CHAPTER 1 - Critical Reasoning and Moral Theory

© Noel E.
Estrella
Ethics in a
Computing Culture
Chapter 1 | Critical Reasoning and Moral Theory
Photos: Google Images

Objectives:
1 What are ‘ethics’ and ‘morality’? How do
they differ?
2 Why do societies strive to create an

environment that is unanimously
considered ‘moral’?
3 What theories do they rely on to create

this ideal environment?
Institute of Information and Computing Sciences 3

Department of Information Technology Photos: Google Images
Borrowing a Password:
• Alice and Josh, two first-year undergraduate students, are good
friends. Josh tells Alice that his account on the university’s network
has been disabled and he needs to complete a paper for his English
class. He ask Alice to give him the password so that he can log
onto her account and write the paper. Because Alice considers
Josh to be a close friend, she provides him the password. Josh logs
onto Alice’s account and completes his paper for English. He did
not look at the content of any Alice’s files, nor did he delete or
modify anything. He simply wrote his paper and logged off the
system.

Case: Borrowing a Password
1. Did anyone in the scenario do anything wrong? Use your intuition to
define “WRONG” as you deem appropriate for the content of the case.
Explain your reasoning.
2. What were the risks involved?
3. Did anyone do anything “wrong”?
4. How do you interpret the word “wrong” in this case?
5. If a university policy stated that providing passwords to others is
prohibited, would the action be wrong?

Department of Information Technology
Case: Borrowing a Password (continued)
• How would you react if Alice were a software engineer at
a software development firm?
• Why would this circumstance affect your decision?
• This case did not specify why Josh’s account was
disabled.
• How does this hinder your ability to decide the morality of this
case?

Case: Borrowing a Password (continued)
• Suppose Josh just accepted a job at a competitor of Alice’s
company.
• Would this information affect your previous decision?
• Suppose the terms of Alice’s employment required her to
protect the confidentiality of her company’s corporate
information, but she overlooked the fine details.
• Would her unawareness keep her action from being considered
immoral?

Case: Warning or Ticket?
• Consider the affected parties, as well as the risks,
involved with Dolores’ failure to stop at the stop sign.
• What should Officer Schmidt do in this situation?

Case: Warning or Ticket?
• No harm, no foul: principle that states it is wrong to
punish someone for a simple mistake when no actual
harm has been done

Moral Theories
• Why an answer is better than another

• Why its difficult to agree with the answer of other people
Institute of Information and Computing Sciences

© Noel E. Estrella
Ethics and Morality

Chapter 1 | Critical Reasoning and Moral Theory
A. Morality and Ethics
ETHICS: a set of morally permissible standards for a
group that each member of the group wants every
other member to follow even if their doing so would
mean that he/she must do the same. (Davis)
MORALITY: the set of standards everyone wants

everyone else to follow even if their following them
means having to do the same. (Davis)
Standards of morality are similar to standards of

language: Rules regarding human behavior are
complex and have many exceptions.
Ethics = Rules
Morals = principle (right or wrong)

Ethics (“Ethos”)
• a system of moral principles
• The term is derived from the Greek word ethos which can mean custom,
habit, character or disposition.
Ethics covers the following dilemmas:

• how to live a good life
• our rights and responsibilities
• the language of right and wrong
• moral decisions - what is good and bad?
Loving | Caring | Respectful | Charity | Integrity | Honesty

Morality (“Mos”)
• Morality speaks of a system of behavior
in regards to standards of right or wrong
behavior.
• Morality carries the concepts of:
1. Moral standards, with regard to behavior;
2. Moral responsibility, referring to our
conscience; and
3. Moral identity, or one who is capable of
right or wrong action.

Morals
• Are the rules that govern which actions are right and which
are wrong. A morals can be for all of society or an
individual’s beliefs. Sometimes a moral can be gleaned
from a story or experience.
A. Do not gossip
B. Tell the truth
C. Do not vandalize property
D. Have courage
E. Keep your promises
F. Do not cheat
The Ten Commandments are the basis for many

of society’s morals.
Comparison
Ethics Morals
What are they? The rules of conduct Principles or habits with respect
recognized in respect to a to right or wrong conduct. While
particular class of human morals also prescribe dos and
actions or a particular group don'ts, morality is ultimately a
or culture. personal compass of right and
wrong.
Where do they Social system - External Individual - Internal

come from?
Why we do it? Because society says it is the Because we believe in

right thing to do. something being right or wrong.

Comparison
Ethics Morals
Origin Greek word "ethos" Latin word "mos" meaning
meaning"character" "custom"
Acceptability Ethics are governed by Morality transcends cultural
professional and legal norms
guidelines within a
particular time and place

Conflict between Ethics and Morality
A lawyer’s morals may tell her that murder is
reprehensible and that murderers should be
punished, but her ethics as a professional lawyer,
require her to defend her client to the best of her
abilities, even if she knows that the client is guilty.
A doctor may not euthanize a patient, even at the

patient's request, as per ethical standards for health
professionals. However, the same doctor
may personally believe in a patient's right to die, as
per the doctor's own morality.

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B. Moral Theory (Normative Theories of Ethics)
• Moral Theory is a way of defining morality.
• Morality is not necessarily the same definition accepted by
everyone.
• The basic equation for defining morality:
• How do I know that Heart is good?

• Why is Heart good?
An action might be unethical, yet remain morally permissible.

(A doctor advertising her medical services’ fees)
Moral Theories are meant to help us figure out what

actions are right and wrong.

B.1 Religious Ethics
• Religious ethics: refers to a set of standards
for the followers of a particular religion.
• Doing the right thing’ usually is achieved by
obeying the dictates of one’s religion.
• All major religions offer their own set of ethics.
• Those standards would be morally permissible

according to the morality defined by that religion.
“Serves as a reminder that what hurts us hurts others, and that

what heals us, heals others.”

B.2. Divine Command Theory
• Divine Command Theory: a moral theory that
holds God, and only God, decrees what is right
and what is wrong.
• God’s will to be the foundation of ethics. According to
divine command theory, things are morally good or bad, or
morally obligatory, permissible, or prohibited, solely
because of God’s will or commands.
• Can a person who is not religious act morally?
Plato – “Is goodness loved by the gods because it is good, or it is good

because it is loved by the gods?”
Thomas Aquinas– “Things are good in and of themselves”

B.3. Cultural Relativism
• Cultural Relativism: is a moral theory that holds no valid, rational

criterion for determining if the right thing to do exists.
• members of one culture should not judge or be judged by a different
culture
• Nazis creating interment camps
“Cultural Relativism seems attractive and promote

tolerance.”
Cultural Relativism
• Tolerance is the willingness to let people do what they
wish, as long as there is no overriding justification.
• Argue that the people committing the acts were acting within the
framework of their culture and should not be judged by our standards,
but by the standards of their culture.
• Critics of cultural relativism argue that such acts are immoral in any
culture, and that some universal moral standards apply to all culture
• Two attributes of human culture that is universal

1. Morality – human cultures have some form of moral structure and
these structures seem to include the same basic concepts.
2. Language – if we cannot articulate the rules does not mean they do
not exist.

Department of Information Technology 23
Why Do Jews Put Stones on
Graves?
• Ancient tradition of culture
• To Keep the Soul in This World (Talmud)
• Stones Last Longer Than Flowers
(permanence of memory)
• In Hebrew, “pebble” means “bond”
http://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/ask-the-expert-stones-on-graves/
B.4. Virtue Theory
• Virtue Theory: is a moral theory that, as the name implies, concerns the nature
of virtue and what it means to have virtue.
• It answers 2 questions:
1. What does it mean to be “good”?
2. How does one become good?
Video: Virtue Ethics. Retrieved from:
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cfSXUPrIC_4
Virtue Theory
1. What does it mean to be “good”?
• Aristotle said the “Ideal Man is one who possesses the characteristics
of a good person (virtues), including courage, friendliness, and modesty”
• Ideal Mean: means in between two extremes of human
characteristics
• It also represent s the half-way point between risk and generosity
2. What does it mean to be “good”? (Aristotle – 2 kinds of

virtues)
A. Intellectual Virtue – acquire through education, qualities of a
good thinker / learner (i.e. Curiosity, attentiveness)
B. Character Virtue – acquire by habitually acting according to
the virtues (i.e. Honest, respectful, kind)

Scenario 2
• Suppose that you are a SE who has been
directed by your boss to release a product
that you believe to be insufficiently tested.
• Suppose further that the software is used in
an automobile and could affect the safety of
the passengers.
• Clearly refusing to comply with your boss’
command could have consequences that
you fear.
Aristotle: “In fear and confidence, courage is

the mean”

Warning or Ticket?
• Herman Schmidt is a police officer. One morning he observed a driver, Dolores Delgado,
a young working mother, who failed to stop at a stop sign. They known each other for
years, and although they have never been close, they have always been friendly with
each other.
• When stopped, Dolores readily concedes that she missed the stop sign. She says that
she was on her way to drop her daughter at her day-care center before going to work. A
bee has flown through the window, upsetting her daughter, and Dolores had become
distracted. As a result, she simply did not notice the stop sign.
• She appeals to the officer to overlook her error and let her be on her way so that she can
get her daughter to day care and still get to work on time.
• Officer Schmidt has a decision to make. The law in this case permits a certain amount of
discretion by the police in the case of a “rolling stop”, but that discretion clearly does not
apply in this case. Dolores did not even see the stop sign, much less slow down for it
What should officer Schmidt do?

A.Give Dolores a warning?
B.Give Dolores a ticket?
C.Arrest Dolores
• Righteous Indignation: is the anger we feel at
someone’s undeserved good or bad fortune.
• strong feelings of anger when you think a situation is
not morally right or fair.
• Dolores deserves to get the ticket because she
broke the law, and her behavior endangered
others
• Virtue Ethics: is agent-centered as opposed to

action-centered. It focuses more on the character
of the person making the decision rather than on
the decision itself.
• A person becomes virtuous by repeatedly doing

virtuous acts until they become habitual.

Department of Information Technology Photo: Google Images
B.5. Consequentialism & Utilitarianism
Consequentialism: theory of ethics Utilitarianism: is a consequentialist

that holds the consequence of an action, moral theory that says the right decision is
not the motivation behind the action, makes the one that causes the most happiness.
an action good or bad. “The greatest good for the greatest
amount of people”

Utilitarianism
Video: Utilitarianism. Retrieved from:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TuZ7_ivZeHQ
B.5. Utilitarianism
• Origin: Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) is
regarded as the “father of utilitarianism”,
with John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) his
strongest proponent.
• The principle of utilitarianism says that one
ought to do that which causes the greatest
utility.
• UTILITY in this case means maximizing happiness in the world.

• He mentioned that utilitarianism is motivated by the “greatest happiness
principle”
• Happiness is….pleasure and the absence of pain”
• Unhappiness means “pain and the absence of pleasure.”
Moral Act: Maximizes happiness

B.5. Utilitarianism
Pleasure is not simply the physical pleasure. It includes mental and emotional
pleasure in the sense of
• satisfaction of accomplishment
• Appreciation of an interesting idea
• Aesthetic
• Helping others
Moral Act: Maximizes happiness

Department of Information Technology Photos Google Images
2 Forms of Utilitarianism
1. Act Utilitarianism: each ethical choice is evaluated according to
whether or not the action taken maximizes happiness.
• “It is the greatest good for the greatest number” (Bentham)
• UTILITARIAN CALCULUS – the process of calculating which action
will lead to the greatest happiness.
• Application of Act of Utilitarianism

• Schmidt : “If I let Dolores go, I will not have to write the ticket, and I will
not have to waste my time testifying in court. I certainly will be happier.
Dolores will certainly be much happier since she did not get a ticket.
So, overall, there is definitely an increase in happiness.
Person's act is morally right if and only if it produces at least as much happiness as
any other act that the person could perform at that time
2 Forms of Utilitarianism
2. Rule Utilitarianism: the concept of adopting a set of rules, and each act is
evaluated as to whether it conforms to them. The rules are selected so as to
maximize happiness if followed faithfully.
• The basic premise of rule utilitarianism is that easy-to-follow rules will lead to fewer
calculations
Bernard Gert rules of morality:
1.Do not kill.
2.Do not cause pain.
3.Do not disable.
4.Do not deprive of freedom.
5.Do not deceive.
6.Keep your promises.
7.Do not cheat.
8.Obey the law.
9.Do your duty.
Action is right as it conforms to a rule that leads to the greatest good, or that "the rightness or
wrongness of a particular action is a function of the correctness of the rule of which it is an
instance."
Act VS Rule Utilitariasm
• A RULE UTILITARIAN drives at night and sees a red intersection light.
Thinking "it would have good consequences if people would stick to
the rule and not cross red lights, so everyone is safe while waiting for a
short while", she would apply that rule to herself and wait for it to turn
green.
Meanwhile, the ACT UTILITARIAN might think

"well, I certainly hope that people, who aren't me,
in general follow that rule and stay put, but as
there's no one around who might get influenced by
my act, since there's no police around to fine me,
and since I would see an approaching car as it's
dark, I might as well cross right now."

B.6. Deontological Ethics
• Deontological ethics theories differ from consequentialist
theories
• Greek word “Deon” which means “DUTY”
• the intention behind the action is considered more important than
the end result
• focuses on rights, duties, obligations, and rules
• Assumes that the result will end badly if these rules are not met.
• Immanuel Kant deontological theories:
• “Nothing …[can] be called good without qualification except a
good will”
• A good will is the will of a person to act solely according to a
code of morality based purely in reason.

B.6. Deontological Ethics
• Kant’s Categorical Imperative
• Categorical imperative is a rule that must always be followed by all
rational beings.
• Categorical means absolute, unconditional, and an end in itself.
• Imperative means a command
Laws in Applied Ethics:
1. Universal law of nature – act only according to maxims that could be
adopted as universal laws.
2. Principle of the end in itself – treat humans, both yourself and others,
always as ends in themselves, and never merely as a means to an end.
“It is always morally acceptable to steal anything you want”

1.If it is okay to steal, then we should not expect to have any personal property.
2.If there is no such thing as personal property, then there is no such things as
“stealing”
B.7. Contractarianism
• Contractarianism is both political and moral theory.
• Some of its attributes can be merged with consequentialist
theories or with deontological theories.
• Stems from Thomas Hobbes (1588-1579)
• State of Nature: supports the idea that people are rational

beings who seek to promote the common interests of society in
order to promote their own self-interests, and the best way of
doing that is to promote the common interest of the society.

B.7. Contractarianism
Is a person’s self-interest really maximized by acting for the public
good?”
• Game Theory: a branch of mathematics in which an individual(a

player) makes choices that potentially create points for the player. The
number of points a player wins depends on his or her choices and on
the choices of other players.
• Prisoner’s Dilemma: a scenario in which two people are offered

a choice—cooperate or defect

Department of Information Technology 40
B.8. Ethics of Justice
• Most ethicists are in search of ethical theories that
have these key qualities:
1. Impartiality: the quality that every person is

treated equally and no one is given preferential
treatment in the theory.
1. Universality – a decision reached by applying the

theory should be correct for everyone that has a
similar decision to make.

B.8. Ethics of Justice
• Rawls’s Theory of Justice: explores the basic rules that are
necessary to ensure fairness in society as a whole
• argues that the principles of “justice as fairness” underlie all just
societies (John Rawl)
• According to Rawl’s Theory of Justice, in order for a society to be

just:
1. Everyone has as much freedom as possible.
2. Everyone has an equal opportunity to reach desirable positions in society.
3. All socio-economic differences are of the most benefit to the least advantaged.
Difference Principle: social and economic inequalities are justified only if

such inequalities provide the greatest benefit to the least advantaged
Explains why impartiality is not always desirable.

B.9. Ethics of Caring
• Nel Noddings: morality boils down to a single virtue, which is
caring for other individuals
• Ethics of Caring: defines goodness in terms of whether or not

we take care of the people around us
• Noddings: the only inherent good is caring
• Kant: the only inherent good is good will
• Utilitarians: the only inherent good is happiness

B.9 Ethics of Caring
• Because it is possible to care for everyone, impartiality is rejected.
• It is only necessary to care for those with whom one shares a
relationship.
• There is no universal way to externally judge whether an action
is morally right or wrong.
• The judgment varies on the relationship between the one-
caring individual and the person being cared for.

B.9 Ethics of Caring
• A computerized pill dispenser is equipped with alarms and self-opening

caps that help remind patients to take their medication.
• Is it morally permissible to require all patients with a history of ignoring their
medication to use this technology?
• Is it morally permissible to require all elderly patients to use this technology?

C. Ethics of Reasoning
• Pure Reason: deductive reasoning on which Euclidean geometry is
based; its purpose is to establish the truth
• issues are straightforward
• Practical Reason: the reasoning used to make decisions

• issues are complex
• used to resolve ethical issues

• Deliberative Critical Discussion: a conversation in which the
participants consider the partners in the discussion are well-
intended and informed; with this understanding, participants
bring their knowledge to the discussion to share their own
opinions and develop more refined perspectives.
Avoid:
- charged language
- hyperbole
- Ad hominem

• Read the case “To Tell or Not To Tell.”
• Choose whether Arnold’s actions were ethical or
unethical, then elaborate on your reasoning.
• What are your arguments?
• Is there any situation you can allude to that will
help others to understand your perspective?

• Read 1.5.5, “A Sample Deliberative Critical Discussion.”
• How did your opinion change after reading the dialogue?
• Do you still consider Arnold’s actions to be ethical?
• Did the context of the situation affect your view?
• Had the professor allowed it, would the ad hominem attack
against Alpha have helped to drive Delta’s argument?

Guilty or Not Guilty?
• A virtue theorist, a Kantian, and an act utilitarian are discussing a
court case.
• In this case, a person who was mentally ill refused his
medication and became violent, killing an innocent person.
• Describe the position that each of the theorists would be
most likely to hold regarding the mentally ill man’s moral
responsibility (see p. 40 ex. 14 for details).


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© Noel E.

Photos: Google Images

2 Why do societies strive to create an

3 What theories do they rely on to create

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• Why an answer is better than another

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Ethics and Morality

MORALITY: the set of standards everyone wants

Standards of morality are similar to standards of

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Ethics covers the following dilemmas:

Loving | Caring | Respectful | Charity | Integrity | Honesty

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The Ten Commandments are the basis for many

Where do they Social system - External Individual - Internal

Why we do it? Because society says it is the Because we believe in

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A doctor may not euthanize a patient, even at the

Institute of Information and Computing Sciences

• How do I know that Heart is good?

An action might be unethical, yet remain morally permissible.

Moral Theories are meant to help us figure out what

Institute of Information and Computing Sciences 19

• All major religions offer their own set of ethics.

• Those standards would be morally permissible

“Serves as a reminder that what hurts us hurts others, and that

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Plato – “Is goodness loved by the gods because it is good, or it is good

Thomas Aquinas– “Things are good in and of themselves”

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• Cultural Relativism: is a moral theory that holds no valid, rational

“Cultural Relativism seems attractive and promote

• Two attributes of human culture that is universal

Institute of Information and Computing Sciences

2. What does it mean to be “good”? (Aristotle – 2 kinds of

Institute of Information and Computing Sciences 26

Aristotle: “In fear and confidence, courage is

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What should officer Schmidt do?

• Virtue Ethics: is agent-centered as opposed to

• A person becomes virtuous by repeatedly doing

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Consequentialism: theory of ethics Utilitarianism: is a consequentialist

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Video: Utilitarianism. Retrieved from:

• UTILITY in this case means maximizing happiness in the world.

Moral Act: Maximizes happiness

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Moral Act: Maximizes happiness

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• Application of Act of Utilitarianism

Meanwhile, the ACT UTILITARIAN might think

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“It is always morally acceptable to steal anything you want”