social responsibility in promoting quality education.

Promoting research through industry collaborations and innovative

projects.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF IDMT OC RELAY

Aim:-

To study the Operation of a Non-Directional electromagnetic type IDMT Over

Current relay and to plot the inverse time current characteristics.
Apparatus:-
S. No Equipment Type Range Qty
1 Auto transformer 1-phase AC
2 Current injection 1-phase AC
transformer
3 Current transformer 1-phase AC
4 PSM Analog
5 TMS Analog
6 Ammeter Digital, MI
7 Non-Directional Easun Reyrolle
Over current relay
8 Timer Digital
9 Connecting probes

Theory:
IDMT relay is an Inverse Definite Minimum Time relay. It is one in which
Time of operation is inversely proportional to magnitude of fault current near
pickup value and becomes substantially constant slightly above the pickup
value of the Relay. This is achieved by using the core of Electro Magnet
which gets saturated for currents slightly greater than the pickup current.
This relay consists of an Induction disc unit with an operation indicator and
in some cases an instantaneous high set unit all are assembled in a standard
frame. Disc shaft carries silver rod moving contacts which complete the
auxiliary unit circuit through the fixed contact. Permanent magnet is used to
control the disc speed. The setting is adjusted by the movement of the back
stop which is controlled by rotating a KNUR LED molded disc at the base of
graduated time multiplier.
 Fault current and measured relay operating time is used to conduct the
experiment. Values will be recorded for various TSMs and PSMs.
Characteristics will be studied with the help of a graph and correlated with
theory.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1. Circuit diagram of Electromagnet IDMT OC relay

Procedure :-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1.
2. Set PSM and TMS
3. Keeping auto transformer in minimum output position, the MCB is closed
4. Keep Test switch in ON position
5. Now set the described fault current by varying the auto transformer
6. Now move the Test switch to OFF position
7. Reset the timer and Relay
8. Press Mains ON button, timer counting will start and it will stop once the
relay is operated.
9. Note down the operating time of the relay
10.Repeat the same procedure for various TMS and PMS
11.Plot the graph between Operating time and Relay current for various
TMS
Tabular form:-
PSM
S.No Fault Current (A) Operating time (sec)

Model graphs:-

Fig. 2. Characteristics of Electromagnet IDMT OC Relay

Precautions:-
• Disc must be stationary before applying fault current.
• PSM and TSM settings must be changed with due care.
Result:-
Review questions:-
1. Why CT is required in this experiment?
2. Can we design the experiment without Current Injection Unit?
3. What is TMS & PSM and what is the difference between TMS &
PSM?
4. Identify different terminals of the relay and explain their use.
 Characteristics of Microprocessor based Under/
Over Voltage Relay
Aim: To study the Operation of Microprocessor based Under/Over
Voltage relay and to plot the inverse time voltage
characteristics.
Apparatus:-
S. No Equipment Type Range Qty
1 Auto transformer 1-phase AC
2 Voltmeter MI, Digital
3 PSM Analog
4 TSM Analog
5 Microprocessor L& T
Based Over
6 voltage relay Digital
7 Timer
Connecting
Probes

Theory:
Under Voltage/Over Voltage Relay is an electronic microcontroller
based single-phase voltage relay. It is suitable for under/over voltage
protection schemes in LV, MV and HV power distribution systems. It is
also suitable for over voltage protection of AC circuits, capacitors,
machines such as generators, synchronous motor and under voltage
protection of AC circuits, Induction motors, automatic change over
schemes etc.
The microcontroller-based design offers a wide range of Trip-Time
characteristics, under voltage or over voltage mode and PT rating (110V,
240V, 415V), which can all be selected in the field at the time of
commissioning. It accepts very wide auxiliary supply range.
Relay is designed for flush mounting. It is very compact in size, which
results in saving of panel space. Its draw-out construction makes
installation and maintenance very easy.
8
 Circuit Diagrams:

Fig. 1 Circuit diagram of under/over Voltage Relay

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1
2. Set pickup value and trip time
3. Keeping auto transformer in minimum output position, the MCB is
closed
4. Keep selector switch in Over/Under Voltage position
5. Keep Test switch in ON position
6. Now set the desired voltage by varying the Auto transformer
7. Now move the Test switch to OFF position
8. Reset timer and Relay
9. Press Mains ON button, timer counting will start and it will stop
once the relay is operated
10. Note down the operating time of the relay
11. Repeat the same procedure for various pickup value and trip times
12. Plot the graph between operating time Vs Applied voltage for
various trip times.
Tabular Form for Over Voltage Relay: Pick up setting
S.No. Applied Voltage Operating Time
(V) (sec)
Trip Trip Trip
time time time
9
Tabular Form for Under Voltage Relay: Pick up setting
S.No. Applied Voltage Operating Time
(V) (sec)
Trip Trip Trip
time time time

Model Graph:

Fig. 2 Characteristics of Microprocessor based Over voltage relay

Setting of Fault voltage Level:
Vs = [1 (0.05+∑a) ] Vn
Where,
Vs = Pick up setting in
volts Vn = PT rating 110V
a = weight of the switch in ON position
'+' for OV mode; '-' for UV mode
In OV mode, when the applied voltage is above the pickup setting, relay
picks up and trips according to selected trip time characteristics.
In UV mode, when the applied voltage is below the pickup setting, relay
picks up and trips according to selected trip time characteristics.
10
 The trip time will depend upon:
a) Trip time characteristic selected and magnitude of fault in case
of Inverse Trip Time Characteristics.
b) Define Time in case of Definite Time Characteristics.
Time Multiplier Settling:
This feature offers various operations of Trip Time for a selected
Trip Time Characteristic. The Time Multiplication Factor can be set
from 0.1 to 1.6 in steps of 0.1 using the last block of four DIP switches
shown in Diagram. This means in case of Inverse Trip Time
Characteristics. Relay offers 16 parallel curves corresponding to each
Time Multiplier Setting and in case of Definite Trip Time mode, the trip
time can be set 100msec to 160 secs.
Trip time T is given by formula
T = K (0.1+∑t)
where
T = Trip time in seconds.
K = Constant depending on Trip Time Characteristic
selected Normal Inverse (3.5 secs) in OV mode when fault
is 2Vs Normal Inverse (5.7 secs) in UV mode when fault is
0.5Vs. Definite Time (1.0 sec)
Definite Time (10 sec)
Definite Time (100
sec)
t=weight of the switches in ON position
Precautions:-
 PSM and TSM settings must be changed with due care.

Result:
Review Questions:
11
 Finding the Sequence Impedances of a Cylindrical rotor
Synchronous Machine
Aim: To find Positive, Negative and Zero sequence impedances of given
three phase Cylindrical rotor Synchronous Machine.
Name Plate details :
Alternato
Parameter DC Motor r
Rated Power
Rated voltage
Rated speed
Rated Field current
Rated Armature current

Apparatus:
S. No Equipment Type Range Qty
1 Auto transformer 3-phase AC
2 Auto transformer 1-phase AC
2 3-point starter -
3 Rectifier -
4 Rectifier -
5 Voltmeter MC, Digital
6 Ammeter MC, Digital
7 Ammeter MC, Digital
8 Voltmeter MI, Digital
9 Ammeter MI, Digital
10 Voltmeter MC, Digital
11 3-Phase Alternator - -
DC Motor set
12
Theory: The positive, Negative and Zero sequence impedances of rotating
machines are generally different. The +ve sequence impedance of
Synchronous generator is equal to the Synchronous impedance of the
machine. Experimental set up to conduct OCC and SCC is made available.
With the help of observations Synchronous impedance can be calculated.
The –ve sequence impedance is much less than +ve Sequence impedance.
The zero sequence impedance is a variable item and if its value is not given,
it may be assumed to be equal to the +ve sequence impedance. For Zero
sequence impedance a separate model is used to conduct of experiment.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
(A) POSITIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE:

Fig. 1 Circuit diagram for finding positive sequence impedance

(B) Negative Sequence Impedance:

Fig. 2 Circuit diagram for finding Negative sequence impedance

13
 (C) Zero-Sequence Impedance:

Fig. 3 Circuit diagram for finding Zero sequence impedance

Procedure:-
I. Positive Sequence Impedance:
OC Test:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1
2. Switch ON DC MCB
3. Close the DPST switch
4. Move the 3-point starter handle from OFF position to ON position
5. Run the alternator through the DC motor at synchronous speed
6. Keep the selector switch in 0-220V position
7. Keeping Auto transformer in minimum output position, switch ON AC
MCB
8. Vary the field excitation of the alternator in steps upto rated voltage by
using 1-phase auto transformer and note down excitation voltage and
filed current
9. Reduce the excitation to zero
10.Obtain the O.C.C of the Alternator
SC Test:
11.Close TPST switch and adjust the excitation voltage of the alternator
with the help of 1-phase auto transformer such that rated current flows
in the
armature windings
14
 12.Note down the excitation and armature currents
13.Reduce the excitation to zero
14.Open DPST switch
15.Switch OFF both AC and DC MCB's
16.Obtain the S.C.C of the Alternator
17.Positive sequence impedance is given by
Z1 = O.C voltage/S.C current (at the same field current) Ω
II. Negative Sequence Impedance:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 2
2. Switch ON DC MCB
3. Close the DPST switch
4. Move the 3-point starter handle from OFF position to ON position
5. Run the alternator through the DC motor at synchronous speed
6. Keep the selector switch in 0-220V position
7. Keeping Auto transformer in minimum output position, switch ON
AC MCB
8. Adjust the voltage across armature of the alternator with the help of 1-
phase autotransformer such that rated current flows in the windings
9. Note down armature current and voltage
10.Bring the auto transformer to minimum output position and open
DPST switch
11.Switch OFF both AC and DC MCB's
12.Negative sequence impedance is given
by Z 2 = V/ ( √3 I) Ω
III. Zero Sequence Impedance:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 3
2. Keeping Auto transformer in minimum output position, switch ON
AC MCB.
15
 3. Adjust the voltage across armature of the alternator with the help of
the 1-phase auto transformer such that rated current flows in the
windings
4. Note down current and voltage
5. Bring the auto transformer to minimum output position
6. Switch OFF AC MCB
7. Zero sequence impedance is given by
Z0 = Vao/Iao Ω
Tabular forms:
I. Positive Sequence Impedance:
O.C Test
Sl.No. If(A) Voc (V)

S.C Test
If(A) Isc (A)

II. Negative Sequence Impedance:

V2 (V) Ia2(A)

Z 2 = V2/ ( √(3 Ia2) Ω

III. Zero Sequence Impedance:

V0 (V) Ia0(A)

Z0 = Vao/Iao Ω
16
Model graph:

Result:
Review Questions:
1. Define +ve, -ve, Zero sequence impedances.
2. Why are they different for Alternators?
3. Can we analyze an unbalanced system otherwise?
4. Out of all the reactance of synchronous machine which one is lowest?
5. What is the typical value of zero sequence reactance in per unit per
large rating salient pole alternator?
17
 Finding the sequence impedances of 3- phase Transformer
Aim: To find Positive, Negative and Zero sequence impedances of given
three phase transformer.
Name Plate details :
Parameter Transformer
Rated kVA
Primary voltage
Primary current
Secondary voltage
Secondary current

Apparatus:
S. No Equipment Type Range Qty
1 Auto transformer 3-phase AC
2 Transformer 3-phase AC
3 Ammeter MI, Digital
4 Voltmeter MI, Digital
5 Connecting probes

Theory:
Since Transformers have the same impedance with reversed phase
rotation, their +ve and –ve sequence impedances are equal. This value
being equal to the impedance of the Transformer. However, Zero
sequence impedance depends upon the Earth connection. If there is a
through Circuit for the earth current, zero sequence impedance will be
equal to the +ve sequence impedance otherwise it will be infinite. Lab
experiment is planned to find out sequence impedances by creation of
faults at secondary suitably and measure impedances. Proper care is
taken to ensure readings would not damage the equipment.
18
 Circuit Diagrams:

Fig. 1 Circuit diagram for finding Positive sequence impedance

Fig. 2 Circuit diagram for finding Zero sequence impedance

Procedure: -
(i) Positive sequence impedance:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1
2. Keeping auto transformer in minimum output position; switch ON MCB
3. Adjust the voltage on high voltage side with the help of the
autotransformer such that rated current flows in the windings
4. Note down the voltage and current
5. Bring the auto transformer to minimum output position and switch OFF
MCB
6. Determine the transformer Positive sequence Impedance which is also
equal to Negative sequence impedance using
V
Z1 
3I
Z2  Z1
19
(ii) Zero sequence impedance:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 2
2. Keeping auto transformer in minimum output position; switch ON MCB
3. Adjust the voltage on high voltage side with the help of the
autotransformer such that rated current flows in the windings
4. Note down the voltage and current
5. Bring the auto transformer to minimum output position and switch OFF MCB
6. Determine the transformer Zero sequence Impedance using

V
Z0 
3I
Tabular
form:
Network V (V) I (A) Z (Ω)
Positive
sequence
Zero sequence

Precautions:-
• All secondary windings should be shorted in zero sequence
impedance measurement.
Result:

Review Questions:
1. Define Sequence Impedances.
2. Explain symmetrical components method.
3. Why +ve, -ve sequence impedances are same for a transformer?
20
 Differential Protection of Single Phase Transformer
Aim: To conduct differential protection scheme on a single phase
transformer with unequal turn’s ratio
Name Plate details :
Parameter Value
Rated kVA
Primary voltage
Primary current
Secondary voltage
Secondary current
Apparatus:
S. No Equipment Type Range Qty
1 Auto transformer
2 Transformer
3 Current Transformer
4 Current Transformer
5 OC Relay
6 PSM
7 TSM
8 Ammeter
9 Ammeter
10 Ammeter
11 Ammeter
12 Voltmeter
13 Voltmeter
14 Rheostat
15 Resistive Load
16 Connecting probes
21
Theory :
A Differential relay responds to vector difference between two or more
similar electrical quantities. From this definition the Differential relay
has at least two actuating quantities say 1-1 and 2-1. The actuating
quantities should be same.
Ex: Current/Current.
The Relay responds to vector difference between 1-1 & 2-1 which
includes magnitude and/or phase angle difference. Differential protection
is generally unit protection. The protection zone is exactly determined by
location of CTs. The vector difference is actuated by suitable connection
of CTs or PTs secondaries. Most of differential relays are current
differential relays in which vector difference between current entering
the winding & current leaving the winding is used for relay operation.
Differential protection is used for protection of Generators, Transformers
etc. Internal fault is created using switch and relay operation observed for
various TSMs. Relay operations for external faults can also be studied.
Circuit Diagram:

Fig.1. Circuit diagram for Differential Protection of 1-phase

transformer
22
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1
2. Select the transformation ratio as 2:1 and the C.T. ratios as 2:1 and 4:1
and Set PSM of the relay equal to 0.5
3. Keeping auto transformer in minimum output position; switch ON
supply MCB
4. Apply rated voltage to primary winding with the help of 1-phase auto
transformer and press Mains ON button and note down voltages
5. Apply R-load by closing Load MCBs(L1, L2, L3, L4) sequentially,
check
whether the relay disc is rotating or not and note down the currents

External Fault:
6. Now create an external fault by applying load with Load MCBs(L 1 to
L4) and External Fault MCBs(EF1, EF2) sequentially, check whether
the relay operates or not and note down the currents
7. Open all MCBs once the relay is operated.
Internal Fault:
8. Now create an internal fault by closing the switch 'S' and applying
load with Load MCBs and Internal Fault MCBs(IF 1, IF2) sequentially,
check whether the relay operates or not and note down the currents
9. Open switch 'S' and MCBs.
10. Bring the auto transformer to minimum output position and Switch
OFF Mains MCB
Tabular forms:
For External Fault: Vp = Vs=
S.No Load Primary Secondary Relay Relay
applied current current current operates/
(A) (A) (A) doesn’t operate
23
For Internal Fault: Vp = Vs=
S.No Load applied Primary Secondary Internal Relay Relay
current current Fault current operates/
(A) (A) current (A) doesn’t operate
(A)

Precautions:
 PSM must be changed with due care.
Result:

Review Questions:
1. Why non-identical CTs are used in this scheme.
2. How would you take into account CT imbalances.
3. What do you understand by internal fault.
4. What do you understand by External fault.

24
 Determination of Voltage Distribution and String Efficiency
in Suspension Insulator
Aim: To determine voltage distribution and string efficiency of suspension
insulator with and without guard ring.
Apparatus:
S. No Equipment Type Range Qty
1 Auto transformer
2 Voltmeter
3 Capacitors
4 Capacitors
5 Capacitors
6 Connecting Probes

Theory:
String efficiency is an important factor in the design of insulators. Without
proper design the disc closer to the power line gets stressed up and there will
be unequal voltage distribution. An insulator is simulated with capacitances.
No of Capacitances can be varied. Theoretical values and practical values are
compared to understand the concepts and correctness of results. Experiment
with Guard ring also may be conducted.
To improve string efficiency the following methods are used.
1. Selection of ratio of mutual capacitance to Capacitance to ground.
A larger value of m is preferred.
2. Grading of units
3. Static shielding by using a Guard ring or grading ring.
Formula Used:
String efficiency = Voltage across the string
---------------------------------
n* voltage across the unit near the power
conductor Where n = number units in a series string.
25
Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1 Circuit diagram for Suspension Insulator without and with guard ring
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1
2. Keeping auto transformer in minimum output position; switch ON
MCB
3. Apply voltage in steps of 10V starting from 30V up to 60 V across the
series string
4. Measure the voltage across each unit and Insulator string
5. Calculate the string efficiency without guard ring
6. Repeat the steps 1 to 4 with guard ring
7. Compare theoretical and practical values
Tabular form:
(i) Without Guard Ring:
E η
E E1 E2 E3 E4 Total String

(V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (V)

26
 (ii) With Guard Ring:
E η
E E1 E2 E3 E4 Total String

(V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (V)

Theoretical Calculations:
Comparison of String efficiency:
String efficiency Practical Theoretical
without guard ring
with guard ring
Result:
Review Questions:
1. What is String Efficiency?
2. What are the methods of equalizing Voltage Distribution?
27
 Measurement of Capacitance of 3-Core Cable
Aim: To measure core to core capacitance, core to earth capacitance and
charging Current in three core underground cable.
Apparatus: -
1. Three core cable
2. LCR Meter
Theory:- The capacitance of a cable system is much more important than
that of overhead line of the same length firstly due to the narrow spacing
between two conductors themselves and between the conductors and earthed
sheath secondly due to their separation by a dielectric medium of higher
permittivity as compared to air.
Fig. 1 shows a system of capacitances in a three core belted cable used for
three-phase system. Since potential difference exists between pairs of
conductors and between each conductor and the sheath, electrostatic fields
are set up in the cable. These electrostatic fields give rise to core – core

capacitance Cc and conductor-earth capacitance Ce as shown in Fig. 2. The

three Cc are delta connected where as the three C e are star connected, the
sheath forming the star point as shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3 can be reduced to Fig.
4.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Fig. 4 Fig. 5
Where Ceq = 3 Cc.
28
 Therefore, the whole cable is equivalent to three star connected
capacitors each of capacitance CN as shown Fig. 5.
Where CN = CE + Cc * 3
If Vph is the phase voltage, then charging current
Ic = Vph/ Capacitive reactance per phase= 2 II f Vph CN
Functional diagrams:

C C C
1 2 3

Fig. 6 Measurement of Ce Fig. 7 Measurement of Cc Fig. 8 Measurement of

CN
Procedure:
1. Measurement of Ce :
Three cores are bunched together and the capacitance C 1 is measured
between the bunched cores and the sheath as shown in Fig. 6, the bunching
eliminates all the three capacitance Cc, leaving the three capacitors Ce in
parallel.
Ce=C1/3
2. Measurement of Cc
Two cores are bunched with the sheath and capacitance C2 is measured
between them and the third core as shown in Fig. 7.
Cc = (C2-Ce)/2
3. Measurement of CN
Measure capacitance C3 between two cores with the third core left
free. CN = 2C3
Calculations:
1. Ce/km=Ce(measured)×1000/2.9
2. Cc/km = Cc(measured)×1000/2.9
3. CN/km=CN(measured)×1000/2.9
4. Ic = 2πfVphCN
where f=50Hz and Vph=440/3
29
Readings and Tabular form
S.No C1 C2 C3 Ce Cc CN

Result:

Review Questions:
Measure capacitance, Inductance of Transmission line model and
Compare the values.

30
 Study of CT and PT
1. Aim:- To determine the percentage ratio error and the phase angle error of
the given current transformer by comparison with another
current transformer whose error are known.

2. Apparatus:-

S.No Item Type Range Qty

1 Standard CT Air 20/5A 1
Cool
Testing CT Air 20/2A 1
Cool
2 Ammeter MI 0-10A 1
MI 0 – 5A 1
3 Wattmeter UPF 300V,5A 1
LPF 300V,1A 1

3. Circuit diagram:-
31
4. Theory:-

This is a comparison type of test employing deflection methods. Here

the ratio and phase angle of the test transformer ‘X’ are determined in
terms of that of a standard transformer ‘S’ having the same nominal
ratio.

The errors are as follows say:

Error Ratio Phase

CT Error Angle
Error

S RS θS

X RS θS

The primaries of the two CT are connected in series and the current through
them is say Ip. The pressure coil of the two wattmeters are supplied with a
constant voltage V from a phase shifting transformer. The current coil of
wattmeter W1is connected to S through an ammeter.

The current coil of wattmeter w2 is connected as shown in the figure and

carries a current SI.

SI=Iss-Isx (Vectorial difference)

Where I ss is the current in the current coil of W 1 and I sx is current flowing

through the variable burden. The phase shifting transformer is adjusted so
that the wattmeter W1 reads zero.

W1Q= Vpcq Iss cos 90=0

W2 Q=Vpcq SI cos (θx- θs)=V Isx sin (θx- θs)

32
 Where V pcq is the voltage from the phase shifting transformer , which is

in quadrature with the Iss in current coil of W1. Then the phase of the voltage

from to phase shifting transformer is shifted through 900

Therefore, now V is in phase with the current Iss :

w1 ρ  VIss
w2 ρ  VSI sin(θx − θs)
= V I ss − IsxCos(θx − θs)
= VI ss − VIsxCos(θx − θs)
= VI ss − VIsxCos(θx − θs)
= W1 ρ − VIsxCos(θx − θs)
. As(θx − θs) ∼ 0

∴VIsx  W1 ρ − W2 ρ

Ip
RX 
Isx
Ip
RS 
Iss

R X  Iss  VIss  W1 ρ
RS Isx VIsx W1 pW2 ρ

−1
1 W2 ρ
R 
 −
1 − W2 ρ Wρ
x R
s
1

Rs 1

W1 ρ
W2 ρ
 Rs 1

W1 ρ

33
 Now to obtain the phase angle errors

W2 q
Sin(θ X − θ S ) 
VIsx

W1 p − W2 ρ
Cos(θ X − θ S ) 
VIsx

Tan((θ X − θ S )  W2 Q
W1 ρ − W2 ρ

W2 θ
orθ X   θsradius
W1 ρ − W2 ρ

5. Procedure:-

The connections are made as per the circuit diagram. The burden box is
adjusted to have a suitable current I n.The phase angle adjusted using the
shifting transformer so that wattmeter W1 reads zero. The reading of the
other wattmeter (W2q) is noted. A phase shift of 90 0 is obtained by the phase
shifting transformer. The two wattmeter readings W1p and W2p are then
observed.

The ratio error is calculated using the formula R =R 1  W2 ρ

x s
W1 ρ

The phase angle error is calculated using the formula θ X W 2θ

  θs
W1 ρ − W2 ρ

radians.

The experiment is repeated by varying the burden and setting different

values for Iss. The average values of Rx and θX are then obtained.
34
6.Observation table:-

S.No Iss W1Q W2Q W1p W2p Rx θX

7. Calculations:-

Rs = θs=

Nominal ratios of S= Nominal ratio of X =

8. Precautions:-

W2 is a sensitive instrument. Its current coil may be designed for small

values it is normally designed to carry about 0.25 A for testing CTs having
a secondary current of 5Amps.

9. Result:-

10.Review Questions:-
1. What are the various other methods of CT’s ?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this method ?
3. Define nominal ratio How is it different from the actual ratio of a
CT?
4. Define burden in the case of a CT How is it expressed ?
5. What is the turns compensations and why is it used ?
6. What are the precautions to be considered in connecting a CT?
7. Why should the secondary of a CT never be open when the primary
is energized ?
35
8. What determines the currents in the primary and secondary sides of
a CT ? Why is a CT preferred for high current measurements
instead of using an ammeter with a shunt ?

9. What are the most important design criteria to reduce errors in a CT

36
 Fault Analysis of a 3 Phase Alternator
Aim: To determine the fault currents on an unloaded
synchronous generator for
(a) Line to ground fault (L-G Fault)
(b) Line to Line fault (L-L fault)
(c) Double Line to ground fault (LL-G Fault)

Name Plate details :

Alternato
Parameter DC Motor r
Rated Power
Rated voltage
Rated speed
Rated Field current
Rated Armature current

Apparatus:
S. No Equipment Type Range Qty

1 Auto transformer
2 Auto transformer
3 3-point starter
4 Rectifier
5 Rectifier
6 Voltmeter
7 Ammeter
8 3-Phase Alternator -
DC Motor set
37
Circuit Diagrams:

Fig. 1 Circuit Diagram for L-G fault on a 3-phase alternator

Fig. 2 Circuit Diagram for L-L fault on a 3-phase

alternator
38
Fig. 3 Circuit Diagram for LLG fault on a 3-phase alternator
Procedure:
(a) L-G Fault:
1) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1.
2) Run the generator at rated speed with DC motor.
3) Close the switch 'S' to create L-G fault on Phase A.
4) Increase the field excitation so that rated current flows through the
armature windings of the alternator.
5) Note down the current and voltage in ammeter and voltmeter.
6) Open the switch 'S' to remove the L-G fault.
7) Reduce the excitation to zero and open the field circuit switch and
switch off the prime mover.
(b) L-L fault:
1) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 2.
2) Run the generator at rated speed with DC motor.
3) Close the switch 'S' to create L-L fault between the Phases B and
C.
4) Increase the field excitation so that rated current flows through the
armature windings of the alternator.
39
5) Note down the current and voltage in ammeter and voltmeter.
6) Open the switch 'S' to remove the L-L fault.
7) Reduce the excitation to zero and open the field circuit switch and
switch off the prime mover.
(c) LLG fault:
1) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 3.
2) Run the generator at rated speed with DC motor.
3) Close the switch 'S' to create LLG fault between the Phases B, C
and Ground.
4) Increase the field excitation so that rated current flows through the
armature windings of the alternator.
5) Note down the current and voltage in ammeter and voltmeter.
6) Open the switch 'S' to remove the LLG fault.
7) Reduce the excitation to zero and open the field circuit switch and
switch off the prime mover.
Tabular Forms:
Type of I in Amps Ef in Volts
Fault
L-G

L-L

L-L-G

Formulae:
L-G Fault:
Ia =3Ef/Z1+Z2+Z0 -------------------------- (1)
Where Ia is fault current
Ef is the voltage to which the machine is excited
Z1+Z2+Z0 are the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances of the
machine.
40
 L-L Fault:
Ia1 = Ef/Z1+Z2
Ib = a2Ia1+aIa2; Ia2 = -Ia1 Where a2 = (-0.5-j0.866); a= (-0.5+j0.866)
LLG Fault:
V = V =V =E -I Z
a1 a2 a0 f a1 1

Ia1 = Ef/Z1+(Z2xZ0/Z2+Z0)
Ia2 = -Va2/Z2 ; Ia0= -Va0/Z0
Ib = a2Ia1+a Ia2+Ia0
Where a2 =(-0.5+j0.866) ; a=(-0.5+l0.866)
In = 3 Ia0 = Ib+IC
Ic = - Ib=aIa1-a2Ia1
Comparison of Fault current and voltage:
Type of I in Amps Ef in Volts
Fault Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical
L-G
L-L
L-L-G

Result:
41
 Determination of Xd And Xq of a Salient Pole Synchronous
Machine
Aim:-

To calculate Quadrature axis reactance ( X q ), Direct axis Reactance (

X d ) and regulation of a given salient pole alternator by conducting slip test.

Apparatus:-

S.No Equipment Type Range Quantity

Name plate details:-

DC motor Alternator

Voltage

Current

Power

Speed

Frequency

42
Theory:-

The synchronous machine with salient pole rotor has non-uniform air
gap due to which its reactance varies with rotor position, consequently the
salient pole machine has two axis of geometry.

• Field pole axis called Direct axis or d-axis.

• Axes passing through the centre of inter polar space
called Quadrature axis or q-axis.
There are two m.m.f.’s acting on the d-axis (i.e.) the field and the armature
m.m.f., but only armature m.m.f. is along the q-axis. Magnetic reluctance is
low along the poles and high between the poles.

From the Two- reaction theory proposed by Blondel,

• The armature current, I a can be resolved into two components (i.e.) I a

perpendicular to Eo and Iq.

• Armature reaction has two components (i.e.) d-axis armature reactance
(
X ad ) associated with Id and q-axis armature reactance ( X aq ) linked with

Iq.
X d = X ad + X1

X q = X aq + X1
43
Circuit Diagram:-

Procedure:-

1) The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2) The 3-Phase autotransformer is set to zero output voltage and
TPST switch is opened.
3) The field rheostat and armature rheostat of D.C Motor are kept
in minimum and maximum positions respectively.
4) Close the DPST switch and start the dc motor, adjust the speed
of a motor to rated value by cutting off the armature rheostat
resistance.
5) Now,TPST switch is closed and the voltage across the armature
terminals of alternator is increased by varying the 3-Phase
Power-stat.
6) The voltmeter reading across the field winding of the alternator
should be small for correct direction of the alternator.
44
 7) The m.m.f. produced by the stator of the alternator when 3-
Phase supply is given, must be rotated in the same senses as that
of the rotor of the alternator.
8) Under these circumstances the relative speed between the
rotating m.m.f. of stator and rotor of the alternator will be very
small and the voltmeter across the alternator field winding reads
very low value.
9) When the voltage across the field winding of alternator is large
even for small value of applied voltage, then the supply to the
stator should be reduced. The phase sequence of the supply is
changed by interchanging any two phases.
10) After ensuring the correct phase sequence, again slowly apply
the voltage to the stator. Now voltage across the field winding
will be approximately Zero.
11) Only 30-40% of rated voltage is applied to the alternator until
the armature current is nearly full load value.
12) The speed of the alternator is reduced and the voltmeter reading
( Va ) and ammeter reading ( I a ) are observed. There will be
oscillations of the pointers.
13) Adjust the speed such that the swing of the pointers is
maximum.
14) The values of I a (min), I a (max), Va (min) and Va (max) are
noted.
15) X d and X q are calculated using the formulae.

Observations:-

I a (min) =

I a (max) =

Va (min) =
Va (max) =
45
Calculations:-

X d = Va (max) / I a (min)

X q = Va (min) / I a (max)

Regulation:
V sin φ  I a X a
tanψ  ( + for Lagging, - for leading )
V cosφ  I a Ra

I d  I a Sinψ

I d  I aCosψ

Eo  VCosδ  I q Ra  I d X d (δ  ψ − φ )

Eo − V
% Regulation =  100
V

Precautions:-

1) Loose connections should be avoided.

2) Armature rheostat and field rheostat should be in
maximum and minimum positions respectively at the
time of starting.
Review Questions:-

1) Explain the concept of D-axis and Q-axis reactance’s?

Result:-

Quadrature axis Reactance (Xd) =

Direct axis Reactance (Xq) =

46
 Y-BUS FORMATION
Aim : To form Y-Bus matrix for the given 5-Bus system
% Y-BUS FORMATION
clear;
clc;
basemva=100;
nbus=5;
% lp lq r x ysh tap
linedata =[ 1 2 0.02 0.06 0.03 1
1 3 0.08 0.24 0.025 1
2 3 0.06 0.18 0.02 1
2 4 0.06 0.18 0.02 1
2 5 0.04 0.12 0.015 1
3 4 0.01 0.03 0.01 1
4 5 0.08 0.24 0.025 1 ];
nline=length(linedata(:,1));
j=sqrt(-1);
i=sqrt(-1);

for k=1:nline
lp(k)=linedata(k,1);
lq(k)=linedata(k,2);
r(k)=linedata(k,3);
x(k)=linedata(k,4);
ysh(k)=linedata(k,5);
a(k)=linedata(k,6);
z(k)= r(k)+j*x(k);
y(k)=1/z(k);

end
ybus=zeros(nbus,nbus);
yln =zeros(nbus,nbus);

47
% PI METHOD FOR OFF-NOMINAL ADMITTANCE OF TRANSFORMER
for k=1:nline
2
ylp(k)=[1/(a(k)^2)-1/a(k)]*y(k); % ytc1 = [1/a - 1/a]*y
ylq(k)=[1-1/a(k)]*y(k); % ytc2 = [1 - 1/a]*y
y(k)=y(k)/a(k);
end
for k=1:nline
’
ybus(lp(k),lq(k))=ybus(lp(k),lq(k))-y(k); % Ypq = -ypq –ypq
ybus(lq(k),lp(k))=ybus(lp(k),lq(k)); % Yqp = Ypq

% Ypp =

ybus(lp(k),lp(k))=ybus(lp(k),lp(k))+y(k)+ylp(k)+0.5*j*ysh(k);
ybus(lq(k),lq(k))=ybus(lq(k),lq(k))+y(k)+ylq(k)+0.5*j*ysh(k);
end
ybus
OUTPUT :-
Y-BUS =

6.2500 -18.695i -5.000 + 15.000i -1.250 + 3.750i 0 0

-5.0000 +15.000i 10.833-32.415i -1.667 + 5.000i -1.6667 + 5.000i -2.500 + 7.500i

-1.2500 + 3.750i -1.667 + 5.000i 12.9167 -38.695i -10.000 +30.000i 0

0 -1.667+ 5.000i -10.000 +30.000i 12.9167 -38.695i -1.250 + 3.750i

0 -2.500 + 7.500i 0 -1.250 + 3.750i 3.750 -11.210i

48
 GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD
Aim : To conduct Load Flow analysis for the given 4-Bus system using
Gauss-Seidel method
% Y-BUS FORMATION
clear;
clc;
basemva=100;
% n code v delta Pg Qg Pd Qd Qmin Qmax Qsh
busdata = [ 1 0 1.04 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 1.04 0 100 0 50 0 20 100 0
3 2 1.00 0 0 0 100 -50 0 0 0];
4 2 1.00 0 0 0 -30 10 0 0
% lp lq r x ysh tap
linedata =[ 1 2 0.05 0.15 0.0 1
1 3 0.1 0.3 0.0 1
2 3 0.15 0.45 0.0 1
2 4 0.1 0.3 0.0 1
3 4 0.05 0.15 0.0 1];
nline=length(linedata(:,1));
j=sqrt(-1);
i=sqrt(-1);
for k=1:nline
lp(k)=linedata(k,1);
lq(k)=linedata(k,2);
r(k)=linedata(k,3);
x(k)=linedata(k,4);
ysh(k)=linedata(k,5);
a(k)=linedata(k,6);
nbus=length(busdata(:,2));
z(k)= r(k)+j*x(k);
y(k)=1/z(k);
end
ybus=zeros(nbus,nbus);
yln =zeros(nbus,nbus);

49
% PI METHOD FOR OFF-NOMINAL ADMITTANCE OF TRANSFORMER
for k=1:nline
ylp(k)=[1/(a(k)^2)-1/a(k)]*y(k);
ylq(k)=[1-1/a(k)]*y(k);
y(k)=y(k)/a(k);
end
for k=1:nline
ybus(lp(k),lq(k))=ybus(lp(k),lq(k))-y(k);
ybus(lq(k),lp(k))=ybus(lp(k),lq(k));
ybus(lp(k),lp(k))=ybus(lp(k),lp(k))+y(k)+ylp(k)+0.5*j*ysh(k);
ybus(lq(k),lq(k))=ybus(lq(k),lq(k))+y(k)+ylq(k)+0.5*j*ysh(k);
end
% Load flow solution by Gauss-Seidel Method
nbus=length(busdata(:,1));

for n=1:nbus
bus(n)=busdata(n,1);
kb(n)=busdata(n,2);
vm(n)=busdata(n,3);
delta(n)=busdata(n,4);
Pg(n)=busdata(n,5);
Qg(n)=busdata(n,6);
Pd(n)=busdata(n,7);
Qd(n)=busdata(n,8);
Qmin(n)=busdata(n,9);
Qmax(n)=busdata(n,10);
Qsh(n)=busdata(n,11);
delta(n)=pi/180*delta(n);

e(n)=vm(n)*cos(delta(n))+j*vm(n)*sin(delta(n));
P(n)=(Pg(n)-Pd(n))/basemva; Q(n)=(Qg(n)-
Qd(n))/basemva;
S(n)=P(n)+j*Q(n);
dv(n)=0;
end

50
maxerror=0.1;
iter=0;
for n=1:nbus
vc(n)=0+0*j;
vnew(n)=0+0*j;
end
while (maxerror>0.00001 & iter<15)
for m=1:nbus
for n=1:nbus
yv(n)=0+0*j;
end
if kb(m)==0 % Slack bus
vc(m)=vm(m);
e(m)=vc(m) ;
end
if kb(m)==2 %Load bus

for k=1:nbus
if k~=m
yv(m)=yv(m)+ybus(m,k)*e(k);
end
end
vc(m)=(conj(S(m))/conj(e(m))-yv(m))/ybus(m,m);
(k+1) (k) k+1
% Vp (accelerated) = Vp + α (Vp -
k
Vp ) error(m)=abs(vc(m)-e(m));
e(m)=e(m)+1.4*(vc(m)-e(m));
end

51
if kb(m)==1 %Generator bus

% Ip =

% Ip = YppVp +

% S = VI*; S* = V*I; P - jQ = V*I ; Q = - imag (V*I)

% Qp = -imag [Vp*. (YppVp + ]

for k=1:nbus
if k~=m
yv(m)=yv(m)+ybus(m,k)*e(k);
end
end
cos(m)=real(e(m))/abs(e(m));
sin(m)=imag(e(m))/abs(e(m));
e(m)=vm(m)*cos(m)+j*vm(m)*sin(m);
Qnew(m)=-imag(conj(e(m))*(yv(m)+ybus(m,m)*e(m)))*100;
if(Qnew(m))<Qmin(m)
Q(m)=Qmin(m)/basemva;
S(m)=P(m)+j*Q(m);
e(m)=1.0+0*j;
vc(m)=((conj(S(m))/conj(e(m)))-yv(m))/ybus(m,m);
e(m)=e(m)+1.4*(vc(m)-e(m));
elseif Qnew(m) >Qmax(m)
Q(m)=Qmax(m)/basemva;
S(m)=P(m)+j*Q(m);

e(m)=1+0*j;
vc(m)=((conj(S(m))/conj(e(m)))-yv(m))/ybus(m,m);
e(m)=e(m)+1.4*(vc(m)-e(m));
else
Q(m)=Qnew(m)/basemva;
S(m)=P(m)+j*Q(m);

52
 vc(m)=((conj(S(m))/conj(e(m)))-yv(m))/ybus(m,m);
% Vi (new) = Vispecified Cosδm
cos(m)=real(vc(m))/(abs(vc(m)));
sin(m)=imag(vc(m))/(abs(vc(m)));
vnew(m)=vm(m)*cos(m)+j*vm(m)*sin(m);
e(m)=vnew(m);
end
end
end
maxerror=max(error);
iter=iter+1;
iter
e
end
% CALCULATION OF LINE POWER FLOWS
ysh=zeros(nbus,nbus);
yln=zeros(nbus,nbus);

for k=1:nline
yln(lp(k),lq(k))=yln(lp(k),lq(k))+y(k);
yln(lq(k),lp(k))=yln(lp(k),lq(k));
ysh(lp(k),lq(k))=ysh(lp(k),lq(k))+j*ysh(k);
ysh(lq(k),lp(k))=ysh(lp(k),lq(k));
end
for i=1:nbus for
k=1:nbus
sln(i,k)=0+0*i;
end
end
*
% Spq = VI* = {Vp [(Vp -Vq ) Y lnpq]+
* *
Vp.Vp Y shpq} for m=1:nbus
for n=1:nbus
sln(m,n)=((e(m)*(conj(e(m))-
conj(e(n)))*conj(ybus(m,n)))+(e(m)*conj(e(m))*conj(ysh(m,n))))*basemva;
end
end
sln

53
OUTPUT :-
(a) P.V.BUS WITHOUT VIOLATION OF Q-LIMITS :-
( i ) BUS VOLTAGES :-
ITER. E1 E2 E3 E4

1 1.0400 1.0395 + 0.0335i 1.0444 - 0.1251i 1.0599 - 0.0545i

2 1.0400 1.1067 - 0.0030i 1.0733 - 0.1206i 1.0965 - 0.0483i

3 1.0400 1.1281 + 0.0005i 1.0960 - 0.1134i 1.1126 - 0.0438i

4 1.0400 1.1400 + 0.0040i 1.1033 - 0.1095i 1.1183 - 0.0409i

5 1.0400 1.1440 + 0.0061i 1.1062 - 0.1075i 1.1205 - 0.0395i

6 1.0400 1.1456 + 0.0072i 1.1073 - 0.1066i 1.1214 - 0.0388i

7 1.0400 1.1462 + 0.0077i 1.1078 - 0.1062i 1.1218 - 0.0385i

8 1.0400 1.1465 + 0.0079i 1.1080 - 0.1060i 1.1219 - 0.0383i

9 1.0400 1.1466 + 0.0080i 1.1081 - 0.1060i 1.1220 - 0.0383i

10 1.0400 1.1466 + 0.0080i 1.1081 - 0.1059i 1.1220 - 0.0383i

11 1.0400 1.1466 + 0.0081i 1.1081 - 0.1059i 1.1220 - 0.0383i

12 1.0400 1.1467 + 0.0081i 1.1082 - 0.1059i 1.1220 - 0.0383i

54
( i i ) LINE POWER FLOWS :-
sln =
0 27.2172 +64.8737i -25.9601 +32.2794i 0

-29.5052 -71.7377i 0 -29.0835 - 0.3204i -18.7376 - 3.3020i

24.3737 -37.0387i 28.1185 - 2.5748i 0 47.5099 -10.3857i

0 18.4622 + 2.4761i -48.4641 + 7.5230i 0

55
(b) P.V.BUS WITH VIOLATION OF Q-LIMITS :-

( i ) BUS VOLTAGES :-

ITER. E1 E2 E3 E4

1 1.0400 1.0783 + 0.0477i 1.0543 - 0.1215i 1.0872 - 0.0444i

2 1.0400 1.1254 - 0.0002i 1.0955 - 0.1125i 1.1145 - 0.0445i

3 1.0400 1.1463 + 0.0021i 1.1066 - 0.1109i 1.1236 - 0.0429i

4 1.0400 1.1526 + 0.0031i 1.1110 - 0.1089i 1.1269 - 0.0416i

5 1.0400 1.1550 + 0.0041i 1.1126 - 0.1079i 1.1282 - 0.0408i

6 1.0400 1.1559 + 0.0047i 1.1132 - 0.1075i 1.1287 - 0.0405i

7 1.0400 1.1562 + 0.0049i 1.1135 - 0.1072i 1.1289 - 0.0403i

8 1.0400 1.1564 + 0.0050i 1.1136 - 0.1072i 1.1289 - 0.0402i

9 1.0400 1.1564 + 0.0051i 1.1137 - 0.1071i 1.1290 - 0.0402i

10 1.0400 1.1564 + 0.0051i 1.1137 - 0.1071i 1.1290 - 0.0402i

11 1.0400 1.1565 + 0.0051i 1.1137 - 0.1071i 1.1290 - 0.0402i

56
( i i ) LINE POWER FLOWS :-

sln =
0 27.4140 +71.6035i -25.7502 + 34.1245i 0

-30.1315 - 79.7561i 0 -29.2448 - 1.3727i -18.8788 - 4.3724i

24.0605 - 39.1935i 28.2834 - 1.5113i 0 47.6586 - 9.2942i

0 18.5980 + 3.5300i -48.6003 + 6.4688i 0

57
 F.D.L.F. METHOD FOR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
clear;
clc;
rxratio=1.5;
% n v delta pd qd ysh
busdata=[ 1 1.05 0 0.000 0.000 0
2 1.00 0 0.278 0.069 0
3 1.00 0 0.442 0.084 0
4 1.00 0 0.195 0.066 0
5 1.00 0 0.149 0.05 0
6 1.00 0 0.26 0.016 0.5 ];
% lp lq z
linedata=[ 1 2 0.052
2 3 0.035
2 4 0.0645
4 5 0.0117
4 6 0.075 ];
nline=length(linedata(:,1));

nbus=length(busdata(:,1));
j=sqrt(-1);
for k=1:nline
lp(k)=linedata(k,1);
lq(k)=linedata(k,2);
z(k)=linedata(k,3);
x(k)=sqrt((z(k)^2)/(((rxratio)^2)+1));
r(k)=rxratio*x(k);
z(k)=r(k)+j*x(k);
y(k)=1/z(k); %branch admittance
end

58
%initiation of G MATRIX
G=zeros(nbus,nbus);
%finding off diagonal elements of G MATRIX
for k=1:nline
G(lp(k),lq(k))=G(lp(k),lq(k))-real(y(k));
G(lq(k),lp(k))=G(lp(k),lq(k));
end

%finding diagonal elements of G MATRIX

for n=1:nbus
for k=1:nline

if ((lp(k)==n)||(lq(k)==n))
G(n,n)=G(n,n)+real(y(k));
end
end

end
invG=inv(G(2:nbus,2:nbus));
%reading the bus data
for k=1:nbus
bus(k)=busdata(k,1);
vm(k)=busdata(k,2);
delta(k)=busdata(k,3);
pd(k)=busdata(k,4);
qd(k)=busdata(k,5);
delta=pi/180*delta;

end
maxerror=1;
iter=0;

while(maxerror>0.0001 & iter<30)

iter=iter+1;

59
%initialisation of isp,ical % Specified and calculated currents
for k=1:nbus-1
isp(k)=0;
ik(k)=0;
end
%calculation of specified e.c.i. % Equivalent current injection
for k=1:nbus-1
isp(k)=[conj(pd(k+1)+j*qd(k+1))/vm(k+1)];
end

%calculation of ik
for n=2:nbus
for k=1:nline

if lp(k)==n||lq(k)==n
if lp(k)==n
ik(n-1)=ik(n-1)+y(k)*(vm(lp(k))-vm(lq(k)));
end
if lq(k)==n ik(n-1)=ik(n-1)+y(k)*(vm(lq(k))-
vm(lp(k)));
end
end
end
end
%calculation of ical including the effect of shunt capacitance
for n=2:nbus
ik(n-1)=ik(n-1)+(j*busdata(n,6)*vm(n));
end

%finding e.c.i.mismatcher
for n=1:nbus-1
id(n)=-isp(n)-ik(n);
end

60
for i=1:nbus-1
delir(i,1)=real(id(i));
delii(i,1)=imag(id(i));
end
dele=invG*delir; %change in bus voltage(real part)
delf=invG*delii; %change in bus voltage(imag part)

%calculation of modified bus voltages

for i=1:nbus-1
e(i)=real(vm(i+1))+dele(i);
f(i)=imag(vm(i+1))+delf(i);
vm(i+1)=e(i)+j*f(i);

end
maxerror=max(max(abs(dele)),max(abs(delf)));
Em=abs(vm);
ang=angle(vm);
iter
Em
ang
end

61
OUTPUT :-
BUS VOLTAGE MAGNITUDES :-
ITER E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6
1 1.0500 0.9684 0.9496 0.9235 0.9214 0.9048

2. 1.0500 0.9907 0.9695 0.9597 0.9571 0.9672

3. 1.0500 1.0066 0.9945 0.9954 0.9939 1.0083

4. 1.0500 1.0038 0.9937 0.9925 0.9914 0.9986

5. 1.0500 0.9975 0.9833 0.9783 0.9766 0.9829

6. 1.0500 0.9965 0.9809 0.9755 0.9736 0.9819

7. 1.0500 0.9985 0.9846 0.9801 0.9784 0.9865

8. 1.0500 0.9995 0.9864 0.9824 0.9808 0.9882

9. 1.0500 0.9991 0.9853 0.9811 0.9795 0.9872

10. 1.0500 0.9985 0.9843 0.9800 0.9783 0.9863

11. 1.0500 0.9985 0.9846 0.9802 0.9785 0.9863

12. 1.0500 0.9988 0.9850 0.9807 0.9790 0.9867

13. 1.0500 0.9988 0.9850 0.9807 0.9790 0.9868

14. 1.0500 0.9987 0.9848 0.9805 0.9788 0.9867

15. 1.0500 0.9987 0.9848 0.9805 0.9788 0.9866

16. 1.0500 0.9987 0.9849 0.9806 0.9789 0.9866

62
PHASE ANGLES OF BUS VOLTAGES :-
ITER δ1 δ2 δ3 δ4 δ5 δ6

1 0 -0.0483 -0.0455 -0.0816 -0.0810 -0.1318

2 0 -0.0715 -0.0829 -0.1368 -0.1381 -0.1965

3 0 -0.0557 -0.0638 -0.1063 -0.1072 -0.1525

4 0 -0.0519 -0.0590 -0.0991 -0.0999 -0.1421

5 0 -0.0519 -0.0573 -0.0975 -0.0980 -0.1441

6 0 -0.0555 -0.0637 -0.1060 -0.1068 -0.1530

7 0 -0.0567 -0.0659 -0.1088 -0.1099 -0.1548

8 0 -0.0622 -0.0757 -0.1225 -0.1241 -0.1685

9 0 -0.0549 -0.0625 -0.1046 -0.1054 -0.1512

10 0 -0.0551 -0.0630 -0.1052 -0.1060 -0.1515

11 0 -0.0554 -0.0637 -0.1059 -0.1069 -0.1521

12 0 -0.0555 -0.0636 -0.1059 -0.1068 -0.1522

13 0 -0.0553 -0.0633 -0.1056 -0.1064 -0.1520

14 0 -0.0553 -0.0633 -0.1055 -0.1064 -0.1519

15 0 -0.0553 -0.0634 -0.1056 -0.1065 -0.1519

16 0 -0.0554 -0.0634 -0.1057 -0.1066 -0.1520

63
 TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS BY “POINT BY POINT
METHOD”
clear;
clc;
t=0;
tf=0;
tfinal=0.5;
tc=0.125; %(FOR FAULT CLEARED AT 2.5 CYCLES:tc=0.05,
6.25CYCLES:tc=0.125, SUSTAINED FAULT:tc=0.5to1.0)
tstep=0.05;
M=2.52/(180*50);
i=2;
delta=21.64*pi/180;
ddelta=0;
time(1)=0;
ang(1)=21.64;
pm=0.9;
pmaxbf=2.44;
pmaxdf=0.88;
pmaxaf=2.00;
2
M D δ P −P P
2 S EA

% DT

M D 2δ  P − P SINδ
2 S M

% DT

% M: Moment of Inertia ; δ : Torque angle; Ps = Shaft Power,

% Pe = Electromagnetic Power ; Pa : Accelerating Power
while t<tfinal
if t==tf
paminus=0.9-pmaxbf*sin(delta);
paplus=0.9-pmaxdf*sin(delta);
paav=(paminus+paplus)/2;
pa=paav;
end

64
 if(t==tc)
paminus=0.9-pmaxdf*sin(delta);
paplus=0.9-pmaxaf*sin(delta);
paav=(paminus+paplus)/2;
pa=paav;
end
if(t>tf&t<tc)
pa=pm-pmaxdf*sin(delta);
end
if(t>tc)
pa=pm-pmaxaf*sin(delta);

end
t
pa
2
% ∆δn = ∆δn-1 + [Pa(n-1). ∆t ]/M
ddelta=ddelta+(tstep*tstep*pa/M);

% δn = δn-1 + ∆δn
delta=(delta*180/pi+ddelta)*pi/180;
deltadeg=delta*180/pi;

t=t+tstep;
pause
time(i)=t;
ang(i)=deltadeg
i=i+1;
end
axis ([0 0.6 0 160])
plot(time,ang,'ko-')
grid

65
OUTPUT :-

Fig.1. SWING CURVE FOR FAULT CLEARED AT 2.5 CYCLES (tc=0.05sec)

66
Fig.2. SWING CURVE FOR FAULT CLEARED AT 6.25 CYCLES (tc=0.125sec)

67
Fig.3. SWING CURVE FOR SUSTAINED FAULT

68
Comparison of Accelerating Powers (P a) (p.u.) at different Fault clearing times :-
S.No. Time(t) Accelerating Power (Pa) (p.u.) for Fault cleared after-
(sec) 2.5cycles 6.25cycles Sustained fault
(tc=0.05sec) (tc=0.125sec)

1. 0.00 0.2878 0.2878 0.2878

2. 0.05 0.3095 0.2878 0.5391

3. 0.10 -0.0862 0.4390 0.4390

4. 0.15 -0.2215 -0.4614 0.3010

5. 0.20 -0.2951 -0.6339 0.1629

6. 0.25 -0.2937 -0.6675 0.0615

7. 0.30 -0.2177 -0.5667 0.0204

8. 0.35 -0.0806 -0.3223 0.0480

9. 0.40 0.0857 0.0453 0.1465

10. 0.45 0.2338 0.4389 0.3229

11. 0.50 0.3160 0.7160 0.5964

69
Comparison of Torque Angles (δ) (degrees) at different Fault clearing times :-

S.No. Time (t) Torque Angle (δ) (degrees) for Fault cleared after-
(sec) 2.5cycles 6.25cycles Sustained fault
(tc=0.05sec) (tc=0.125sec)

1. 0.00 24.2100 24.2100 24.2100

2. 0.05 29.5432 31.5936 31.5936

3. 0.10 34.1071 42.8966 42.8966

4. 0.15 36.6935 50.0804 56.8872

5. 0.20 36.6454 51.6045 72.3324

6. 0.25 33.9747 47.1688 88.3267

7. 0.30 29.3607 37.6732 104.5030

8. 0.35 24.0270 25.2998 121.1082

9. 0.40 19.4581 13.3307 139.0219

10. 0.45 16.9764 5.2801 159.8188

11. 0.50 17.3166 3.6218 185.9408

70
 Frequency Deviation and Power Deviation of Two area Load Frequency
Control

Aim : To plot Frequency Deviation and Power Deviation response of Two area Load
Frequency Control

71
72
OUTPUT WAVE FORM :-

Fig . FREQUENCY DEVIATION IN TWO AREA SYSTEM WITH INTEGRAL CONTROL

73
74
OUTPUT WAVE FORM :-

Fig . TIE-LINE POWER DEVIATION IN TWO AREA SYSTEM WITH INTEGRAL CONTROL

75
 MODELLING AND FAULT ANALYSIS OF
TRANMSIISION LINE MODEL

Aim : To Analyze various types of faults in Transmission line model

Any power system model can be simulated using power system blockset and simulink in MATLAB
R2014. Consider the single line diagram of a sample power system shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Single line diagram of a sample Power system

Where Es : Sending end voltage

Er : Receiving end voltage

The diagram shown in Fig. 2 represents the Simulink block model for Fig. 1 which consists of a three
phase 66KV power system transmitting power from two 25 MVA generators on either side of a 300km
transmission line. The transmission line is split into two 150 Km lines connected between buses B1 and B2.
The system consists of two generators (simplified synchronous machines), two three phase two winding
transformers, two circuit breakers, a transmission line, and a three-phase fault block.

This system contains the Powergui block inorder to discretize the system. In addition, when start the
system the model, the sampling time Ts = 5e-6 seconds is automatically set in workspace. Therefore the
system is be discretized using a 5 microseconds sample time. The power system model is simulated for
different types of faults. The fault parameters are changed for each type of fault in three phase fault block
connected in the system. The three phase currents are taken for the fault classification in the transmission line
between two buses.

76
77
 Fig. 2. Tranmission line model
Parameters
of various blocks in power system model are given below.
(i) Simplified Synchronous Machine :
Mechanical power Input,Pm/ph : 0.721842 p. u. (default value)
Voltage, E/ph : 1.00746 p. u. (default value)
Connection Type : 3 – wire Y
Nominal Power : 25 MVA
Line – Line Voltage : 13.2 KV
Frequency : 50 Hz
Inertia Constant : 3.7 (default value)
Damping factor :0
Pairs of Poles :2
Internal Impedance
R (p. u.) : 0.02 (default value)
X (p. u.) : 0.3 (default value)
Initial conditions
dw (%), theta (deg) : 0, 0
ia, ib, ic (p. u. ) : 0, 0, 0
Pha, Phb, Phc (deg) : 0, 0, 0
(ii) Series R Load :
Nominal Voltage, ph-ph, Vn(rms) : 13.2 KV
Nominal Frequency, fn (Hz) : 50
Active Power, P : 1742 W
Inductive Reactive Power QL :0
Capacitive Reactive Power,QC :0
(iii) Three – Phase, Two – winding Transformer-1:
Nominal Power : 25 MVA
Nominal Frequency, fn (Hz) : 50
Winding 1 (ABC) Connection : Yg
Winding 1 Parameters

78
 V1 (ph-ph) (rms) : 13.2 Kv
R1 (p. u. ) : 0.002
L1 (p. u. ) : 0.08
Winding 2 (ABC) Connection : D1
Winding 2 Parameters
V2 (ph-ph) (rms) : 66 Kv
R2 (p. u. ) : 0.002
L2 (p. u. ) : 0.08
Magnetization Resistance, Rm (p. u.): 500
Magnetization Reactance, Lm (p. u.) : 500
(iv) Distributed Parameters line :
Number of Phases (N) :3
Frequency, f Hz : 50
Resistance per unit length (Ω/km)
[R1 Ro] : [ 0.01273 0.3864 ]
Inductance per unit length (H/Km)
[L1 L0) : [0.9337e-3 4.1264e-3]
Capacitance per unit length (F/Km)
[C1 Co] : [12.74e-9 7.751e-9]
Line length (Km) : 150
(V) Three – Phase Breaker:
Transition times : [0.001 0.2]
Breaker Resistance Ron (Ω) : 0.001 (default value)
Snubbers Resistance Rp (Ω) : 1e6 (default value)
Snubbers Capacitance Cp (F) : inf
(Vi) Three – Phase Fault Block:
Fault Resistance Ron : 0.001
Ground Resistance Rg : 0.001
Transition status : [1 0]
Transition times : [0.001 0.2]

79
 Snubbers Resistance Rp (Ω) : 1e6
Snubbers Capacitance Cp (F) : inf
(Vii) Three – Phase, Two – winding Transformer-2:
Nominal Power : 25 MVA
Nominal Frequency, fn (Hz) : 50
Winding 1 (ABC) Connection : D1
Winding Parameters
V1 (ph-ph) (rms) : 66 Kv
R1 (p. u. ) : 0.002
L1 (p. u. ) : 0.08
Winding 2 (ABC) Connection : Yg
Winding Parameters
V2 (ph-ph) (rms) : 13.2 Kv
R2 (p. u. ) : 0.002
L2 (p. u. ) : 0.08
Magnetization Resistance Rm (p. u.) : 500
Magnetization Reactance Lm (p. u.) : 500
SIMULATION RESULTS
The simulation Results of the proposed power system model shown in Fig. 2 are given as follows.
4.5.1 Pre- Fault :
The Phase Voltage waveforms of the power system model for Pre-Fault condition are shown in Fig. 3.

80
 Fig. 3 Phase Voltage Waveforms for Pre-Fault

The values of Phase Voltages are observed from Fig. 3 and are tabulated in Table 1.

Table 1 : Phase Voltages for Pre-Fault

Phase Voltage Peak value (Volts) Steady state value (Volts)
4 4
Va 8. 537  10 6.489  10
4 4
Vb 9.507  10 6.559  10
5 4
Vc 1.196  10 7.317  10

81
The Phase Current waveforms of the power system model for Pre-Fault condition are shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Phase Current Waveforms for Pre-Fault

The values of Phase Currents are observed from Fig. 4 and are tabulated in Table 2.
Table 2 : Phase Currents for Pre-Fault
Phase Current Peak value (A) Steady state value (A)
Ia 0.04594 0.03254

Ib 0.05116 0.03302
Ic 0.06409 0.03657

L- L - L- G Fault between Phases A, B, C & Ground :

The Phase Voltage waveforms of the power system model when a three phase to ground fault has
occurred between phases A, B, C, and Ground at the midpoint of the transmission line connected between
Buses B1 and B2, are as shown in Fig. 5.

82
 Fig. 5 Phase Voltage waveforms for L-L-L-G Fault

The values of the Phase Voltages are observed from Fig. 5 and are tabulated in Table 3.

Table 3: Phase Voltages for L-L-L-G Fault

Phase Voltage During the Fault After the Fault is cleared
(Volts) Peak value Steady state value
(Volts) (Volts)
5 4
Va 0 1.201  10 7.622  10
5 4
Vb 0 1.335  10 7.836  10
5 4
Vc 0 1.079  10 7.735  10

From the Table 3, it can be observed that the Phase Voltages are zero during the time of fault. After
the fault is cleared, the Phase Voltages reaches to the steady state after initial transient voltages are over. The
steady state Phase Voltages are higher than that under Pre-Fault condition.

83
The Phase Current waveforms of the power system model under L-L-L-G Fault are shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6 Phase Current Waveforms for L-L-L-G fault

The values of Phase Currents are observed from Fig. 6 and are tabulated in Table 4.

Table 4 : Phase Currents for L-L-L- G Fault

Phase During the Fault After the Fault
Current Peak value (A) Steady state is cleared
value (A) (A)

Ia 426.5 435.7 0

Ib 898 494.1 0

Ic 766.3 498.7 0

84
 From the Table 4, it can be observed that the Phase Currents are more than that under pre-fault
condition and current reaches to zero after the fault is cleared.
L- L-G Fault between Phases B, C & Ground :
The Phase Voltage waveforms of the power system model when a Double line to ground fault has
occurred between phases B, C, and Ground at the midpoint of the transmission line connected between Buses
B1 and B2, are shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7 Phase Voltage Waveforms for L-L-G fault

The values of Phase Voltages are observed from Fig. 7 and are tabulated in Table 5.
Table 5 : Phase Voltages for L-L–G Fault
Phase Voltage During the Fault After the Fault is cleared
(Volts) Peak value Steady state value
(Volts) (Volts)
5 5 5
Va 0.9493  10 2.108  10 1.448  10
5 5
Vb 0 2.188  10 1.426  10
5 5
Vc 0 2.007  10 1.453  10

85
 From the above table, it can be observed that the Phase Voltages are zero for phases B and C during
the time of fault. After the fault is cleared, the Phase Voltages reaches to the steady state after initial transient
voltages are over. The steady state Phase Voltages are higher than that under Pre-Fault condition.
The Phase Current waveforms of the power system model for L–L–G Fault are shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8 Phase Current Waveforms for L-L-G Fault

The values of Phase Currents are observed from Fig. 8 and are tabulated in Table 6.
Table 6 : Phase Currents for L-L- G Fault
Phase During the Fault After the Fault is
Current Peak value (A) Steady state cleared (A)
value (A)

Ia 0.05684 0.04421 -0.007272

Ib 750.9 432.1 0

Ic 513.7 427.3 0

From the Table 6, it can be observed that the Phase Currents are more than that under Pre-Fault
condition and Current reaches to zero in the phases B and C after the fault is cleared.

86
L- L Fault between Phases B, & C :
The Phase Voltage waveforms of the power system model when a Double line Fault has occurred
between phases B and C at the midpoint of the transmission line connected between Buses B1 and B2, are
shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9 Phase Voltage Waveforms for L-L Fault

The values of Phase Voltages are observed from Fig. 9 and are tabulated in Table 7.

Table 7 : Phase Voltages for L-L Fault

Phase Voltage During the Fault After the Fault is cleared
(Volts) Peak value Steady state value
(Volts) (Volts)
4 4 4
Va 8.52  10 6.638  10 6.226  10
4 5 4
Vb 4.33  10 1.109  10 6.114  10
4 5 4
Vc 4.33  10 1.039  10 6.036  10

87
 From the Table 7, it can be observed that the Phase Voltages have some finite value during the time of
fault. After the fault is cleared, the Phase Voltages reaches to the steady state after initial transient voltages
are over. The steady state Phase Voltages are higher than that under pre-fault condition.

The Phase Current waveforms of the power system model for L-L Fault are shown in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10 Phase Current Waveforms for L-L Fault

The values of Phase Currents are observed from Fig. 10 and are tabulated in Table 8.
Table 8 : Phase Currents under L-L Fault
Phase During the Fault After the Fault is
Current Peak value (A) Steady state cleared
value (A) (A)

Ia 0.06887 0.0544 0.03132

Ib 744.8 438.2 0
Ic 496 -438.2 0
From the Table 8, it can be observed that the Phase Currents are more than that under Pre-Fault
condition and Current reaches to zero in the phases B and C after the fault is cleared.

88
L- G Fault between Phase A & Ground :
The Phase Voltage waveforms of the power system model when a Single Line to Ground Fault has
occurred between phase A and Ground at the midpoint of the transmission line connected between Buses B1
and B2, are as shown in Fig. 11.

Fig. 11 Phase Voltage Waveforms for L-G Fault

The values of Phase Voltages are observed from Fig. 11 and are tabulated in Table 9.
Table 9 : Phase voltages for L-G Fault
Phase Voltage During the Fault After the Fault is cleared
(Volts) Peak value Steady state value
(Volts) (Volts)
4
Va 0 1.238  10 3449
5 4
Vb 1.728  10 2.359  10 8868
5 4
Vc 1.603  10 2.102  10 8829

From the above Table, it can be observed that the Voltage in Phase A is zero during the time of fault.
After the fault is cleared, the phase voltage reaches to the steady state after initial transient voltages are over.
The steady state phase voltages are higher than that under pre-fault condition.

89
The Phase Current waveforms of the power system model for L- G Fault are shown in Fig. 12.

Fig. 12 Phase Current Waveforms for L-G Fault

The values of Phase Currents are observed from Fig. 12 and are tabulated in Table 4.10.
Table 10 : Phase Currents for L-G Fault
Phase During the Fault After the Fault is
Current Peak value (A) Steady state cleared
value (A) (A)

Ia 209 68.85 0

Ib 0.1041 0.0578 0.05982

Ic 0.0927 0.07153 0.05887

From the Table 10, it can be observed that the Phase Currents are more than that under Pre-Fault
condition and Current reaches to zero in the phase A after the fault is cleared.

90