REVIEW
Antibacterial Materials
Nanocellulose-Based Antibacterial Materials
Juanjuan Li, Ruitao Cha,* Kaiwen Mou, Xiaohui Zhao, Keying Long, Huize Luo,
Fengshan Zhou,* and Xingyu Jiang*
In recent years, nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials have attracted
a great deal of attention due to their unique and potentially useful features.
In this review, several representative types of nanocellulose and modifica-
tion methods for antimicrobial applications are mainly focused on. Recent
literature related with the preparation and applications of nanocellulose-based
antimicrobial materials is reviewed. The fabrication of nanocellulose-based
antimicrobial materials for wound dressings, drug carriers, and packaging
materials is the focus of the research. The most important additives employed
in the preparation of nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials are pre-
sented, such as antibiotics, metal, and metal oxide nanoparticles, as well
as chitosan. These nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials can benefit
many applications including wound dressings, drug carriers, and packaging
materials. Finally, the challenges of industrial production and potentials for
development of nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials are discussed.
1. Introduction
Antimicrobials have been used among both human beings
and animals to cure infectious diseases since the discovery
of penicillin in 1929.[1] The drug-resistant bacteria appeared
J. Li, H. Luo, Prof. F. Zhou
Beijing Key Laboratory of Materials Utilization of Nonmetallic
Minerals and Solid Wastes
National Laboratory of Mineral Materials
School of Materials Science and Technology
China University of Geosciences (Beijing)
Beijing 100083, China
E-mail: zhoufs@cugb.edu.cn
J. Li, Prof. R. Cha, X. Zhao, K. Long, Prof. X. Jiang
Beijing Engineering Research Center for BioNanotechnology and
CAS Key Lab for Biological Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety
CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience
National Center for NanoScience and Technology
Beijing 100190, China
E-mail: chart@nanoctr.cn; xingyujiang@nanoctr.cn
K. Mou
CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-based Materials
Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
Qingdao 266101, China
Prof. X. Jiang
Sino-Danish College, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
Beijing 100049, China
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201800334.
DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201800334
Adv. Healthcare Mater. 2018, 1800334 1800334  (1 of 16)
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along with the abuse of antimicrobials,
which threaten the health of billions of
people in the world. As the seriousness
of drug resistance of bacteria increases
rapidly, many studies have focused on
developing antimicrobial materials that
prevent bacterial infection to overcome
drug resistance.[2]
Nanocellulose have gained much atten-
tion for antibacterial application because
of their remarkable physical properties,
special surface chemistry, and excel-
lent biological properties.[3] Nanocellu-
lose possess abundant hydroxyl groups,
which make them stable in water. There
are mainly four kinds of nanocellulose,
including nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC),
nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC), bacterial
cellulose (BC), and electrospun-cellulose
nanofibers (ESC).[4]
NCC is a class of rigid, hydrophilic, high in aspect ratio, and
rod-shaped crystal cellulose whiskers of 1–20 nm in diameter,
and tens to hundreds of nanometers in length.[5] With a large
surface area (150–250 m2 g−1) and low coefficient of thermal
expansion, NCC shows great potential in tissue engineering,
fillers for injectable hydrogel, and drug carriers.[6] NFC is
isolated from cellulose-containing materials such as hemp
fibers, wheat straws, and wood materials, which possess fine
structure, high aspect ratio, large specific surface area, and
good biocompatibility. NFC is applicable to the preparation of
multifunctional materials such as films, paper, foams, and aero-
gels with high porosity.[7] BC is known for numerous desirable
properties, such as sustainability, biocompatibility, biodegrada-
bility, broad chemical-modification capability, and high surface
area. BC is also the only nanocellulose that is produced and sold
in large scales.[8] ESC is prepared by electrospinning and usu-
ally in the form of films, and the raw materials of ESC include
crystal whisker, cotton, and cellulose acetate. ESC has become
useful for biomedical, filter, catalytic, and textile applications.[9]
We described the preparation and application of the
nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials (Figure 1).[2d,10]
There are mainly four methods for preparing nanocellulose-
based antimicrobial materials, containing surface modifica-
tion, antibiotic addition, combination with nanomaterials, and
combination with antibacterial polymers. Several quaternary
ammonium compounds, such as zwitterion betaines which
are essential for protein formation and DNA repair, have been
applied in the preparation of antibacterial materials.[11] Many
metal or metal oxide nanoparticles, such as gold, silver, copper,
copper oxide, zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, magnesium oxide
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Figure 1. The preparation and application of nanocellulose-based
antimicrobial materials.
nanoparticles, and cupper/titanium dioxide nanocomposites,
are good candidates for antimicrobial applications.[12] Further-
more, many antimicrobial polymers are employed for antibacte-
rial applications, for instance, chitosan and its derivatives are
good antibacterial agents.[13] Nanocellulose-based antimicrobial
materials can be used in many applications including drug car-
riers, packaging materials, and wound dressing materials.
2. Methods for Preparation of Nanocellulose-
Based Antibacterial Materials
2.1. Surface Modification on Nanocellulose
Nanocellulose is composed of β-1, 4-glucose, and there are
three active hydroxyls on C2, C3, and C6 positions of glu-
copyranose ring. Nanocellulose can be easily modified on
these positions by oxidation, esterification, or etherification,
which would introduce new functional groups. The functional
groups with antimicrobial properties include aldehyde group
and quaternary ammonium. These two kinds of nanocellulose
showed good antibacterial activity and biocompatibility.
2.1.1. Aldehyde-Nanocellulose
The aldehyde groups on nanocellulose are usually grafted
through oxidation by oxidants, such as periodate sodium and
2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyloxy (TEMPO).
The periodate oxidation is traditionally done in water, and
more periodate and longer oxidation time were used to achieve
higher aldehyde contents.[14] Periodate sodium can selectively
oxidize the hydroxyl group into aldehyde group on the C6
position of nanocellulose. We prepared 2,3-dialdehyde NFC
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Xingyu Jiang obtained his B.S.
at the University of Chicago
(1999), followed by an A.M.
(2001) and a Ph.D. (2004)
from Harvard University
(Chemistry), working with
Prof. George Whitesides. He
joined the NCNST in 2005
and has remained there since
then. His research interests
include surface chemistry on
the micro/nanoscale, develop-
ment of antibacterial nanoparticles, and their application
as wound dressings.
(DANFC) by sodium periodate oxidation, and found that the
antimicrobial activity of DANFC against both Staphylococcus
aureus and multidrug resistant (MDR) S. aureus increased with
the increase of aldehyde content (Figure 2).[15] DANFC also
displayed good biocompatibility toward mammalian cells, and
showed good blood compatibility. We studied the healing effect
of DANFC in an animal model, and epithelial parakeratosis
was observed in both gauze group and DANFC group, but hair
follicles and cuticular pegs appeared first in the wound tissue
treated with DANFC mat on day 14. DANFC can accelerate
wound healing and enhance the formation of blood vessels and
epithelium. Oxidized BC/silver composites prepared by reac-
tion between aldehyde compound and silver–ammino complex
showed significant antimicrobial property. The composites also
exhibited high biocompatibility, allowing the attachment and
growth of epidermal cells, which helps with wound repair.[16]
TEMPO can link on the surface of nanocellulose under
aqueous condition, and then the hydroxyl group at C6 position
of nanocellulose will convert to aldehyde and carboxyl func-
tional groups.[17] TEMPO-BC/silver composite was prepared by
depositing silver nanoparticles on TEMPO-oxidized BC, which
is a promising alternative for curing bacteriosis of shrimp.[18]
Aldehyde-nanocellulose showed great potential in biomedical
applications, whereas the regents and solvents which are used
during processing will affect the final products and environ-
ment. The best possibility to avoid toxic solvents is the usage of
water-soluble oxidant or other “green” oxidant.
2.1.2. Quaternized Nanocellulose
Antibacterial nanocellulose has been developed by grafting of
quaternary ammonium compounds. Quaternary ammonium
compounds are the most widely used antimicrobial agents due
to their antibacterial properties, low toxicity, and environmental
compatibility (Figure 3).[19]
Cationic porphrin (CP) was appended onto the surface
of NCC via the Cu (I)-catalyzed Huisgen–Meldal–Sharpless
“click” reaction, which was first proposed in 2001 and pro-
vides an excellent platform for biomedical applications.[20]
NCC–CP showed excellent efficacy toward the photodynamic
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Figure 2.  Scheme of the experimental process of DANFC and its wound healing effect for the rat model. Reproduced with permission.[15] Copyright 2017,
the Royal Society of Chemistry.
inactivation of Mycobacterium smegmatis and S. aureus, albeit
with only slight activity against Escherichia coli.[21]
NFC could be quaternized through grinding method and
high pressure homogenization. For example, after the cellulose
fibers were pretreated by sodium hydroxide and glycidyl trime-
thyl ammonium chloride (GTMAC) at 65 °C, NFC–GTM was
synthesized by grinding.[22] Another kind of NFC–GTM was pre-
pared by high pressure homogenization of NFC and GTMAC,
which showed antimicrobial properties against E. coli, S. aureus,
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.[23] Compared with grinding method
which would damage the fiber badly and decrease its crystal-
linity, high pressure homogenization may be more suitable for
preparing quaternized NFC with higher mechanical strength.[24]
BC-based antibacterial materials can be prepared by chemical
reaction between BC and aminoalkyl groups, such as 3-amino-
propyltrimethoxysilane. BC membranes were grafted with ami-
noalkyl groups, which are lethal to E. coli and S. aureus, but no
obvious toxicity to human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem
cells, as the cell viability was more than 70% after treated by the
membrane.[25] BC also plays a role in the development of sus-
tained-release material or efficient adsorbent for antibacterial
applications. For example, BC mats which provided a sustained
release of benzalkonium chloride (BKC) showed antimicrobial
properties against E. coli and S. aureus.[26] In addition, meth-
acryloyl oxyethyl dimethylbenzyl ammonium chloride-coated
BC was applied to kill the E. coli in water.[27]
Antibacterial ESC could be prepared by electrospinning of qua-
ternized raw materials or dipping ESC into the solution of qua-
ternary ammonium compounds. For instance, ESC with excellent
antibacterial activities against E. coli and S. aureus was obtained
by electrospuning of cellulose acetate which was modified by
3-amino propyl trimethoxysilane (APTS) or 2,4-bi[(3-benzyl-
3-bimethylammonium)propylamino]-6-choro-1,3,5-triazine chlo-
ride (BBCTC).[28] Dipping ESC mats into 3-(trimethoxysilyl)
propyldimethyl octadecylammonium chloride (AEM) could also
yield the ESC mats with excellent antibacterial activities against
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S. aureus.[29] Electrospuning of quaternized raw materials could
avoid the potential release of biocides from raw materials, which
will provide benefit for the application of quaternized ESC.
2.2. Addition of Antibiotic in Nanocellulose
Antimicrobial properties of nanocellulose-based antimicrobial
materials could be realized by adding antibiotics (Table 1). The
most frequently used antibiotics are shown in Figure 4.
All the four kinds of nanocellulose are suitable for
synthesizing antibacterial materials.[31] For example, allicin-
conjugated NCC can be attached on cellulose by a simple
conjugation, which showed durable antibacterial properties
against S. aureus.[32] NFC hydrogel that contains polymyxin
B can be prepared upon lyophilization.[33] In addition, ceftri-
axone, chloromycetin,[34] ampicillin, and gentamycin[35] were
added in BC to prepare antimicrobial materials. The 3D network
structure of BC is responsible for the largest holding capacity
and sustained release of the antibiotic ceftriaxone.[36] ESC mat
with antimicrobial properties against E. coli and S. aureus was
successfully prepared with poly(ε-caprolactone), cellulose acetate,
tetracycline hydrochloride, and dextran blend solution.[37]
In order to control the release rate and acquire better anti-
bacterial effect, clathration is an effective method for preparing
antibiotic nanocellulose-based antibacterial materials. NCC was
functionalized with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) by using succinic acid
and fumaric acid as bridging agents, which were able to release
antibacterial molecules for long periods of time. Consider-
ably sustained antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis was
observed for NCC-CD compared with other materials.[40] Anti-
microbial ESC was synthesized through electrospinning a blend
suspension of a novel β-CD modified N-halamine copolymer
and cellulose acetate. After chlorination treatment by sodium
hypochlorite, the chlorinated ESC showed good biocompat-
ibility and antibacterial properties against E. coli andS. aureus.[41]
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Figure 3.  The frequently used quaternary ammoniums. CP. Reproduced with permission.[21] Copyright 2011, American Chemical Society; GTMAC.
Reproduced with permission.[22] Copyright 2016, Elsevier Ltd; BBCTC. Reproduced with permission.[28b] Copyright 2009, Elsevier Ltd; AEM. Repro-
duced with permission.[30a] Copyright 2015, Elsevier Ltd; BKC. Reproduced with permission.[30b] Copyright 2018, Elsevier Ltd; DMAE. Reproduced with
permission.[30c] Copyright 2012, Springer Nature; and APTS. Reproduced with permission.[30d] Copyright 2008, American Chemical Society.

Table 1. Antibiotics and their functions in nanocellulose-based

antimicrobial materials. The antibiotic consumption will reduce when combining
antibiotics with mats or hydrogels, which is effective for
Type Antibiotics Bacterial species Ref. reducing the risk of antibiotic-resistant infections.
NCC Allicin S. aureus [32]
NFC Polymyxin B P. aeruginosa; Serratia marcescens; [33]
2.3. Combination with Nanomaterials
S. typhimurium; E. coli; Enterobacter cloacae
BC Ceftriaxone S. aureus [36] Inorganic nanoparticles are widely used in nanocellulose-based
Chloromycetin S. aureus; Streptococcus pneumonia; E. coli [34] antimicrobial materials, such as noble metal nanoparticles and
Ampicillin S. aureus; P. aeruginosa; E. coli; E. faecalis [35] metal oxide nanoparticles. They would release from the com-
Gentamycin S. aureus; P. aeruginosa; E. coli; E. faecalis [35] posites and contact with the bacteria. The minimal inhibitory
concentration (MIC) of inorganic nanoparticles containing
Tetracycline S. aureus; E. coli [37]
nanocellulose-based materials is much lower than that of single
hydrochloride
metal or metal oxide nanoparticles, which is beneficial for
ESC Triclosan S. aureus; E. coli [38]
human beings and the environment.

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Figure 4.  The structure of antibiotics in nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials. Polymyxin B. Reproduced with permission.[39a] Copyright 2011,
Elsevier Ltd; Ceftriaxone. Reproduced with permission.[39b] Copyright 2015, Elsevier Ltd; Chloromycetin. Reproduced with permission.[39c] Copyright 1949,
Elsevier Ltd; Ampicillin. Reproduced with permission.[39d] Copyright 2018, Elsevier Ltd; Gentamycin. Reproduced with permission.[39e] Copyright 1975,
American Chemical Society; and Tetracycline·HCl. Reproduced with permission.[39f ] Copyright 2016, Elsevier Ltd.

2.3.1. Silver/Gold Nanoparticles
Due to their unique properties including low-toxicity, photo-
thermal effects, large specific surface area, versatility in surface
modification, and polyvalent effects,[20d,42] our group studied
antibacterial properties of various gold nanoparticles, such as
4,6-diamino-2-pyrimidinethiol (DAPT) coated gold nanoparticles
(Au-DAPT).[43] Importantly, antimicrobial activity of Au-DAPT
nanoparticles will not induce any reactive oxygen species (ROS)-
related process, which means that the nanoparticles are unlikely
to induce bacterial resistance.[44] Au-DAPT nanoparticles incorpo-
rated with BC were used as wound dressing (denoted as BC/Au-
DAPT nanocomposite) for treating infected wounds (Figure 5).
On day 14 postoperation of the wounds, the sizes of the wounds
treated by BC/Au-DAPT nanocomposites were significantly
smaller than those of the BC-treated groups both for E. coli and
P. aeruginosa infected wound. BC/Au-DAPT nanocomposite
showed better efficacy against Gram-negative bacteria than most
of the antibiotics. It also possessed excellent physicochemical
properties including water uptake capability, mechanical strain,
and biocompatibility. The BC/Au-DAPT nanocomposite system is
a promising platform for treating superbug-infected wounds.[10a]
Silver nanoparticles have attracted tremendous amount of
attention due to their broad antimicrobial spectrum.[45] These
particles can kill bacteria. Silver nanoparticles are susceptible
to destabilization or aggregation, which can affect their anti-
microbial activity.[46] Many approaches have been employed to
promote the antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles and
reduce their dosage for reducing cost. One is improving the
dispersity of silver nanoparticles in nanocellulose,[45a] because
well-dispersed silver nanoparticles could enhance the antibacte-
rial activity with low-dosage.[47] Another one is controlling the
release of silver nanoparticles.[48] The main issue with silver-
based drugs is the rapid release of silver ions, which results in

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Figure 5.  The preparation of BC/Au-DAPT nanocomposite and its antibacterial mechanism. a) Schematic illustration of the preparation process of
the BC/Au-DAPT nanocomposites. Reproduced with permission.[10a] Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH. b) The antibacterial mechanism of Au-DAPT nano-
particles. Au nanoparticles exert their antibiotic actions via sequestration of magnesium or calcium ions to disrupt the bacterial cell membrane (top
right corner). Reproduced with permission.[43a] Copyright 2010, American Chemical Society. Au nanoparticles induce the down-regulation of oxida-
tive phosphorylation pathway and ribosome pathways, and the transient up-regulation of chemotaxis (top left corner and bottom). Reproduced with
permission.[43b] Copyright 2013, the Royal Society of Chemistry.

high exposure concentrations of silver ions and inflicts adverse
effects upon human cells.[49]
NCC can serve as substrates, allowing glucose to reduce
AgNO3 and NH3·H2O to produce silver nanoparticles at room
temperature (Figure 6a). The MIC of the generated silver
nanoparticles on NCC is much lower than that of commercial
silver nanoparticles, which is attributed to the good dispersion
of silver nanoparticles with the presence of NCC. NCC/silver
showed good antibacterial activity against both E. coli, MDR
E. coli, S. aureus, and MDR S. aureus.[47] NCC/Ag nanocom-
posites, such as films with antibacterial properties, could be
prepared by melting or casting. For instance, films formed by
alloying of NCC, silver nanoparticles, and poly(lactic acid) were
antimicrobial against E. coli and S. aureus.[50] Ternary films were
prepared through casting NCC/silver nanohybrids and poly(3-
hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBH). The films with
high silver contents showed dramatic improvements in antibac-
terial properties and biocompatibility.[51]
An antibacterial and electrically conductive composite was
formed by generating catechol mediated silver nanoparticles
on the surface of NFC. The nanocomposite showed excellent
antibacterial efficacy against both E. coli and S. aureus.[53] Anti-
microbial nanomaterials were prepared via chemical reduc-
tion of silver ions in situ on NFC. The antibacterial activity
of cellulose membrane against E. coli and S. aureus was over
99.99%.[54] NFC/silver composite was formed through using
cationic NFC as solid supports for enzymes and silver nano-
particles, and it showed sustained antibacterial effect towards
E. coli. When immobilized lysozyme on the composite, it
showed a moderate antimicrobial effect against both S. aureus
and E. coli.[55]
Silver-containing BC membranes can be prepared by micro-
fluidic chips, freeze-drying, and in situ surface coating. BC/
graphene oxide/silver nanoparticles with controlled-releasing
and long-lasting antibacterial performance were fabricated
by microfluidic approach, and the fibers were antibacterial
toward E. coli and S. aureus.[56] BC/sodium alginate–silver
nanoparticles composites which synthesized by freeze-drying
showed excellent antibacterial activities and good biocompat-
ibility.[57] Furthermore, BC/silver nanocomposite of 3D porous
network structure showed good mechanical properties and
water reabsorption capacity, as well as excellent antibacterial
effect on E. coli and S. aureus, for which the inhibition rate
was over 99%.[58] Multifunctional nanocellulose-based antimi-
crobial materials were prepared through depositing silver nan-
oparticles on the iron oxide nanoparticle-containing BC, and
the magnetic BC/silver nanocomposite possessed high antimi-
crobial activity against E. coli and B. subtilis.[59]
BC is also a good template for preparing silver nanopar-
ticles (Figure 6b).[52] Researchers either inject silver ion into
BC or immerse BC in silver ion-containing solutions, thus
silver nanoparticles were synthesized in situ and showed
good antibacterial activity.[48,60] Silver nanoparticles self-
assembled on the surface of BC, forming a stable and even
distribution of silver nanoparticle. BC/silver exhibited signifi-
cant antibacterial activity against S. aureus. It was applied in a
second-degree rat wound model, and the wound flora showed
a significant reduction during the healing.[61] Silver ions
were put in the Gluconacetobacter xylinum and induced the
formation of silver/silver chloride nanoparticles by a biofac-
tory, and the resultant nanocomposite displayed the desirable
activity in inhibiting bacterial growth of S. aureus and E. coli

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Figure 6.  Preparation of silver containing nanocellulose-based antibacterial material. a) NCC-assisted generation of silver nanoparticles. Reproduced
with permission.[47] Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society. b) The scheme of the preparation process of TEMPO-BC/Ag nanocomposite. Repro-
duced with permission.[52] Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society.

on agar plate or in liquid culture.[62] BC/silver composite
was synthesized by hydrothermal in situ, and the composite
can release the silver slowly to kill S. aureus.[63] The TEMPO
mediate BC (TOBC) was ion-exchanged in AgNO3 solution,
and silver nanoparticles with diameter of 16.5 nm were syn-
thesized on TOBC nanofiber surfaces by thermal reduction
without using a reducing agent. The TOBC/silver composite
exhibited high biocompatibility and showed significant anti-
bacterial activities of 100% and 99.2% against S. aureus and
E. coli.[52]
ESC/silver antimicrobial materials can be prepared through
adding silver nanoparticles into raw materials, such as cellu-
lose acetate, or putting the ESC in dispersion of silver nano-
particles. ESC/silver/silver ions showed better antibacterial
properties in comparison to single silver/silver ions in same
concentration.[64] Silver nanoparticles and microcrystalline
cellulose combined through electrospinning, and the wound
healing capabilities of ESC/silver improved because of the
antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles.[65] Silver nanopar-
ticles were mixed with ESC from cellulose acetate to prepare
nanocomposite, and the composites were antimicrobial.[66]
Antimicrobial ESC were prepared by electrospun of crystal
whiskers/poly (vinyl pyrrolidone)/silver nanoparticle, and the
composite showed antibacterial properties against S. aureus
and E. coli.[67]
2.3.2. Metal Oxide Nanoparticles
Metal oxide nanoparticles such as titanium dioxide (TiO2),
copper oxide (CuO), zinc oxide (ZnO), and magnesium oxide
(MgO) were identified to exhibit antimicrobial activity (Table 2).
Antimicrobial property of TiO2 is related to its crystal struc-
ture, shape, and size distribution.[68] Oxidative stress via the
generation of ROS is a particularly important mechanism for
killing bacteria by TiO2 nanoparticles (anatase forms).[69] NCC/
TiO2 nanocomposites were developed by casting/evapora-
tion of NCC, TiO2 nanoparticles, and wheat gluten, and NCC/
TiO2 showed better antibacterial activity against Saccharomyces
cervisiae, E. coli, and S. aureus compared to free coated paper.[70]
NFC/TiO2 nanocomposites were successfully produced by a
‘‘green chemistry’’ approach in aqueous media. They showed
antimicrobial properties against S. aureus and E. coli, and they
were stable under the UV irradiation.[71]
CuO nanoparticles have been widely studied due to their
antimicrobial activities, biological, as well as chemical and

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Table 2.  Metal oxide in nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials.

Metaloxide Type Bacterial species Mechanism Ref.

TiO2 NCC S. aureus The generation of ROS may be a particularly important mechanism for TiO2 nanoparticles [69–71]
E. coli (anatase forms), and then ROS causes site-specific DNA damage of bacteria
NFC S. aureus
E. coli
CuO NFC S. aureus CuO nanoparticles were implemented through crossing of nanoparticles from the bacteria [72–74]
E. coli cell membrane and then damaging the vital enzymes of bacteria
C. albicans
BC E. coli
ZnO NCC S. aureus ROS generation on the surface of the particles, zinc ion release causes membrane dysfunction [76–84,87]
E. coli and nanoparticles internalization
B. subtilis
E. coli
BC E. coli
E. coli
S. aureus
ESC S. aureus
E. coli
Citrobacter
S. aureus
E. coli
MgO NFC E. coli MgO nanoparticles damage the cell membrane and then cause the leakage of intracellular [85,86]
contents which in turn leads to death of the bacterial cells

physical properties.[72] The function of CuO nanoparticles was
implemented through crossing of nanoparticles from the bac-
teria cell membrane and damaging the vital enzymes of bac-
teria.[73] NFC was coated with Cu/CuO nanoparticles through a
“green” reductive technique using the alcoholic extract of termi-
nalia chebula fruit. NFC/CuO showed promising antimicrobial
activity against Staphyllococcus aureus, E. coli, and Candida albi-
cans, which was quite compatible with peripheral blood mono-
nuclear cells and mammalian red blood cells.[74]
ZnO has outstanding optoelectronic properties, high catalytic
activity against chemical and biological species, and strong anti-
microbial properties against a wide range of pathogens. ROS
generation and the release of zinc ion will cause dysfunction of
cell membrane.[75] NCC/ZnO nanocomposite was synthesized
through in situ solution casting of dispersion containing NCC
and ZnO nanoparticles. NCC/ZnO nanocomposite showed
better antibacterial activity against both S. aureus and E. coli
compared to pure ZnO nanoparticles. The antibacterial activity
against S. aureus was stronger than E. coli.[76] Nanocomposites
were prepared with NCC, ZnO, and CeO2 nanoparticles by
using polyaniline as the binding agent. The bio-nanocomposite
was effective against both B. subtilis and E. coli.[77]
An excellent matrix for adsorbing ZnO nanoparticles was
formed through dissolving BC in N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide.
The BC/ZnO composite was biocompatible to animal osteo-
blast cells, and showed excellent antimicrobial activity against
E. coli.[78] In another study, BC membrane was used as a matrix
for preparation of BC/ZnO sheet by ultrasonic-assisted in situ
synthesis. BC/ZnO membrane showed antibacterial activity
against E. coli and S. aureus.[79] BC/ZnO membrane can be
formed without water. The assembly of porous BC/ZnO biona-
nocomposite foams with a maximum ZnO loading of 70 wt%
was achieved by controlled hydrolysis and solvothermal crystal-
lization by using a BC aerogel as a template in a nonaqueous
polar medium. The bio-nanocomposite foams showed excellent
antibacterial activity against E. coli.[80] BC/ZnO pellicle can also
be synthesized by applying solution plasma to Zn ion without
adding reducing agent, and ZnO simultaneously deposited into
a BC pellicle. The ZnO/BC pellicle has demonstrated strong
antibacterial activity without a photocatalytic reaction against
both S. aureus and E. coli.[81] BC/ZnO nanocomposites were
prepared by ultrasound irradiation with BC monolayer and
multilayer films and 5 wt% ZnO nanoparticles. The multilayer
films are expected to achieve controlled release of ZnO. BC/
ZnO films showed good antibacterial activity against S. aureus
and E. coli.[82]
ZnO nanoparticles embedded ESC membrane from cel-
lulose acetate with multifunctional properties was pre-
pared through electrospinning method. The fibers exhibited
strong antibacterial activity against the S. aureus, E. coli,
and Citrobacter.[83] ESC/ZnO membrane was fabricated by
electrospinning from NCC, ZnO, and poly(3-hydroxy-butyrate-
co-3-hydroxy-valerate), and the membrane exhibited high
antibacterial efficiency of about 100% against both S. aureus
and E. coli.[84]
MgO showed strong antibacterial activity due to its
alkalinity.[85] The antibacterial mechanism of MgO nanopar-
ticles is due to the generation of superoxide on the surface
of these particles, and an increase in pH value by the hydra-
tion of MgO with water. MgO nanoparticles damaged the
cell membrane and then caused the leakage of intracellular
contents, which in turn leads to death of the bacterial cells.

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NFC/MgO/regenerated cellulose films were prepared via
simple blending and casting processes. The film containing
30 wt% MgO showed excellent antibacterial activity against
E. coli, and provided a promising pathway for manufacturing
multifunctional and high-performance cellulose-based com-
posite films.[86]
Excessive use of metal or metal oxide nanoparticles will
cause bacterial resistance and environmental problems. To
reduce usage of nanoparticles and improve the antibacte-
rial efficiency of the nanocellulose-based antibacterial mate-
rials which contain metal or metal oxide nanoparticles, the
preparing conditions and properties of them still need to be
developed. For instance, increasing the specific surface area
and porosity of nanocellulose-based antibacterial materials are
practical methods to reduce nanoparticles consuming, and the
high specific surface area and porosity provide more opportu-
nities for nanocellulose-based antibacterial materials to contact
with bacteria.
2.3.3. Graphene-Based Materials
Graphene oxide (GO) has an attracting and ever-growing interest
in antibacterial fields for its fascinating nanostructures.[88] GO
showed high antibacterial activities against both Gram-negative
and Gram-positive bacteria compared with the antibacterial
properties of four types of graphene-based materials.
NCC and reduced GO (rGO) were successfully synthesized
via acid hydrolysis and modified Hummer’s method. The NCC/
rGO/poly-lactic acid (PLA) nanocomposite film, which was pre-
pared by solution casting of the NCC/rGO and PLA, showed
distinct antibacterial efficacy against both S. aureus and E. coli,
and the film also displayed negligible cytotoxicity of fibroblast
cell line (NIH-3T3).[89]
BC/GO composites were synthesized by a mechanical
mixing method using BC as a matrix. The BC/GO nanocom-
posites showed a strong antimicrobial effect on S. cerevisiae due
to the effective contact between the nanofillers of the compos-
ites and the cell surfaces.[90] BC/GO/TiO2 composite was pre-
pared by filling GO/TiO2 nanoparticles into porous BC matrix.
The BC/GO/TiO2 composite showed no obvious cytotoxicity
antibacterial properties against S. aureus.[91]
2.3.4. Nanosilicates-Based Materials
Nanosilicates, such as montmorillonite, are composed of
two tetrahedral sheets of silica and a central octahedral sheet
of alumina. The particles are plate-shaped with an average
diameter around 1 µm and a thickness of 9.6 nm, which has
been widely used in medical fields for cleansing and protec-
tion of skin with antibacterial activity. BC/montmorillonite
films with potent antibacterial activity and potential thera-
peutic value in wound healing and tissue regeneration were
developed. The antibacterial activity of the film against E. coli
and S. aureus was excellent.[92] Multilayered membrane was
prepared by negatively charged NFC and positively charged
CS/rectorite, which showed good antibacterial activity against
E. coli.[93]
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2.4. Compositions of Antibacterial Polymers and Nanocellulose
Polymers with antibacterial activities will combine with nano-
cellulose to form nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials.
Antimicrobial polymers contain natural polymers (chitosan and
amino acid) and synthetic polymers, for example, halogenated
amines and guanidine salts. The antibacterial ability of these
polymers was related to the protonation of amino groups.
2.4.1. Natural Polymers
Chitosan, which is industrially produced from chitin, is the
second most abundant polysaccharide in nature. Chitosan
is regarded as a natural antimicrobial compound against an
extensive variety of microorganisms including bacteria, yeasts,
and moulds.[94] Chitosan with low molecular weight will pass
through the cell membrane and combined with negatively
charged nucleic acid. Chitosan with high molecular weight
will adhere to the cell membrane and form a film on bacteria,
which will interdict the transport of nutrients. Chitosan was
functioned as a kind of chelating agent to adsorb metal ions,
which was essential for bacteria, and so forth.[95]
NCC/chitosan nanopaper showed excellent antimicro-
bial activities against B. cereus and Salmonella typhimurium.
The presence of chitosan in the nanopaper enhanced the resist-
ance of paper to different microorganisms especially those that
cause food poisoning.[96] NCC/chitosan nanocomposite was
effective for killing E. coli and S. aureus, which was suitable for
saving meat and improving its shelf time.[97] NCC/chitosan/
poly (vinyl pyrrolidone) composites were prepared by solution
casting method. The composite showed good blood compat-
ibility, high cell viability, and antimicrobial properties toward
S. aureus and P. aeruginosa.[98]
NFC-based antibacterial films were prepared by incorpora-
tion with sodium alginate and benzalkonium chloride modified
chitosan. The NFC/chitosan film exhibited antibacterial activity
against both E. coli and S. aureus.[99] Tricomponent film was
synthesized by blending thermoplastic starch, chitosan, and
NFC. The tricomponent film possessed good thermal stability
and mechanical performance, and showed antibacterial activity
against S. aureus.[100]
BC/chitosan composites displayed excellent properties such
as high water holding capacity, ultrafine nanofiber network, high
elastic modulus, and tensile strength.[101] The cumulative release
amounts of chitosan from the film were strongly depended on
molecular weight of chitosan and pH of solution. BC/chitosan
film was developed by immersing purified BC pellicles in 1.5–
2.0% (w/v) acetic acid solutions containing chitosan of varying
molecular weights. The film showed antimicrobial abilities
against S. aureus and Aspergillus niger, but did not show inhibi-
tory effect on the growth of E. coli. The antibacterial activity
against S. aureus of the film with the highest Mw chitosan
(263 000) was better than that of the others. The BC/chitosan
film with the lowest Mw chitosan (141 000) promoted the growth
of human skin cells more than those of the others.[102] BC/chi-
tosan composite was obtained after dynamic culture of Glucoace-
tobacter xylinum and chitosan. The BC/chitosan composite with
high strength showed high antimicrobial activity against both
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E. coli and S. aureus.[103] BC/chitosan composite showed signifi-
cant inhibition on the growth of E. coli and S. aureus, and the
wound treated with BC/chitosan epithelialized and regenerated
faster than those treated with BC or Tegaderm.[104]
Antibacterial ESC was manufactured from wet-spinning of
crystal whiskers and hydroxypropyl chitosan, and the ESC exhib-
ited excellent antibacterial activities against both S. aureus and
E. coli.[105] Another antimicrobial ESC was prepared by chitosan
and cellulose acetate. Nanostructured membranes of cellulose
acetate and chitosan/poly(ethylene oxide) were prepared by
electrospinning, and they have significant antimicrobial activity
against E. coli and Propionibacterium acnes.[106] When depositing
chitosan and pectin/organic rectorite on ESC surface from cel-
lulose acetate by a layer-by-layer technique, the diameters of
the inhibition zone increased from 7.6 to 15.8 mm for E. coli,
and from 7.4 to 14.2 mm for S. aureus.[107] Multilayer-ESC mat
was fabricated by quaternized carboxymethyl chitosan, organic
rectorite, and cellulose acetate. The antibacterial activity of ESC
mat against E. coli and S. aureus increased with the number of
coating layers and the incorporation of organic rectorite.[108]
Polylysine consists of 20–35 lysine residues with multiva-
lent cations, which would destroy the structure of microbial
cell membrane and inhibit the proliferation of Gram-positive
and Gram-negative bacteria such as E. coli and S. aureus.[109]
BC/polylysine nanofiber was prepared by immersing wet BC
pellicles in polylysine solution followed by cross-linking with
polyamide. The nanofiber exhibited antibacterial activity against
both E. coli and S. aureus.[110] Bacteriostatic sausage casing with
antibacterial properties was made with BC and polylysine by
making BC into the casing after immersion in lysine solution.
The casing exhibited antibacterial activity against S. aureus.[111]
2.4.2. Synthetic Polymers
In addition to natural polymers, the synthetic polymers can
also be combined with nanocellulose to prepare antimicrobial
composites, containing polypyrrole and polyhexamethylene
biguanide (PHB). Cell membrane of bacteria will be destroyed by
the adhesion of polymers, which results in the death of bacteria.
PHB is known as a broad spectrum antimicrobial agent
against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. The
nanocellulose/PHB dressing has been reported to reduce
biofilm and promote granulation tissue in wound without
irritation.[112] BC/PHB/sericin membrane showed low inflam-
mation response, and potentially reduced wound size with high
extent of collagen formation. The membrane possessed antimi-
crobial property and could prevent the wound infection due to
the antibacterial activity of polyhexamethylene biguanide and
wound healing activity of sericin, which was suitable for wound
healing, additionally, BC/PHB showed antimicrobial activity
against S. aureus.[113] ESC mats were synthesized by PHB, cellu-
lose acetate, and polyester urethane through electrostatic spin-
ning, which can promote wound healing.[114]
Nanocomposite was prepared by cellulose acetate incorpo-
rating with polymethacrylamide-modified NCC. The composite
films had excellent antibacterial properties against both E. coli
and S. aureus.[115] A composite film based on NFC, polyvinyl
alcohol, and polypyrrole was synthesized in situ by a chemical
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polymerization. The nanocomposite film was antimicrobial
against B. subtilis and E. coli.[116]
Additionally, antimicrobial ESC mats were prepared from cellu-
lose acetate by adding poly [5,5-dimethyl-3-(3′-triethoxysilylpropyl)
hydantoin] to the cellulose acetate solution via electrospinning
technique followed with curing, and then exposing to diluted
sodium hypochlorite. The chlorinated ESC mat had excellent anti-
bacterial effect against S. aureus and E. coli.[117]
2.5. Composition of Other Molecules and Nanocellulose
Lysozyme will hydrolyze peptidoglycan of the bacterial cell
wall,[118] which is composed of kinds of amino acid.[119] NCC/
lysozyme was prepared by conjugating lysozyme with NCC by
a carbodiimide cross-linker, and it had good antifungal and
antibacterial effects against standard strains of C. albicans,
A. niger, S. aureus, and E. coli.[120]
NFC/lysozyme films were prepared by immobilization of
lysozyme on NFC, and they can act as a minor component
in the formulation of release devices for reducing the release
rate of active molecules from the main polymer network.[121]
Nisin and other lysozyme will release from the three aerogels,
which inhibit the growth of Enterococcus faecalis, Clostridium
tyrobutyricum, and Micrococcus lysodeikticus.[33] Solid supports
for enzymes and silver nanoparticles with a sustained anti-
bacterial effect were prepared from aqueous dispersions of
anionic lysozyme and cationic NFC. The solid supports were
nontoxic and biodegradable, which are a suitable support for
bioactive materials, and are effective in protecting and retaining
enzymatic activity as well as antibacterial activities.[55]
Besides, ESC mats were prepared by adding positively
charged lysozyme and rectorite composites into negatively
charged electrospun cellulose acetate. The antimicrobial effect
of the ESC mats was enhanced by rectorite.[122] Anti-infective
bandages were formed by a cell lytic enzyme, lysostaphin,
with specific bactericidal activity. The ESC/lysostaphin showed
activity against S. aureus in an in vitro skin model with low
toxicity toward keratinocytes.[123]
Bovine lactoferrin is a glycoprotein with ≈80 kDa, which
possesses a wide range of activities, such as antimicrobial,
immunoregulatory, and anticancer.[124] Bovine lactoferrin can
also be combined with nanocellulose to prepare antibacterial
composites. The functionalized films were assessed as edible
antimicrobial packaging, which is able to contact with highly
perishable foods, specifically fresh sausage as a model of meat
products. BC/bovine lactoferrin films showed bactericidal
efficiency against E. coli and S. aureus.[125]
As a kind of typical natural antibiotics, propolis shows broad-
spectrum antibacterial properties. BC/propolis demonstrated
the potent antimicrobial activity and wound healing properties.
The propolis could be adsorbed on BC, which would promote
wound healing and tissue reconstruction.[126] BC/manuka honey
composites also showed anti-inflammatory and antibacterial
function properties, and it would promote tissue growth.[127]
At present, the research on the addition of natural antibac-
terial molecules in the preparation of nanocellulose-based
antibacterial materials is still in the early stage. There is no
doubt that the discovery of more natural antibacterial molecules
© 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.advancedsciencenews.com
will promote the emergence of nanocellulose-based antibacte-
rial materials and reduce environmental pollution.
3. Application of Nanocellulose-Based
Antimicrobial Materials
Nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials can be used for many
applications, such as wound dressing, drug carriers, and pack-
aging materials. Nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials are
sources-extensive, easily degradable, and can be easily prepared.
3.1. Wound Dressing Materials
Wound dressings made from nanocellulose are developed for
acceleration of wound healing by minimizing wound infec-
tion and controlling the appropriate wound environment.[128]
BC based wound dressings were effective in the treatment of
chronic nonhealing wounds in clinical studies. BC based wound
dressings have been associated with reducing pain, improving
wound cleansing, and accelerating wound healing.[129] BC based
dressings have ultrafine fiber structures with high capability to
absorb and retain large amount of water (more than 200 times
of its dry state), bringing the high capacity to absorb wound
exudate and controlling moist environment over the wound.[130]
Their nanoporous structures allow the easy transportation of
active molecules or compounds to the wound, and the high
tensile strength and flexibility make them to be a good barrier
for wound protection. In addition, they have cooling effect with
high purity and nontoxicity, which can reduce pain.[131] How-
ever, BC itself does not possess any antimicrobial activity for the
prevention of wound infections. In order to endow antimicro-
bial properties in BC, various studies have fabricated BC-com-
posites with different antimicrobial substances. BC/Au-DAPT
nanocomposites were used for treating bacterially infected
wounds, with smaller sizes of the wounds compared with that
of the BC groups. The BC/Au-DAPT nanocomposite system is a
promising platform for treating superbug-infected wounds.[10a]
BC nanocomposites with strong antibacterial activity were
prepared using in situ biosynthesis by adding chitosan to the
Figure 7.  Preparation of packaging materials. a) The schematic of casting process for films. Reproduced with permission.[134] Copyright 2015, the Royal Society
of Chemistry. b) Preparation scheme of NFC/chitosan–BKC biocomposite-incorporated sodium alginate film. Reproduced with permission.[51] Copyright 2017,
Elsevier Ltd.
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www.advhealthmat.de
culture medium, and the BC/chitosan composite with high
strength showed high antimicrobial activity against both E. coli
and S. aureus.[103] Another BC/chitosan composite also showed
significant inhibition on the growth of E. coli and S. aureus. The
wound treated with BC/chitosan epithelialized and regenerated
faster than those treated with BC or Tegaderm (a transparent
medical dressing manufactured by 3M).[104]
3.2. Drug Carriers
Nanocellulose-based materials can serve as carriers for phar-
maceuticals and drug-releasing scaffolds.[132] A core–shell
nanofiber drug carrier was fabricated via blend and coaxial
electrospinning of carboxymethyl cellulose and poly(ethylene
oxide).[31b] Tetracycline hydrochloride served as a drug model
incorporated within these nanofibers. The drug release from
the optimized core–shell nanofibers was much slower than
that from blend nanofibers, which sustained for 72 h with only
26.06% burst release within the first 30 min. The drug-loaded
core–shell nanofibers showed excellent bactericidal activity
against a wide range of bacteria. Similarly, nanofiber drug car-
riers were fabricated by coaxial electrospinning of sodium car-
boxymethyl cellulose with methyl acrylate and poly(ethylene
oxide).[31a] The tetracycline hydrochloride loaded into the opti-
mized core–shell nanofiber as a drug mode. The nanofiber with
smooth and beadless morphology showed sustained release
ability, and could kill a wide range of bacteria efficiently.
3.3. Packaging Materials
The maintenance of the food safety and quality assurance are
crucial for the food industry. The biodegradable packaging
materials that can vastly increase the barrier property and
extend shelf life are necessary.[133] Nanocellulose-based anti-
microbial material is one of the most promising materials for
food packaging. We manufactured biodegradable films with
improved barrier and mechanical properties, and they could
function as packaging materials with antibacterial properties
(Figure 7a).[134] The film played an equivalent role in the storage
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Table 3.  Recent reports on toxicology experiments and conclusions for nanocellulose. on both cellular and genetic level as well as
in vivo organ and animal experiments. Sur-
Type Toxicological experiment Conclusion Ref. face grafting of positive charged molecules
NCC Human MG-63 cells Low toxicity [51] or oxidation by strong oxidant molecules
Hemolysis assay Highly hemocompatible [98]
on nanocellulose can introduce biologically
Mouse fibroblasts Good biocompatibility active building blocks, which may contribute
to the potential of nanocellulose being used
NFC Human microvascular endothelial cell Good biocompatibility [15]
as antibacterial materials.[101b]
Animal wounds Promote the growth of hair follicles
Renal adenocarcinoma cells Good biocompatibility [136]
Mouse embryo fibroblasts Cell proliferation promoted [137] 5. Challenges
BC Mouse embryo fibroblasts Good biocompatibility [128]
The nanocellulose-based antibacterial
Human fibroblast cell High biocompatibility [113b]
materials are interesting, innovative, and
Human umbilical vein endothelial cells Good biocompatibility [10a] challenging. As a new kind of biomedical
Animal wounds Promote wound repair material, nanocellulose has captured the
A second-degree rat wound model The wound flora showed a [61] attention of many companies, and it has
significant reduction made huge progress. Several companies and
Human embryo kidney 293 Good biocompatibility [19a] institutes have realized large-scale prepara-
tion of nanocellulose, and they are mainly
ESC Human fibroblasts Good biocompatibility [31a]
located in US, Canada, China, Japan, and
An in vitro skin model Keratinocytes Good biocompatibility [123]
Sweden.[139] As a represent company, the Cel-
Mouse fibroblasts Excellent adhesion ability [138] luForce located in Canada developed a pilot-
scale production line for preparing NCC by
sulphuric acid hydrolysis at 2012, and the
of cakes with preservative film. We also prepared a kind of sau- capacity is 1000 kg d−1.[140] The US Forest Service established
sage casing by NCC and collagen, and the casing possesses a factory for preparing NCC (sulphuric acid hydrolysis, 10 kg
high strength of extension and elongation, which can extend d−1) in 2012. China International Travel Service Co. Ltd built
shelf life of sausage. [10c] We prepared NCC/ alkyl ketene dimer a production line for preparing NCC (100 kg d−1) in 2013.[141]
(AKD) emulsion as the sizing agent for surface-sized cellulosic Hangzhou Yuhan Technology Co., Ltd. has achieved preparing
paper, and the mechanical and multiple barrier properties were nanocellulose (phosphoric acid activation, 250 kg d−1).[142]
improved.[135] NCC/PHBH/silver nanocomposites showed high Innventia in Sweden started the first device for preparing NFC
antibacterial ratio of 99.9% with good barrier property and in 2011 (100 kg d−1). The factory of the US Forest Service also
lower migration levels in food simulants, which was suitable produced NFC (mechanical grinding, 1000 kg d−1) in 2012. Oji
for food packaging.[51] The NFC/chitosan–BKC biocomposite- Paper and Mitsubishi Chemical launched studies about com-
incorporated sodium alginate film exhibited remarkable anti- mercial film of NFC in 2013.[143]
bacterial activity against S. aureus and certain antibacterial Although a number of organizations have made consider-
activity against E. coli, which would be a promising material for able progress in the preparation of nanocellulose in pilot plants
food packaging. The tensile strength of the composite sodium over the last years, the industrial production of nanocellulose is
alginate film increased about 225% when the loading of NFC/ still not achieved. The large scale preparation of nanocellulose
chitosan–BKC biocomposite was 10 wt% (Figure 7b).[99] These by green method with low-energy and low cost is an issue with
innovations would solve two problems at once: assisting in great challenge.
cutting down packaging waste and in reducing the number of There are many challenges for the efficient and economical
food-borne illnesses. applications of nanocellulose-based antibacterial materials,
such as lacking of molding technics of mats and films for
wound dressing and packaging materials. Unlike cellulose
4. Biocompatibility for Nanocellulose-Based pulp, nanocellulose with smaller size is not suitable for wet-
end formation in papermaking. Contrary to true solution of
Antibacterial Materials
cellulose, the casting of nanocellulose dispersion needs further
Biocompatibility is the ability of a material existing in harmony study because it only uses water as solvent. How to rapidly pre-
with tissue without causing deleterious changes, which is an pare the low basis weight film is also important for low-concen-
essential requirement for biomedical materials. Nanocellu- tration nanocellulose dispersion.
lose can be generally considered to be broadly biocompatible,
invoking only moderate foreign body responses in vivo. A com-
prehensive assessment of the toxicology research for nanocel- 6. Conclusion
lulose and nanocellulose-based biocomposites was developed in
recent twenty years. Table 3 summarizes recent reports on toxi- The aim of this review is to outline the current state of research
cology experiments and conclusions for nanocellulose. There is and future development of nanocellulose in antibacterial appli-
no evidence for serious influence or damage of nanocellulose cation through the discussion of selected examples. There are

Adv. Healthcare Mater. 2018, 1800334 1800334  (12 of 16) © 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.advancedsciencenews.com
mainly four methods for preparation of nanocellulose-based
antibacterial materials, and these materials possess great applica-
tion as wound dressing, drug carriers, and packaging materials.
Nanocellulose-based antibacterial materials possess remarkable
features that surpass those of synthetic polymer-based antibacte-
rial materials, including plentiful, convenient, and low-cost. It is
essential to develop the green method with low-energy and low
cost for nanocellulose, which is beneficial to pave the way for
greater acceptance of nanocellulose as a commercially available
material. For their application of nanocellulose-based antibac-
terial material, the moulding technics and devise for mats and
films are the important impactors. If we can further improve the
mechanical property of nanocellulose-based antibacterial mate-
rials, they may be environmentally friendly and more extensive
for application as filters and clothes in the future. We believe
that nanocellulose will get more attention to realize their poten-
tial as antibacterial materials and benefit the development of
new kinds of antibacterial materials. We hope that our ideas in
this review will offer help in promoting the development and
application of nanocellulose-based antibacterial materials.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Ministry of Science and Technology of China
(grant no. 2013YQ190467), Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant nos.
XDA09030305 and 121D11KYSB20170026), and the National Science
Foundation of China (grant nos. 81361140345, 21535001, 81730051, and
21761142006) for financial support.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Keywords
bacterial cellulose, electrospun nanofibers, nanocellulose,
nanocrystalline cellulose, nanofibrillated cellulose
Received: March 30, 2018
Revised: May 18, 2018
Published online:
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