Module 02: Fundamentals of Ethics

SOCIAL AND
PROFESSIONAL ISSUES
Fundamentals of Ethics

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Module 02: Fundamentals of Ethics

FUNDAMENTALS OF ETHICS

The Origin of Ethics

 Ethics comes from the Greek word ethos, meaning character. Ethics, in
ancient Greece, was concerned with the development of a virtuous and
moral character. The Greeks believed that developing character would lead
one not only to knowing the right thing to do, but to actually doing the right
thing or living the right way of life.
 Socrates, the great Greek moralist was the first to recognize the value of
questions that affect how a person should live. He made his investigations
through a process in which philosophers today call the Socratic method.
 Socratic method consists of asking people questions about ideas they
presumably know about. Usually, it begins by asking for an essential or
analytic definition of a concept (e.g. justice, good, etc.)
 To Socrates, an unexamined life is not worth living. (his philosophy)

Definition of Ethics

A number of philosophical theorists have at tempted to provide various definitions

and descriptions of ethics. Due to the wide scope and range of ethics, the theorists
are not unanimous in their definition of the term. Some of the definitions are as
follows:

1. Ethics is derived from the Greek term “ethos,” which means character or custom.
Its equivalent term in Roman is the word “mores,” from which words like morality,
morals and moral are derived.

Ethics is intertwined with customs and traditions believed in or adopted by a

particular community. Since customs are relative, what is “ethical” would
depend on whether or not it conforms to existing customs. This is a relative
view of ethics – meaning that what is ethical in one community may not be
ethical in another. A case in point is the conflicting attitude toward intellectual
property rights in different cultures. A community in Asia might think nothing of
software piracy, whereas in the US anti-software piracy rules are strictly
enforced. In the former community, software piracy is not unethical, while in the
latter it is not only unethical but also illegal.

2. Ethics is the study of the morality of human actions.

Ethics basically concerns human actions. Human actions are judged as ethical
or unethical depending on the circumstances surrounding the same and based
on certain standards generally accepted by a particular community or group of
people.

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Module 02: Fundamentals of Ethics

For example, computing as a human action involves the explanation and

utilization of shared artificial intelligence. The sharing, however, is not limitless.
Computer users are allowed to use computer applications and explore
websites, among others, for as long as they want, and while they are not
infringing on the intellectual rights of those who designed the applications by
hacking, plagiarism, and the like. Accordingly, if a particular computer user acts
within the bounds of these restrictions, his or her acts are ethical or moral.

This definition is likewise not considered an absolute or universal definition of

ethics.

3. Ethics focuses on the care for the soul.

This is a narrower definition of ethics. The focus of this definition is religious or

spiritual. Unlawful, unethical, and immoral acts and forbearances are
considered as elements of sins that contaminate the otherwise virtuous soul.
Applying this to computing, the commission of fraud through plagiarism,
destruction through the installation of worms and viruses in computer systems,
lewdness through the promotion of pornography and sex online, among others,
are acts that are not good for the soul, and are therefore not ethical or moral.

For example: Paul Dennis went to the city to take up computer programming.
In one of his computer subjects, they were required to design a computer
program within one month. Being skillful and intelligent, not to mention naughty,
Paul Dennis was able to design a program that could transform pictures of
clothed woman into pictures of the same women in the nude. When the
semester ended, Paul Dennis decided to sell his software to friends. It sold like
hotcakes. Did Paul Dennis commit an unethical act? Well, if we accept the idea
that in looking at nude pictures of women, a person corrupts his soul, then, the
answer is yes, Paul Dennis committed an unethical act.

4. Ethics is an area of philosophy that deals with man’s pursuit of the good life.

Here, the attainment of the good life is predicated upon one’s adherence to
ethics. This is somewhat analogous to the immediately preceding definition in
the sense that ethics is used as a means to reach a particular end.

For this point of view, a web designer and programmer who produces freeware
that benefits millions of users, is doing something ethical.

5. Ethics is the study and philosophy of human conduct with emphasis on the
determination of right and wrong.

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Module 02: Fundamentals of Ethics

Human conduct (manifested through human actions) may either be right/

ethical or wrong/ unethical. The preceding examples are also illustrative of this
particular definition of ethics.

Here’s another example: Lance operates a cybercafé. Besides renting

computers, he also sells computer software (both licensed and pirated). He
displays his licensed products and keeps their fake copies in storage.
Whenever a costumer asks for a software product, Lance always tells him/ her
the price of the licensed product but hints that he has a copy which is cheaper.
Obviously, the customer will prefer the inexpensive one. Lance likes to sell
pirated software because of the high income it generates. Lance’s conduct is
illegal and therefore wrong. Since it is wrong, then it is unethical.

6. Ethics deals with the basic principles of right action especially with reference to a
particular person, profession and others.

The definition of ethics pertains to norms that govern human actions and
omissions in every facet of life, whether they involve people in general, or a
group of people engaged in the practice of their profession or craft in particular.

For example: Country X, where Rica (a computer professional) is a citizen,

enforces a code of ethics governing computer professionals. Rica, who
practices her profession in country X, is covered by the said code of ethics that
contains the basic principles of right action in computing. Should Rica failed to
abide by the provisions of this code of ethics, hr act of transgression will be
considered unethical.

7. Ethics as a concept suggests the notion of correct or incorrect practices relative to

various concerns or fields of study.

This is somewhat similar to the immediately preceding definition of ethics. The

evident impetus for this definition is the growing need to address moral issues
and unethical practices within the boundaries of various areas of study. While
there is no universal definition of ethics, a relative perception of what is correct
or not, or right or wrong, is usually adopted and used to guide people’s actions
in various human concerns. This is what we call applied ethics.

The various applied ethics include environmental ethics, nursing ethics,

biomedical ethics, legal ethics, and computer ethics, among many others. In all
fields where ethics is adopted as an ordering principle, you will observe that it
always directs human actions and omissions, thus revealing its concern for the
promotion of good values, correct practices, and right attitudes. Although
particular and distinct sets of ethical principles and norms are usually embraced
and enforced for each enterprise or concern, all these point towards a
methodical and formal system of human actions and omissions.

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Module 02: Fundamentals of Ethics

The Need to Study Ethics

1. To clear why one act is better than another.
2. To have an orderly social life.
3. To intelligently appraised and criticized moral conduct and ethical systems.
4. To point out the true values of life.

Assumptions of Ethics
Assumptions are fundamental beliefs or statements that are accepted to be
true without the burden of proving or of proof.
1. Man is a rational being.
2. Man is free.

The Objects of Ethics

1. The Physical Object of Ethics – the doer of an act is the physical object of
ethics (i.e., moral agent). The physical object of ethics does not only refer
to a person, but to an institution (e.g., the business firm, the government,
etc.) and to other forms of social organization (e.g., nongovernmental
organizations, clubs, fraternity associations, etc.,) that perform moral
actions and other rational activities such as decision making, moral
calculations, etc.
2. The Nonphysical Object of Ethics – the action done by the moral agent,
such as the act of telling the truth, helping others in distress, fulfilling a
promise, forgiving others’ trespasses, humility, including malicious deeds,
such as murder, stealing, lying, etc. are called the nonphysical object of
ethics. Though considering the nature of the moral agent is important in
ethical analysis, it is the act, and not the doer of the act which is considered
to be the formal objects of ethics.

General Forms of Acts

a. Acts of Man
1. Involuntary Natural Acts – these include the involuntary, intuitive or
reflex acts exhibited by man, such as the blinking of the eye, the
beating of the heart, sneezing, yawning, breathing, scratching, etc.
When eating, are you always aware of the way you chew or swallow
your food? Probably not, unless you just had dental surgery, or are
suffering from tonsillitis (inflammation of the gums). Try doing the
following and confirm for yourself if they are indeed involuntary:
a. Stop blinking for five to ten minutes.
b. Stop breathing for five minutes.
c. Stop your heart from beating.
d. Stop your stomach from digesting the food you have taken
during breakfast.
2. Voluntary Natural Acts – these include voluntary and natural, but
not necessarily reflexive acts, such as sleeping, eating, drinking,
etc. These
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Module 02: Fundamentals of Ethics

types are actions we usually perform as part of our daily, socially

learned activities, such as brushing our teeth, combing our hair,
cutting our nails, taking a bath, etc.
b. Human Acts – the second general form of act. Human acts include actions
that are conscious, deliberate, intentional, voluntary and are within the
preview of human value judgment. Human acts are either moral or immoral.
These actions are product of man’s rationality and freedom of choice – like
telling the truth, helping others in distress, caring for the sick, etc. Since
moral acts contain the elements that allow for moral judgment and setting
of moral responsibility. These acts are then said to be formal object of
ethics.

Classification of Human Acts

Acts are judged as to their moral worth based on conformity to standards or
norms of morality. Human acts are classified into the following:
1. Moral or ethical acts – these are human acts that observe or conform
to a standard or norm of morality.
2. Immoral or unethical acts – these are human acts that violate or
deviate from a standard of morality. Immoral/ unethical actions may
include, refusing to help others in distress, cheating in an
examination, speaking ill of others, etc.
3. Amoral or Neutral Acts – do not apply to human acts because
human acts can either be moral or immoral but not morally neutral.
Instead, the classification applies to nonmoral acts (acts of man).

Components of Moral Act:

1. The intention or motive of the act.
2. The means of the act. The act or object employed to carry out the
intent of the act.
3. The end of the act. The intent of the act is assumed to be always
directed toward a desired end or a perceived good. It becomes the
basis or foundation for the intent of the act.

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