Module 1: Introduction to People and Earth’s Ecosystem
very reliable.
*Nature Purpose, and Consequences of Science
• Campbell (2011) “described science as consisting of two
forms:
o Science is a body of useful and practical
knowledge and method of obtaining it.
o Science is a pure intellectual activity.
• Bube (2010), solid state physicist
o “knowledge of the world obtained by sense
interaction with that world.
*Nature of Science
1. Objectivity
• Scientific knowledge is objective
• the ability to see and accept facts as they are, not
as one might wish them to be
• To be objective, one has to guard against his own
biases, beliefs, wishes, values and preferences
• demands that one must set aside all sorts of the
subjective considerations and prejudices.
2. Verifiability
• Science rests upon sense data, i.e., data
gathered through our senses—eye, ear, nose,
tongue and touch.
• Scientific knowledge is based on verifiable
evidence (concrete factual observations) so that
other observers can observe, weigh or measure
the same phenomena and check out observation
for accuracy.
3. Ethical Neutrality
• Science is ethically neutral
• Only seeks knowledge → How this knowledge is
to be used, is determined by societal values.
• Knowledge can be put to differing uses.
• Knowledge about atomic energy can be used to
cure diseases or to wage atomic warfare.
• Ethical neutrality does not mean that the scientist
has no values, rather, he must not allow his values
to distort the design and conduct of his research.
• scientific knowledge is value neutral or value-
free.
4. Systematic exploration
• Scientific research adopts a certain sequential
procedure, an organized plan or design of
research for collecting and analysis of facts about
the problem under study
• plan includes a few scientific steps— formulation
of hypothesis, collection of facts, analysis of facts
(classification, coding and tabulation) and
scientific generalization and predication.
5. Reliability
• Scientific knowledge must occur under the
prescribed circumstances not once but repeatedly.
• Reproducible under the circumstances stated
anywhere and anytime.
• Conclusions based on casual recollections are not
6. Precision
• Scientific knowledge is precise. It is not vague
like some literary writing
• Requires giving exact number or measurement
7. Accuracy
• Accuracy simply means truth or correctness of a
statement or describing things in exact words as
they are without jumping to unwarranted
conclusions.
8. Abstractness
• Science proceeds on a plane of abstraction.
• A general scientific principle is highly abstract. It
is not interested in giving a realistic picture.
9. Predictability
• Scientists do not merely describe the phenomena
being studied, but also attempt to explain and
predict as well.
• It is typical of social sciences that they have a far
lower predictability compared to natural sciences.
The most obvious reasons are the complexity of
the subject matter and inadequacy at control etc.
*Scientific Knowledge
• Scientific knowledge refers to a generalized body of laws
and theories to explain a phenomenon or behavior
of interest that are acquired using the scientific
method.
o Laws are observed patterns of phenomena or
behaviors.
o Theories are systematic explanations of the
underlying phenomenon or behavior.
• The scientific process is a way of building
knowledge and making predictions
about the world in such a way that they
are testable. ... And this is not the end:
• One of the hallmarks of scientific knowledge is that it is
subject to change, as new data are collected and
reinterpretations of existing data are made.
*Goals of Science
• Science education in the Philippine is clearly stated in
science curriculum: produce scientifically literate
citizens who are informed and active participants of the
society, responsible decision makers, and apply
scientific knowledge that will significantly impact the
society and the environment.
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*Consequence of Science
*Impact of Science on society and to human life*
• Science and technology have had a major impact on
society, and their impact is growing. By making life easier,
science has given man the chance to pursue societal
concerns such as ethics, aesthetics, education, and justice;
to create cultures; and to improve human conditions.
• Science influences society through its knowledge and
world view. Scientific knowledge and the procedures used
by scientists influence the way many individuals in society
think about themselves, others, and the environment. The
effect of science on society is neither entirely beneficial
nor entirely detrimental.
• It contributes to ensuring a longer and healthier life,
monitors our health, provides medicine to cure our
diseases, alleviates aches and pains, helps us to
provide water for our basic needs – including our food,
provides energy and makes life more fun, including sports,
music, entertainment and the latest ...
*Does Science help?
• Research, as well as scientific and technical innovation,
will be critical to saving the environment, reducing the
impact of global warming, helping in adapting to climate
change, cleaning up polluted areas and taking care of our
own health.
• Academic field that draws on ecology, geology,
meteorology, biology, chemistry, engineering, and physics
are requisite to study environmental problems and human
impacts on the environment.
*Ecosystem
o The ecosystem consists of the abiotic and abiotic
components. The abiotic components affect the
biotic components and vice versa.
o The biotic components are the plants, animals and
decomposers.
o The abiotic components are the nonliving factors
such temperature, water, soils and others.
*Importance of Ecosystem
*Ecosystem Services*
• The functions of the ecosystem are as follows: It regulates
the essential ecological processes, supports life systems
and renders stability. It is also responsible for the cycling
of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components. It
maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the
ecosystem.
• It is important for ecological processes and regulation of
the energy flow, supporting life systems and providing
stability.
• Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from
ecosystems: provisioning services (also known as goods)
such as food and water;
regulating services such as flood, pest, and disease control;
cultural services such as spiritual and recreational benefits;
and supporting services
❖ Provisioning
❖ Regulate
❖ Cultural
❖ Supporting services
*Environmental Science as an Interdisciplinary Science
• Environmental science is
o An interdisciplinary study of how the earth works
o How we interact with the planet
o How to deal with environmental problems
o Affects all aspects oflife
• Environmental science is also referred to as an
interdisciplinary field because it incorporates information
and ideas from multiple disciplines. Within the natural
sciences, such fields as biology, chemistry, and geology
are included in environmental science.
• Environmental Science as an Interdisciplinary Science
o How humans can best live within Earth’s
environment.
o Interdisciplinary study of humanity’s relationship
with other organisms and the nonliving physical
environment.
o Encompasses many complex and interconnected
problems involving human numbers, Earth’s
natural resources, and environmental pollution.
*Environmental Sustainability
*Sustainability: The Central Theme*
• Ability of the environment to function indefinitely without
going into a decline from the stresses imposed by human
society on natural system (water, soil and air) that maintain
life.
• A sustainable environment, humanity’s present needs are
met without endangering the welfare of future generations.
*Ambisyun Natin!
A Long Term Vision for the Philippines
• What do Filipino people aspire for
themselves?
• “You are the hope of the fatherland”
• How do we realize that aspiration?
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*The life of all Filipinos in 2040: Matatag, Maginhawa at
Panatag na Buhay
• By 2040, Filipinos enjoy a strongly rooted, comfortable,
and secure life.
In 2040, we will all enjoy a stable and comfortable
lifestyle, secure in the knowledge that we have enough for
our daily needs and unexpected expenses, that we can plan
and prepare for our own and our children’s future. Our
family lives together in a place of our own, and we have
the freedom to go where we desire, protected and enabled
by a clean, efficient, and fair government.
*Realizing the AmBisyon
• All sectors of society, whether public or private,
should direct their efforts towards creating opportunities
for Filipinos to enjoy a matatag, maginhawa at panatag
na buhay. Government, in particular, must use its tools of
fiscal, monetary and regulatory policies to steer the
development path towards enabling Filipinos to attain their
AmBisyon. This pertains to all dimensions of
development: economic, human and physical capital,
institutional, social and cultural.
• By 2040, the Philippines is a prosperous middle class
society where no one is poor. People live long and healthy
lives and are smart and innovative. The country is a high-
trust society where families thrive in vibrant, culturally
diverse, and resilient communities.
o Housing and Urban Development -
Construction, construction-related manufacturing,
house development-related manufacturing, and
utilities (electricity, gas, and water).
o Manufacturing - Food processing, housing
related, construction-related, transport
manufacturing, and other manufacturing.
o Connectivity - Roads and bridges, port, airports,
vehicles, transport systems, and communication
o Education Services - Formal education and
retooling services.
o Tourism and Allied Services - Resort, rest-
recreation hotels, accommodation, travel and
tour cultural shows, heritage sites, etc.
o Agriculture - Food production, commercial and
industrial crop, agricultural biotechnology, etc.
o Health and Wellness Services - Primary,
secondary, and tertiary care, pharmaceuticals,
wellness facilities, sports and fitness facilities,
etc.
o Financial Services - Consumer financing,
enterprise financing, and insurance savings
mobilization.
• Government must also ensure that economic growth is
broad-based across sectors and regions; it must result in a
more equal income distribution. Moreover, there should be
aggressive interventions to increase opportunities for the
poor to participate in the growth process even as they are
protected against the negative impact of economic and
political instabilities, natural and man-made calamities.
Poverty must be eradicated by 2040, if not earlier.
• It must also be recognized that certain individuals cannot
immediately participate in the growth process. For infants
and children, there is the requisite care, guidance, health
and education services until they become mature enough.
It is important that parents and families are able to provide
these, although government should stand ready to fill the
gap. A major intervention, therefore, is for parents to
adequately prepare for having a family.
*Human Behavior
• We are using non-renewable resources as if they were
present in unlimited supplies
• We are using renewable resources faster than they can be
replenished naturally
• We are polluting the environment with toxins as if the
capacity of the environment to absorb them were limitless
• Our numbers continue to grow despite Earth's finite ability
to support us.
*What do you think will be the possible consequence if these
human activities will be left unchecked?
• If left unchecked, these activities my reach the point of
environmental catastrophic, threatening the life – support
systems of earth to the extent that the recovery is
impossible.
• Our inadequate scientific understanding of how the
complex, dynamic environment “works” and how different
human choices affect the environment is a major reason
that the problems of environmental sustainability are
difficult to resolve.
• The effects of many interactions between the environment
and humans are unknown or difficult to predict.
*What is now the Challenge on us?
• To meet immediate human needs while protecting the
environment for the long term.
• We need to be grounded with the scientific foundation to
evaluate these problems and suggest various course of
action based on our current understanding of the
environment.
• Pope Francis' encyclical, “Laudato Si',” or “Praise Be to
You” is an urgent call to tackle the current ecological crisis
by making a paradigm shift that will allow all human
beings to live sustainably in dignity.
• "We are called to solidarity with the poor as well as
stewardship of the Earth. Our deep regard for the dignity
of every person commands us to cultivate a climate of life
where each of God's children thrive and join with creation
in praising our Creator.
3
*Tragedy of the Common
• The tragedy of the commons is caused by individuals
following their own self-interest, expecting others to also
do the same.
• The tragedy of the commons refers to a situation in which
individuals with access to a shared resource (also called a
common) act in their own interest and, in doing so,
ultimately deplete the resource. ... In 1968, the term
“tragedy of the commons” was used for the first time by
Garret Hardin in Science Magazine
Module 2: Addressing Environmental Problems Part 1
*Why do Philippines experience environmental problems?
• The Geology of the Philipines is comprised of geologic
processes which is a result of very complex geology. The
Philippines may be viewed as a collage of metamorphic
terranes, magmatic arcs, ophiolitic complexes, sedimentary
basins, and a continental block of Eurasian affinity
subjected to tectonic processes.
• Ancient geological history of the Philippine archipelago.
As Australia drifted northward and began to collide with
Asia, tectonic pressure caused parts of the Pacific seafloor
to uplift, producing volcanoes that gave rise to the
Philippine islands.
• The rich minerals found in the country are mostly a result
of its volcanic geology and its position along the Ring of
Fire. The volcanoes also contribute significant geothermal
resources, making the Philippines the world's second-
largest producer of geothermal energy producer, after the
US.
*What are these environmental problems we are facing today?
1. Climate Change
• Recent studies reveal that human activities have
contributed significantly to the increase of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that causes
climate change.
2. Decline of Natural Resources and Biodiversity
• The Philippines is suffering from degradation of
the natural environment.it has fifty major rivers
polluted due to absence and neglect.
Approximately two-thirds of the country’s
original mangroves have been lost. A hundred
years ago, the Philippines had close to 22million
hectares of old growth forest. At the start of 2000,
we had less than 600,00 hectares of old-growth
forest left.in one century, we had cut down close
to 97% of our original forest. A study by the
Environmental Science for Social Change (ESSC)
reveals that we have systematically cut this forest
down and that we have not stopped its destruction
and that of its core biodiversity.
3. Alarming waste problems in the Philippines
• The Philippines is looming with garbage
problems despite the passage of the Ecological
Solid Waste Management Act or the Republic Act
(RA) 9003.
• 2007 first quarter data from the National Solid
Waste Management Commission shows that there
are 677 open dumpsites, 343 control dumps, and
21 landfills in the country. An addition 307 dump
sites are subject for closure or rehabilitation plans
but without definite schedules for enforcement.
About 215 additional landfills are being proposed
to be set up nationwide.
*How do we address these environmental problems?
Environmental problems are becoming a global issue.
Environmental problems are counter-challenging the quality of life
people enjoy in modern advanced societies.
• Equip students to address environmental issues
• Enable students to apply scientific processes and higher
order thinking skills to resolve environmental problems.
• Help students acquire an appreciation and tolerance of
diverse viewpoints on environmental issues.
*Ways of Addressing Environmental Problems
1. Scientific Assessment
• an evaluation of a body of scientific or technical
knowledge, which typically synthesizes multiple
factual inputs, data, models, assumptions, and/or
applies best professional judgment to bridge
uncertainties in the available information.
• These assessments include, but are not limited to,
state-of-science reports; technology assessments;
weight-of-evidence analyses; meta-analyses;
health, safety, or ecological risk assessments;
toxicological characterizations of substances;
integrated assessment models; hazard
determinations; or exposure assessments.
2. Risk Analysis
• Risk analysis is the process of identifying and
analyzing potential issues that could negatively
impact key business initiatives or projects. This
process is done in order to help organizations
avoid or mitigate those risks
• Risk Assessment - is a term used to describe the
overall process or method where you: Identify
hazards and risk factors that have the potential to
cause harm (hazard identification). Analyze and
evaluate the risk associated with that hazard (risk
analysis, and risk evaluation).
• Steps to risk assessment
i. Identify hazards i.e., anything that may
cause harm
ii. Decide who may be harmed, and how
iii. Assess the risks and take actions
iv. Make a record of the findings
v. Review the risk assessment.
4
 • Once a risk assessment has been performed, its
results are evaluated with relevant political,
social, and economic consideration to determine
whether a particular risk should reduce or
eliminated and if so, what should be done.
• Development and implementation of laws to
regulate hazardous substances
• It helps us to estimate the probability that an
event will occur and enable us to set priorities and
manage risks in appropriate way.
3. Public Education
4. Political Action
5. Follow-Through
*Why do we need to address these environmental problems?
• In studying environmental problems that face the world
today, it is important to remember that much can be done
to improve our situation.
• Environmental science is a problem solving endeavor with
the role of identifying problems and suggesting and
evaluating potential solutions.
• Goal:
o To improve our understanding of how humans,
alter the natural processes that make up the
Earth’s life support system.
*What the world needs now and for the next generation?
• All, must foster a strong sense of stewardship, or shared
responsibility for the sustainable care of our planet.
• Cooperation and commitment at all levels are essential if
we are to alleviate poverty, stabilize the human population,
and preserve our environment and its resources for future
generations.
*People’s Behavior towards Waste
• Behavior is a key cultural aspect that is embedded in
people’s way of life. Studying a community’s behavior and
introducing new ones requires intensive, longterm, and
creative social marketing. This can be done by studying
the demographic and cultural fiber of the community
through immersions and capacity building activities.
• The Resources, Environment and Economics Center for
Studies, Inc.’s (REECS) 2002 study on household waste
management systems and the attitudes and behavior
showed that:
1. Waste management is still perceived by many as
the responsibility of government.
2. Public participation in waste management,
especially in segregation at source, remains
limited.
3. More extensive awareness- raising activities and
training on ecological waste management are
needed, together with stricter enforcement of the
Law and local ordinances must be observed.
4. There is lack of community empowerment and
political will to resolve the problem.
*Economic Problems
• High population growth
• Unequal distribution of wealth
• Poor performance of the agriculture sector of the economy.
*Social Problems
• Corruption
• Poverty
• Overpopulation
• Child labor (a form of child abuse)
• Lack of adequate health care services
• Terrorism
• Prostitution
• Unemployment
*Suggested Actions
1. Participatory Communication for development
2. Community Immersion
3. Community IEC Campaigns
4. Environmental management capacity building
workshop for community
5. Environmental management capacity building
workshops for local school
Module 3&4: Addressing Environmental Problems Part 2
• Environmental Management can be defined as “the
management of the interaction and impact of human
activities on the natural environment”. ... Environmental
management tries to identify the factors that have a stake
in the conflicts that may rise between meeting the needs
and protecting the environment.
• An environmental management system protects public
health and safety by establishing procedures to limit or
eliminate harmful substances from entering the
environment, including public water systems. Every
organization in some way affects the environment, which
directly affects public health.
• The basic functions of good environmental management
are goal setting; information management; support of
decision making; organizing and planning of
environmental management; environmental management
programs; piloting; implementation and control;
communication; internal and external auditing, etc.
• Environmental managers are responsible for overseeing
the environmental performance of private and public sector
organizations and for developing, implementing and
monitoring environmental strategies that promote
sustainable development.
*Environmental Laws
The Bureau Is Mandated To Implement On A Nationwide Scale
The Six (6) Important Environmental Laws To Wit:
5
1. Environmental Impact Assessment Law (PD 1586)
• The main goal of this law is to maintain the
balance between the environment and the socio-
economic development of the country
2. Toxic Substances And Hazardous Waste Management
Act (RA 6969)
• Authorizes the DENR to establish a program to
regulate, restrict, or prohibit the importation,
manufacture, processing, sale, destruction, use
and disposal of chemical substances, and mixture
that present unreasonable risk and/or injury to
health or the government.
3. Clean Air Act Of 1999 (RA 8749)
• It is a comprehensive air quality management
policy and program, which aims to achieve and
maintain healthy air for Filipinos.
4. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act (RA 9003)
• An act providing for an ecological solid waste
management program, creating the necessary
institutional mechanisms and incentives,
declaring certain acts prohibited and providing
penalties, appropriating funds therefore, and for
other purposes.
5. Clean Water Act (RA 9275)
• an act providing a comprehensive water quality
management and for other purposes.
6. Environmental Awareness And Education Act Of 2009
(RA 9512)
• This Act provides for the promotion of
environmental awareness through environmental
education which shall encompass environmental
concepts and principles, environmental laws, the
state of international and local environment, local
environmental best practices, the threats of
environmental degradation and its impact on
human well-being, the responsibility of the
citizenry to the environment and the value of
conservation, protection and rehabilitation of
natural resources and the environment.
*Other Laws
1. The Pollution Control Law (PD 1181)
• (Supplements the provision of PD 984)
providing for the abatement, control and
prevention of vehicular pollution &
establishing the maximum allowance
emissions of specific air pollutants from all
types of vehicles.
2. Water Pollution Control
• Prohibits the discharge of oil, noxious liquid
substances into the country’s inland and
territorial waters
3. PD 825
• Prohibits the improper disposal of garbage
4. Climate Change Act of 2009 (RA 9729)
• An act mainstreaming climate change into
government policy formulations, establishing
the framework strategy and program on
climate change creating for this purpose the
climate change commission and for other
purposes.
5. Food Security Act
• Deals with preserving the natural
environment on farmlands.
• Also increases protection for wetlands and
encourages soil conservation on areas subject
to high levels of erosion
❖ The need for more stringent scientific baselines and the
importance of placing economic value on environmental
degradation have been noted in earlier discussions of the
country’s environmental
problems. The present set the Philippine environmental
laws are encountering rough sailing in the first years of
implementation. The passage of the land use bill should
complete the most important aspects of national legislation
that should protect the environment.
❖ The welfare of humans was the primary consideration in
the early years of environmental protection. People’s
attitudes changed with the passing years. Now,
governments, non-government organizations and
businesses show a broader view. The relationship between
caring for humans and the natural environment has been
recognized. A significant sector of modern society started
to realize that other living things like plants and animals
are endowed with their own rights to exist. A third way of
looking at the value of environmental protection is that the
environment has an inherent value of its own on top of the
value that it acquires when humans use below as the major
factors that guide our society towards resource
management.
❖ Personal, social and corporate ethics define how our
society responds to the challenges of increasing
environmental damage. The changing consciousness of
individuals and groups is reflected in the kind of
management strategies that have been use.
*Environmental Strategies
• Environmental strategies can be defined as a set of
initiatives that can reduce the impact of operations on the
natural environment through products, processes and
corporate policies such as reducing energy consumption
and waste, using green sustainable resources and
environmental management system implementation. Some
of these strategies may seem a little radical, but they are
among the most valuable actions you can take to protect
and preserve Earth's environment.
A. Have Fewer Children—Or None.
B. Use Less Water—And Keep It Clean.
C. Eat Responsibly.
D. Conserve Energy—And Switch to Renewable
Energy.
6
 E. Reduce Your Carbon Footprint.
*Conservation
• Conservation is the careful management of natural
resources such as air, water. Soil, forests minerals, and
wild life.
*How people use their limited resources to try to satisfy their
unlimited wants?
• Economics is the study of how people use their limited
resources to try to satisfy their unlimited wants.
A. Economics view pollution in a market economy
as a failure in pricing.
B. An external cost is a harmful side effects of
production or consumption of a product and is
borne by individuals who are not directly
involved in the market exchange for that product.
C. From an economic point of view, the appropriate
amount of pollution is a tradeoff between
harm to the environment and inhibition of
development.
D. Market- oriented strategies seek to use the
economic forces of a free market to control
pollution.
1. Emission charge - controls pollution by charging the
polluted for each unit of emission – that is establishing a
tax on pollution.
2. Waste discharge permits - Allow the holder to pollute a
given amount.
3. Command and control - By imposing legal limits on
amounts of permissible pollutants.
• Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with human
values.
A. Values - are the principles that an individual or
society considers very important or worthwhile.
B. Environmental Ethics - is a field of applied
ethics that considers the moral basis of
environmental responsibility and how far this
responsibility extends
*Principles of Environmental Management
These are some guiding principles of environmental management.
These principles are helpful in environmental decision making.
1. Polluter Pays Principle (PPP)
• For the last two decades, many economists have
suggested that firms discharging polluting
effluents to the environment should somehow be
made to pay a price for such discharges related to
the amount of environmental damage caused.
• OECD has suggested the Polluter Pays principles
(PPP) as a general basis for the environmental
policy. It states that if measures are adopted to
reduce pollution, the costs should be borne by the
polluters. According to the OECD Council, “The
principle to be used for allocating costs of
pollution prevention and control measures to
encourage rational use of scarce environmental
resources and to avoid distortions in international
trade and investment is the so-called Polluter Pays
Principle.” The essential concern of this principle
is that polluters should bear the costs of
abatement without subsidy.
2. The User Pays Principle (UPP)
• It is considered as a part of the PPP. The principle
states that all resource users should pay for the
full long-run marginal cost of the use of a
resource and related services, including any
associated treatment costs. It is applied when
resources are being used and consumed.
3. The Precautionary Principle (PP)
• The main objective of the precautionary principle
is to ensure that a substance or activity posing a
threat to the environment is prevented from
adversely affecting the environment, even if there
is no conclusive scientific proof of linking that
particular substance or activity to environmental
damage. The words ‘substance’ and ‘activity’ are
the result of human intervention.
• The Rio Declaration in its Principle 15
emphasizes on this principle, wherein it is
provided that where there are threats of serious or
irreversible damage. Lack of full scientific
certainty shall not be used as a reason for
postponing cost effective measures to prevent
environmental degradation. Therefore, the
principle is essential for the protection of
environment and human health by implementing
in the field of production and distribution of
energy resources.
4. Principle of Effectiveness and Efficiency
• It is essential that efficiency of resources use may
also be accomplished by the use of policy
instruments that create incentive to minimize
wasteful use. It also applies to various issues of
environmental governance by streaming processes
and procedures in order to minimize
environmental costs.
5. The Principle of Responsibility
• It is the responsibility of all persons, corporations
and states to maintain the ecological processes.
Further, access to environmental resources carries
attendant responsibilities to use them in an
ecological sustainable economically efficient and
socially fair manner.
6. The Principle of Participation
• It is the duty of all the persons to participate in
collectively environmental decision making
activities. Some participation areas are related to
the use of trees and other plants, minerals, soils,
fish and wildlife for purposes such as materials
and food as well as for consumptive and non-
consumptive recreation. The second issue
7
 concerns solid waste i.e. garbage, construction
and demolition materials and chemically
hazardous waste etc. The third issue of
participation is related to pollution generating
activities.
7. The Principle of Proportionality
• The principle of proportionality is based on the
concept of balance. A balance is to maintain
between the economic development on the one
hand and environmental protection on the other
hand. It cannot be disputed that no development is
possible without some adverse effects on ecology.
Therefore, it is essential to adjust the interest of
the people as well as the necessity to maintain the
environment. Moreover, comparative hardships
have to be balanced and benefits to a larger
section of the people have to be maintained.
Module 5: Understanding Population
*Population Ecology
• Population ecology, study of the processes that affect the
distribution and abundance of animal and plant
populations. A population is a subset of individuals of one
species that occupies a particular geographic area and, in
sexually reproducing species, interbreeds.
*Components of Population Ecology
• The main components of population change are births,
deaths, and migration. “Natural increase” is defined as the
difference between live births and deaths. “Net migration”
is defined as the difference between the number of people
moving into an area and the number of people moving out.
*Importance of Population
• The population is one of the important factors which helps
to balance the environment, the population should in a
balance with the means and resources. If the population
will be balanced, then all the needs and demand of the
people can be easily fulfilled, which helps to preserve the
environment of the country.
*Principle of Population Growth
• Thomas Robert Malthus was a famous 18th-century British
economist known for the population growth philosophies
outlined in his 1798 book "An Essay on the Principle of
Population." In it, Malthus theorized that populations
would continue expanding until growth is stopped or
reversed by disease, famine, war, or calamity.
*Population vs Individual
• Population exhibit characteristics distinctive from those of
the individual which they are composed.
o Density - number of individuals of species per
unit area or volume at a given time
▪ Sample population and expressed it in
terms of density.
▪ Different environments vary in the
population size of any species they can
support.
▪ May be determined in large part by
external factors in the environment
o Growth rates
▪ How do population change in size?
• Two factors
o Birth rate
o Death rate
Birth rate = no. of births per 1000 people per year
Death Rate = no. of deaths per 1000 people per year
Growth rate = Birth rate – Death Rate
For example: A hypothetical human population of 10, 000, in which
there are 200 births per year (20 births /1000 people) and 100
deaths per year (or 10 death/1000 people)
Growth Rate = 200 – 100 = 100/1000 = .01 or 1 % per year
*What is the implications of + growth rate?
• Population increases
• However, I believe that population growth has positive
effects on societies. These include economic benefits such
as expansion of tax bases and increased consumer
spending at local businesses, as well as benefits derived
from innovations by cultures seeking to keep up with
growing populations.
*What is the implication of – growth rate?
• Population decreases
• Population growth is one of the necessary conditions that
affect economic growth. The smaller the population, the
greater the economic development process and the
reduction of poverty. Rapid population growth tends to
depress savings per capita and retards growth of physical
capital per worker.
If growth rate is zero, then births and deaths match, the population
size is stationary.
Migration
• Migration, in ecology, is the large-scale movement of
members of a species to a different environment.
Migration is a natural behavior and component of the life
cycle of many species of mobile organisms, not limited to
animals, though animal migration is the best known type.
• Emigration is to leave one's country to live in another
(think: exit). Immigrate is to come into another country to
live (think: enter). The main difference between the two is
perspective.
• Immigration
o Immigration means an animal establishes a home
in a habitat because it has resources it can utilize
or because the habitat is ideal for them.
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 Emigration means an animal leaves its home
because the habitat is no longer ideal for them and
they need to find a more suitable environment.
o Increase population size
• Emmigration
o In ecology, emigration pertains to the leaving of a
place of residence or habitat with the intent of
living in another place. Thus, to emigrate means
to leave whereas to immigrate means to enter into
another demographic area or region as the new
habitat or residence.
o Decrease population size
Growth rate = (birth rate – death rate) + (immigration –
emigration)
For example: The growth rate of population of 10, 000 that has 100
births, 50 deaths, 10 immigrants, and 100 emigrants. What is the
growth rate?
Growth rate = - 4%
*Human Populations
• Many human problems, such as hunger, resource
depletion, environmental problems, underdevelopment,
poverty, and urban problems, are exacerbated by the rapid
increase of population.
1. What influence the relationship between hunger and
population growth?
2. Underdevelopment and poverty are associated with
high total fertility rates
• Developing Countries
o Individual resource demands is small
o Increasing population
o Deplete natural resources
• people overpopulation
• Occurs when the environment is
worsening from too many
people, even if those people
consume few resources per
person.
• Highly Developed Countries
o Individual resource demands is large
o Deplete natural resources
• Consumption overpopulation
• Occurs when each individual
consumes too large a share of
resources, thereby degrading
the environment.
*Facing the Problems of Overpopulation
• Human overpopulation is among the most pressing
environmental issues, silently aggravating the forces
behind global warming, environmental pollution, habitat
loss, the sixth mass extinction, intensive farming practices
and the consumption of finite natural resources, such as
fresh water, arable land and fossil fuels.
• Unsustainable population growth and lack of access to
reproductive health care also puts pressure on human
communities, exacerbating food and water shortages,
reducing resilience in the face of climate change, and
making it harder for the most vulnerable communities to
rise out of intergenerational poverty.
• According to Mallhus, high birth and death rates arc
symptoms of overpopulation. In his opinion, if a country is
overpopulated, early deaths due to starvation, disease or
some other natural calamities are inevitable.
*Solution to Overpopulation
• Actions on the individual level
• Have fewer children!
• Consider adoption!
• Read, educate yourself about population issues – read
more here.
• Reduce your personal consumption: go vegan, limit flying,
share your household with others, and more.
• Educate your teenage child(ren) about sex and
contraception early, without taboos.
• The author posits that overpopulation is a problem that can
be solved only with an understanding of the natural
environment and its interactions with people. The
formation of a national Philippine planning commission
for population control is viewed as necessary for
motivating all people to reduce population size.
Module 6: Preserving Ecological Diversity
*Biodiversity
• Biodiversity is the key indicator of the health of an
ecosystem. A wide variety of species will cope better with
threats than a limited number of them in large populations.
Even if certain species are affected by pollution, climate
change or human activities, the ecosystem as a whole may
adapt and survive.
• Preserving biodiversity is something that we should all
work towards. It is the right choice for the environment,
for the animals, and for ourselves. There are many
different threats we have to conquer ranging from habitat
loss to pollution. However, we can begin making a
difference today by adopting sensible strategies that focus
on the future
1. Ecosystem Productivity
▪ One of the main reasons we should
continue to focus on preserving
biodiversity is that it helps to
boost ecosystem productivity. A proper
functioning ecosystem is going to be
naturally more resistant to harsh
environmental conditions like climate
change.
▪ A prime example is when an area is
deforested of large amounts of fully
grown trees. These trees provide a great
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 deal of protection against soil erosion
and more. Once they are removed, the
rich topsoil is often carried away in
storms or washed away in torrential
rains.
2. Medical Discoveries
▪ One of the most important reasons we
should continue to work on preserving
biodiversity is the large amount
of medical discoveries that are waiting to
be made. Scientists use the observations
of plants, animals, and even microbes to
develop innovative cancer treatments
and more. As a matter of fact, all human
medicines must first be tested in
laboratory animals before being tested
on humans. This is vital for establishing
their toxicity, dosing, as well as efficacy.
▪ Organisms that have contributed
essential insights to our knowledge of
human genetics include the Common
House Mouse, the bacterium E.coli, the
bacterium Thermus aquaticus, the
microscopic roundworm C. elegans, and
the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster –
just to name a few. These organisms
have led to a better understanding of
how DNA copies itself, they
have contributed to the scientists’ ability
of mapping the human genome, and so
much more.
▪ Many of the animals used in these
discoveries are often found in some of
the most remote portions of the world.
When you factor in a number of
undiscovered species lying hidden in the
rainforest, it is clear why we should
work to preserve their habitats. By doing
this, we can help guarantee that scientists
will continue advancing our medical
knowledge and more.
3. Natural Beauty and Recreation
▪ Another great reason why we should
continue focusing on preserving
biodiversity is the importance of natural
beauty. There are many historical sites
all across the nation like the redwood
forest that need to be protected to
preserve their status for future
generations to enjoy.
▪ In the case of the redwoods, these trees
regularly have a lifespan of 600 years.
Some are even as old as 2,000. However,
their growth is extremely slow. Since the
1850s, logging has destroyed almost 96
percent of the original redwood habitat.
What’s left is preserved in historic parks.
Even with reseeding efforts, our
children’s children will still not see fully
matured trees that are being planted now.
This is why preserving natural sites now
is so important. The damage that is done
often takes several generations to
recover.
▪ Natural and wild landscapes provide
opportunities to get away from urban
landscapes. Furthermore, humans can
also enjoy recreational activities such as
birdwatching, canoeing, hiking,
and nature photography.
While the aesthetic value of biodiversity
may be relevant to a wealthier part of
the world’s population, it is still a
relevant argument adding to the
importance of preserving biodiversity.
4. Survival of the Species
▪ With few exceptions, each species on
Earth depends on the services of other
species to survive. This cooperation is
part of the definition of what an
ecosystem is. A relevant example is the
relationship between soil, plants, and
bacteria. This is known as the nitrogen
cycle.
• Other relevant examples
include:
• Animal waste that feeds the
soil.
• Crops also yield straw, which is
a source of food for animals.
• Algae serve as natural nitrogen
fixers.
• Rodents aerate the soil,
thus improving its water-
holding capacity.
• Earthworms fertilize the soil.
5. Waste Disposal and More
▪ The natural waste disposal process is
another reason why we should focus on
preserving biodiversity. In a healthy
ecosystem, carbon and organic waste
materials are often captured by trees and
recycled naturally.
▪ Unfortunately, environmental stress is
disrupting this natural process. Forests
typically soak up as much as 2.4 billion
metric tons of carbon each year.
However, this rate is beginning to drop.
This process is likely linked to an
increase in tree deaths as well as events
like logging. In this case, the decrease in
carbon dioxide absorption can
potentially lead to a loop where the
problem continually exacerbates itself.
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 • Forest provides essential habitats for many organisms,
such as mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fist, insects,
6. Economic Benefits
lichens, fungi, mosses, ferns, and numerous kinds of
▪ When discussing the importance
flowering plants
of preserving biodiversity, we can’t
• Repositories of most of the world’s biological diversity
avoid mentioning its anthropocentric
• It also plays an essential role in regulating global
value. Biodiversity has provided
biogeochemical cycles.
humans with many benefits, and many
A. Carbon Cycle
come in the form of goods. These goods
Photosynthesis:
are extracted and sold, and they include
6CO2 + 12H2O + Light C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
everything from crops to medicines.
• Photosynthesis by trees removes large quantities
▪ Yet many of the benefits of biodiversity
of heat trapping carbon dioxide from the
cannot be priced. We’re talking
atmosphere and fixes it into carbon compounds.
about ecosystem services, such as
• It acts as carbon “sinks”
climate regulation, air and water
• Help mitigate global warming
purification, and the generation of
• At the same time, oxygen is released into the
oxygen and moisture. Nonetheless,
atmosphere
a group of ecologists attempting to put a
Respiration:
price tag on ecosystem
C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2 6CO2 + 12H2O
services calculated that they are
worth over $3 trillion. Basically, this
B. Nitrogen Cycle
means that if we were to replace these
• Nitrogen is crucial for all organisms because it is
services, we’d have to pay a sum greater
an essential part of biological molecules such as
than the entire global GNP.
proteins and nucleic acid (DNA).
▪ Although it’s important to look at
the economic benefits of preserving • Describe each step or process:
biodiversity, many people criticize this 1. Nitrogen fixation - any natural or industrial
approach. They argue that it is too process that causes free nitrogen (N2), which is a
utilitarian and human-centered. This is relatively inert gas plentiful in air, to combine
true if we think of the bias towards chemically with other elements to form more-
species and ecosystems that have reactive nitrogen compounds such as ammonia,
an economic value. nitrates, or nitrites.
2. Nitrification - a microbial process by which
*Forest reduced nitrogen compounds (primarily
ammonia) are sequentially oxidized to nitrite and
*Why we need to preserve and regulate the forests?* nitrate.
• It is important ecosystem 3. Assimilation - the process by which plants and
animals incorporate the NO3- and ammonia
• It provides many goods and services
formed through nitrogen fixation and nitrification
▪ Construction materials and paper products
▪ Food and medicines 4. Ammonification - when an organism excretes
waste or dies, the nitrogen in its tissues is in the
▪ Employment
form of organic nitrogen
▪ Recreation and spiritual sustenance
5. Denitrification - the process that converts
• It occupies less than 1/3 of the Earth’s total land area
nitrate to nitrogen gas, thus removing bioavailable
• It influences locate climate conditions.
nitrogen and returning it to the atmosphere.
▪ Biological cooling process (Transpiration)
▪ Local climate condition

• Tree roots hold vast tracts of soil in place, reducing erosion

and mudslides.
• Forest protects watersheds because they absorb, hold, and
slowly release water;
o Regulated flow of water downstream
o Helps control floods and droughts

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