FOUR MAJOR TUNICS/ LAYERS OF
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
16.1 FUNCTION IF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
What is digestive system?
 The digestive system is made up of organs
that are important for digesting food and
liquids.
 The digestive system, with the assistance of
the circulatory system, is a complex set of
organs, glands, and ducts that work together
to transform food into nutrients for cells.
FUNCTIONS OF DIGESTIONS INCLUDE:
 Ingestion- consumption of solid or liquid
food, usually through the mouth.
 Digestion- breakdown of large organic
molecules into smaller molecules that can be
absorbed
 occurs thru mechanical and
chemical means.
 Absorption- movement of molecules out of
the digestive system and into the blood or
lymphatic system.
 Elimination- removal of undigested
material, such as fiber plus waste products
like feces.
16.2 ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF THE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system consists of the digestive
tract, or gastro-intestinal (GI; gas′trō-in-tes′tin-ăl)
tract, plus specific associated organs. The specific
portions of the digestive tract include:
 THE ORAL CAVITY (mouth) – lined w/
stratified epithelium to protect from abrasion
and swallowing.
 THE PHARYNX (throat)
 THE ESOPHAGUS- (same as oral cavity)
 THE STOMACH- lined w/ columnar
epithelium which specialized for absorption of
nutrients and secretion of digestive fluids.
 THE SMALL AND LARGE INTESTINES-
(same as stomach)
 THE ANUS
THE SPECIFIC ASSIOCIATED ORGANS OF
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Salivary Glands- empty into the oral cavity
 Liver & Pancreas- empty into the small
intestines
DIGESTIVE TRACT
- Mucosa- innermost tunics; consists of 3 layers
 Inner mucous epithelium
 Lamina propria (loose connective tissue)
 Muscularis mucosae (a thin outer layer of
smooth muscle)
- Submucosa
 Lies just outside the mucosa. It is a thick
layer of loose connective tissue
containing nerves, blood vessels and
small glands.
 plexus (network)- extensive network of
nerve cells within the mucosa; innervate
by autonomic nerves
- Muscularis
 It consists of an inner layer of circular
smooth muscle and an outer layer of
longitudinal smooth muscle.
 another nerve plexus; innervated by
autonomic nerves; lies between 2 muscles
 enteric nervous system- composed of
nerve plexuses of submucosa and
muscularis; extremely important in
controlling movement & secretion.
- Serosa/Adventita
 Serosa- outermost layer’; consist of
peritoneum (smooth epithelial layer)
and its underlying connective tissue.
 Adventitia- a loose connective tissue
layer that covers the region of the
digestive tract that peritoneum can’t.
PERITONEUM
 The walls of the abdominal cavity and
the abdominal organs are associated with
a serous membrane.
- Visceral peritoneum or serosa
 The serous membrane that covers the
organs
- Parietal peritoneum
 The serous membrane that lines the wall
of the abdominal cavity.
- Mesenteries
 connective tissue sheets that held in place
many of the organs on the abdominal
cavity.
 also provide route for blood vessels and
nerves from abdominal wall to organs.
 consist of 2 layers of serous membrane
w/ thin layer of loose connective between
them
 also applied in mesentery proper
(mesentery associated w/ small intestines)
 - Lesser Omentum
 The mesentery connecting the lesser
curvature of the stomach to the liver and
diaphragm.
- Greater Omentum
 The mesentery connecting of the greater
curvature of stomach to the transverse
colon and posterior body wall.
- Omental bursa 16.3 ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX AND
 The greater omentum that is unusual; a ESOPHAGUS
long, double fold of mesentery that • The oral cavity, or mouth, is the first part of the
extends inferiorly from the stomach before digestive tract. It is bounded by the lips and cheeks
looping back to the transverse colon to and contains the teeth and tongue.
create or pocket.
 where adipose tissue is accumulated,
giving it the appearance of a fat-filled
apron that covers the anterior surface of
the abdominal viscera.
Retroperitoneal- other abdominal organs that have no
mesenteries
Peritonitis- a potentially life-threatening inflammation
of the peritoneal membranes.

Lips- are muscular structures, formed mostly by the

orbicularis oris muscle; covered by skin (keratinized
stratified epithelium).
 reddish-pink appearance comes from the
underlying blood vessels can be seen through
the thin, transparent epithelium
 Cheeks- from the lateral walls of the oral
cavity; inside is buccinator muscles which
flatten the cheeks against the teeth.

The lips and cheeks are important in the process of

mastication or chewing.
Mastication
 Mastication is a technical term for
"chewing," and it refers to the mechanical
grinding of food into smaller bits by teeth.
Mastication is the process of breaking
down food so it may pass down the
esophagus and into the stomach. Breaking
down food into tiny bits improves the
surface area of the food, allowing digestive
enzymes to break it down more quickly.

Tongue
 is a large, muscular organ that occupies
most of the oral cavity.
 major sensory organ for taste and major
organs of speech
 major attachment of the tongue is in the
 posterior part of the oral cavity.
 anterior part of the tongue is relatively
free, except for a frenulum
- frenulum- thin fold of tissue; an
anterior attachment to the floor of the
mouth
 anterior two-thirds of the tongue is
covered by papillae (contain some taste
buds)
 posterior one- third of the tongue is devoid
of papillae (has only a few scattered taste
buds)
 posterior portion does contain a large amount of
lymphatic tissue, which helps from the lingual
tonsil.
Teeth
 Normal adult mouth- 32 teeth in the
mandible and maxillae
- permanent teeth (secondary teeth)-
teeth of adult
- milk or baby teeth- lost throughout
childhood.
- replacement for 20 primary teeth
(deciduous teeth)
 divided into 4 quadrants: right upper, left
upper, right lower, and left lower
- each quadrant contains one central and
one lateral incisor, one canine, first
and second premolars, as well as first,
second, and third molar.
- wisdom teeth- third molar; usually
appear in late teens or early twenties.
3 regions of tooth:
 Crown- visible part of the tooth; w/
one or more cusps (points).
 Neck- little area between the crown
and the root.
 Root- largest part of the tooth;
responsible for anchoring it in the
jawbone
 Pulp cavity- within the center of the tooth
- Pulp- filled with blood vessels, nerves,
and connective tissue.
- surrounded by a living, cellular, calcified
tissue called dentin
- Enamel- cover dentin of the tooth
crown; an extremely hard, acellular
substance which protects the tooth against
abrasion and acids produced by bacteria in
the mouth.
- cementum- covered the surface of the
dentin in the root; helps the anchor the
tooth in the jaw.
Alveoli- held in place the teeth
Gingiva (gums)- covers the alveolar processes; a
dense fibrous connective tissue and moist stratified
squamous epithelium
Periodontal - around ligaments secure the teeth in
the alveoli by embedding into the cementum.
 The teeth are held in place by alveoli
(sockets) that run along the mandible and
maxillae's alveolar processes. The gingiva,
or gums, surround the alveolar processes
with dense fibrous connective tissue and wet
stratified squamous epithelium. Periodontal
ligaments anchor the teeth in the alveoli by
inserting themselves in the cementum.
 Dental caries, often known as tooth decay,
is caused by the degradation of enamel
caused by acids produced by bacteria on the
tooth surface. Enamel isn't alive; thus, it
can't heal itself. As a result, a dental filling
is required to avoid further damage.
 Inflammation and degradation of the
periodontal ligaments, gingiva, and alveolar
bone are all symptoms of periodontal
disease. In adults, this is the most prevalent
cause of tooth loss. An infection can
develop in a tooth, the bone, or the soft
tissues surrounding it. The infection may
cause the lymph nodes in the superior
cervical region to expand. Because all
lymphatic drainage from the face passes
through these nodes, this is the case.
Palate and Tonsils
 During chewing and swallowing, the palate,
or roof of the oral cavity, divides the oral
cavity from the nasal cavity and prevents
food from going into the nasal cavity. The
palate is divided into two sections. The hard
palate is made up of bone in the front, while
the soft palate is made up of skeletal muscle
and connective tissue in the back. The
uvula(grape) is a posterior extension of the
soft palate.
Tonsil
 The tonsil is located in the lateral posterior
walls of the oral cavity, in the nasopharynx,
and in the posterior surface of the tongue.
There are three groups of tonsils: the paired
palatine tonsils, the pharyngeal tonsils and
the lingual tonsil.
o The palatine tonsils are located on each
 side of of the posterior opening of the
oral cavity; these are the ones usually
referred to as “the tonsils”?
o The pharyngeal tonsils are located near
the internal opening of the nasal cavity.
When the pharyngeal tonsil enlarged, it
is commonly called adenoid or
adenoids. An enlarged pharyngeal tonsil
can interfere with normal breathing.
o The Lingual tonsil is on posterior
surface of tongue.
THREE TYPES OF TONSILS
Salivary Glands
 The parotid glands, the submandibular
glands, and the sublingual glands are the
three principal pairs of salivary glands.
There are numerous more salivary glands
throughout the oral cavity, including those
on the tongue. Saliva is produced by
salivary glands. Saliva is a mixture of serous
(watery) and mucous fluids that serves a
variety of functions. Compound alveolar
glands make up the salivary glands. They
feature branching ducts with grape-like
clusters of alveoli at the termination of the
ducts.
Parotid Glands
 Located beside the ear, are serous glands
located beside to anterior ear. Parotid ducts
enter the oral cavity adjacent to the second
upper molars.
o Mumps or beke in tagalog is a viral
infection that causes inflammation of
the parotid gland. The inflated parotid
glands enlarge the cheeks, which can be
extremely noticeable. Mumps are
caused by a virus that can infect other
structures. In an adult male, mumps can
affect the testes, resulting in infertility.
Submandibular
 (Below the mandible), produce more serous
than mucous secretion. Each gland can be
felt as a soft lump along the inferior border
of the mandible. The submandibular ducts
open into the oral cavity on each side of the
frenulum of the tongue.
Sublingual Glands
 (Below the tongue), the smallest of the three
paired salivary glands, produce primarily
mucous secretions. They lie immediately
below the mucous membrane in the floor of
the oral cavity. Each sublingual glands have
10 – 12 small ducts opening onto the floor
of the oral cavity.
Saliva
 Saliva is a versatile fluid.
Mastication
 Food taken into the mouth is chewed or
masticated by the teeth.
Esophagus
 The esophagus is a muscular tube, lined
with moist stratified squamous epithelium,
that extends from the pharynx to the
stomach.
Esophageal Sphincters
 It is located at the upper and lower ends of
esophagus, govern the passage of food into
and out of the esophagus.
 The lower esophageal sphincter called the
cardiac sphincter. Numerous mucous glands
produce a thick, lubricating mucus that cost
the inner surface of the esophagus.
Swallowing
 Or deglutition can be divided into three
phases:
 The Voluntary Phase
o During the voluntary phase, a bolus, or
mass of food, is formed in the mouth.
The tongue pushes the bolus against the
hard palate. This forces the bolus
toward the posterior part of the mouth
and into the oropharynx.
 The Pharyngeal Phase
o swallowing is controlled by a reflex.
This phase is initiated when a bolus of
 food stimulates receptors in the  Cardiac region - is the stomach region around the
oropharynx to elevate the soft palate, gastroesophageal opening (it is near the heart).
closing off the nasopharynx. The  Fundus is the most superior part of the stomach.
pharynx elevates to receive the bolus of  Body is the largest part of the stomach.
food from the mouth. The three  Pyloric Opening (gatekeeper) is the opening into
pharyngeal constrictor muscles then the small intestine.
contract in succession, forcing the food o Pyloric sphincter is a relatively thick ring of
through the pharynx. At the same time, smooth muscle surrounding the pyloric opening.
the upper esophageal sphincter relaxes, o Pyloric region is the region of the stomach near
and food is pushed into the esophagus. the pyloric opening.
As food passes through the pharynx, the
vestibular and vocal folds close, and the
epiglottis is tipped posteriorly, so that
the opening into the larynx is covered.
These movements prevent food from
passing into the larynx.
 The Esophageal Phase
o of swallowing is responsible for moving
food from the pharynx to the stomach.
o Peristaltic Waves
 Muscular contractions of the esophagus.
 A wave of relaxation of the esophageal
muscles precedes the bolus of food down
the esophagus, and a wave of strong
contraction of the circular muscles follows
and propels the bolus through the
esophagus. Gravity assists the movement of
material, especially liquids, through the
esophagus. However, the peristaltic
contractions that move material through the
esophagus are sufficiently forceful to allow
a person to swallow even while doing a
headstand or floating in the zero-gravity
environment of space. It also causes
relaxation for the lower esophageal
sphincter in the esophagus as the peristaltic
waves approach the stomach.

16.4 STOMACH  The body turns to the right, forming a greater

(Contents mentioned in the vid)
Stomach
- primarily houses food for mixing with hydrochloric
acid and other secretions.
- It is an enlarged segment of the digestive tract in
the left superior part of the abdomen.
 Gastroesophageal opening- The opening from the
esophagus into the stomach
curvature and a lesser curvature.
o Greater curvature – forms the long, convex,
lateral border of the stomach.
o Lesser curvature – forms the shorter, concave,
medial surface of the stomach.
The muscularis layer of the stomach:
 o outer longitudinal layer, mixture produced when the food is mixed with
o middle circular layer, and stomach secretions
o inner oblique layer.
 Rugae – large folds when the stomach is empty.
 Simple columnar epithelia - secretes acid,
digestive enzymes and mucous.
 G a s t r i c p

Stomach secretions from the gastric glands:

o Hydrochloric acid
o Pepsin
o Mucus
o Intrinsic factor
 Heartburn, or gastritis - is a painful or burning
sensation in the chest usually associated with an
increase in gastric acid secretion and/or a backflush
– tubelike openings for the gastric glands. of acidic chyme into the esophagus.

The epithelial cells of the stomach can be divided into

five groups:
o The first group of epithelial cells consists of
surface mucous cells
The remaining four groups of epithelial cells are
located in the gastric glands. The cells of the gastric
glands include:
o mucous neck cells Causes of Heartburn:
o parietal cells
o endocrine cells o Overeating
o chief cells o eating fatty foods
o lying down immediately after a meal
o consuming too much alcohol or caffeine
o smoking
o wearing extremely tight clothing
Regulation of Stomach Secretions
Regulation of stomach secretions can be divided
into three phases:
Secretions (1) the cephalic phase (get started)
of the
Stomach (2) the gastric phase (go for it)

 (3) the intestinal phase (slow down)

chyme – a
 Cephalic phase - sensations of taste, the smell of
semifluid
food, stimulation of tactile receptors during the
process of chewing and swallowing, and pleasant
thoughts of food stimulate centers within the
medulla oblongata that influence gastric secretions
- The neurons also stimulate the release of gastrin
and histamine from endocrine cells.
o Gastrin - is a hormone that enters the blood and
is carried back to the stomach, where it
stimulates additional secretory activity
o Histamine – paracrine chemical signal that acts
locally and a hormone that enters the blood to
stimulate gastric gland secretory activity
 - the most potent stimulator of hydrochloric acid
secretion.
 Gastric phase - is the period during which the
greatest volume of gastric secretion occurs.
- activated by the presence of food in the stomach
 Intestinal phase - primarily inhibits gastric
secretions. It is controlled by the entrance of acidic
chyme into the duodenum, which initiates both
neural and hormonal mechanisms.
CEPHALIC PHASE
GASTRIC PHASE
INTESTINAL PHASE
Movement in the Stomach
Two types of stomach movement:
omixing waves
operistaltic waves
 hunger pangs – referred to as the stomach
“growling”
- uncomfortable sensations created when peristaltic
waves are increased by low blood glucose levels
 Vomiting is usually a protective mechanism
against the ingestion of toxic or harmful substances.
 Vomiting and associated nausea (feeling likely to
vomit) can result from irritation anywhere along the
digestive tract.
16.5 SMALL INTESTINE
In our previous lesson, we learned about the food pipe
and the stomach and how they participate either
directly or indirectly in the process of digestion.
The esophagus helps in easy passage of food, while
the stomach is in charge with the majority of
digestion. But does the process end here? No, the
process continuous and the partly digested food
reaches the next part of the canal. This is called the
small intestines.
Your small intestine is an unbelievable organ that has
many important roles in everyday bodily functions.
Your small intestine is located just below your
stomach as it coils and loops filling a large portion of
your abdominal cavity.
To better understand the lesson, the small intestine
comprises three parts. With the duodenum being the
first section and it wraps around the pancreas and
connects to the pylorus of the stomach. The semi-
digested from the stomach is passed on to the
duodenum first. Is this part involved in further
digestion of the food? Yes, when the partially digested
food enters the duodenum, it gets mixed with the two
major secretions. These secretions come from the two
most important glands, that is the liver and the
pancreas.

Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats get digested partly

as they reach the duodenum, and completely as they
passed through the jejunum, being the second middle
region of the small intestine, and ileum being the third There are mainly two types of cells that line the
part of the small intestine. surface of a villus. Absorptive cells called enterocyte
and mucous producing goblet cells.
The enterocyte cells have tiny hairlike projection
The pipe comprises of mucosa, submucosa, a layer of called microvilli also described as the brush border.
circular muscle, a layer of longitudinal muscle, and a This brush border contains enzymes. These microvilli
serosa. The mucosa and submucosa have internal increase the surface area even more providing for even
circular folds. These folds are numerous on the greater digestion and absorption.
duodenum and jejunum and they increase the surface
area which slows down the movement of the materials
from the stomach and also provides more nutrient
digestion and absorption.

Scattered throughout the surface of a villus are also

The structure of these folds was amazing. It has a
fingerlike projection called villi. Each individual villus
contains a rich capillary network as it has also lacteal,
which is a lymphatic capillary. The blood capillary
absorbs most of the nutrients and the lacteal absorbs
lipid and fats.
tuft cells which is believe to be secreting endorphins
and enzymes.
Between then villi called crypt/intestinal
gland. These crypts contain enteroendocrine cells
that secretes hormones, intestinal stem cell, and
Paneth cell that fights bacteria.

The Small Intestine has 2 important functions:
1. Digestion of nutrients
2. Absorption of nutrients.
-the tremendous amount of surface area of this organ
makes it perfect for this.
16.6 LIVER AND PANCREAS
▪Let's start to "Liver"
- Basically it is an "organ that performs many
metabolic and regulatory tasks, it has more than 300
functions, and it helps some of other organs do their
job, but it is mainly associated to small intestines."
▪Location
- The liver is an organ located in the "upper right part
of the belly (abdomen). It is beneath the diaphragm
and on top of the stomach, right kidney, and
intestines. "
▪Facts about Liver
- It is the largest internal organ of our body,
Shaped like a cone, the liver is a dark reddish-brown
organ.
By the time you are an adult, your liver weighs about
three pounds or 1.40 Kg."
Duodenum
- "it is when after foods mix with stomach acid, they
move into the duodenum, where they mix with bile
from the Liver and digestive juices from the pancreas."
▪What is a Bile?
- "it is a yellow-green substance that breaks down fats
for digestion. The liver produces and secretes about
600 mL-1000 mL each day.
It dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid. And it
increases the efficiency of fat digestion and
absoption."
▪How liver deliver bile and other secretions to the
duodenum
"It would flow first to bile canaliculus, it is in between
of the cells of each hepatic cord. Then next to the
hepatic ducts".
The right and left hepatic ducts unite to form a single
common hepatic duct which would transport bile out
of the liver. Before the bile gets into the Duodenum,
there's a "Gallbladder that also an organ that has many
functions" including " storing concentrated biles and
controling the flow of biles into the small intestine".
So after the biles move out from the liver, "it would
flow to common bile duct which made of by the joined
duct of cystic and common hepatic." And the
"common bule duct joins the pancreatic ducts"
▪The Anatomy of liver or Its part and how blood
circulates to liver
The liver's main job is to filter the blood coming from
the digestive tract, before passing it to the rest of the
body.
The Liver consists of 2 major lobes, "the right lobe and
the left lobe".
These 2 lobes are "seperated by a connective tissue
septum called Falciform Ligaments."
Two more smaller lobes, it "the Quadrate and Caudete
lobes."
Both major lobes are made up of "8 segments that
consist of 1,000 lobules (small lobes)."
The liver receives blood from two sources, and "The
liver holds about 1 pint (13%) of the body's blood
supply at any given moment."
The first source is..
"Hepatic artery- it delivers oxygenated blood to the
liver"
The second source is..
"Hepatic portal vein- it carries nutrient-rich blood from
the digestive tract to the liver"
basically oxygenated and nutrient-rich blood is a blood
that has oxygen and nutrients for the liver to stay
healthy and work properly.
And "the blood circulates to the liver exits through the
hepatic veins.
"All lobules have with what we call portal triad"
It contain "3 structures
-the hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, and hepatic
duct."
All hepatic cords formed by Hepatocytes
"These are the chief functional cells of the liver and
perform an astonishing number of metabolic,
endocrine and secretory functions."
▪Other Functions of liver
Excretion-
Bile contains excretory products, such as cholesterol,
fats, and bile pigments (e.g., bilirubin), that result from
hemoglobin breakdown.
Nutrient storage-
Liver cells remove sugar from the blood and store it in
the form of glycogen; they also store fat, vitamins (A,
B, D, E, and K), copper, and iron.
Nutrient conversion-
Liver cells convert some nutrients into others; for
example, amino acids can be converted to lipids or
glucose, fats can be converted to phospholipids, and
vitamin D is converted to its active form.
Detoxification of harmful chemicals-
Liver cells remove ammonia from the circulation and
convert it to urea, which is eliminated in the urine;
other substances are detoxified and secreted in the bile
or excreted in the urine.
Synthesis of New Molecules
The liver synthesizes blood proteins, such as albumin,
fibrinogen, globulins, and clotting factors.
▪Some illness that might acquire from an unhealthy
liver
Ÿ Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver, usually
caused by viruses like hepatitis A, B, and C.
Hepatitis can have non-infectious causes too,
including heavy drinking, drugs, allergic reactions,
or obesity.
Ÿ Cirrhosis: Long-term damage to the liver from any
cause can lead to permanent scarring, called
cirrhosis. The liver then becomes unable to
function well.
Ÿ Liver failure: Liver failure has many causes
including infection, genetic diseases, and excessive
alcohol.
▪Maintain healthy liver
Now that you know how much your liver does for you,
you're probably wondering what you can do for it. It's
easy, really. Living healthy is the best way to care for
your liver. The liver can be damaged if a person is very
overweight or drinks too much alcohol. So be active,
eat right, and your liver will keep on loving you back!
All the bloods that go through the process will unite to
all lobes' central vein to form the hepatic veins, which
carry blood out of the liver to the inferior vena cava.
"PANCREAS"
- basically it is also an organ that performs
many tasks, It plays an essential role in
converting the food we eat into fuel for the
body's cells. 
▪Location
- "The pancreas is located behind the stomach in
the upper left abdomen. It is surrounded by
other organs including the small intestine,
liver, and spleen."
▪Facts about the Pancreas
"It is spongy, about six to ten inches long, and is
shaped like a flat pear or a fish extended horizontally
across the abdomen."
▪Anatomy of Pancreas
The right side of the organ which called the "head" is
the widest part of the organ and lies in the curve of the
duodenum, the first division of the small intestine. The
tapered left side extends slightly upward which called
the body of the pancreas and ends near the spleen is
the tail.
▪ Funtions of Pancreas
It has 2 Functions, "the exocrine gland and the
endocrine gland."
In exocrine part, there is a "compound acinar gland,
the acini produce digestive Enzyme" also, pancreas
produces pancreatic fluid, which gets piped through
the pancreatic duct to the duodenum.
That fluid that gets into the digestive tract
has "Enzymes that would help to the breaks down of
fats, carbohydrates and protein" that gets into the
Duodenum then will spread all throughout our body.
Each day, your pancreas makes about 8 ounces of
digestive juice filled with enzymes.
▪ Types of Enzymes
Lipase- breaks down fats into fatty acids.
Protease- breaks down protein into amino acids.
Nucleases- degrade DNA and RNA to their component
nucleotides.
▪How Pancreas delivers Enzyme into the
Duodenum?
"Clusters of acini are connected by small ducts, which
join to form larger ducts, and the larger ducts join to
form the pancreatic duct. The pancreatic duct joins
the common bile duct and empties into the duodenum
or the duodenal papilla." Without the enzymes
produced by the pancreas, lipids, proteins, and carbo-
hydrates cannot be adequately digested.
Amylase- breaks down carbohydrates into sugars.
▪ Common Pancreatic Problems
Diabetes- If your pancreatic beta cells do not produce
enough insulin or your body can’t use the insulin your
pancreas produces, you can develop diabetes. If you
eat a meal high in carbohydrates, your sugar can go up
and cause symptoms like hunger and weight loss. Over
the long term, it can lead to heart and kidney disease
among other problems.
Pancreatic cancer- About 95% of pancreatic cancers
begin in the cells that make enzymes for digestion. Not
having enough pancreatic enzymes for normal
digestion is very common in pancreatic cancer.
Symptoms can include weight loss, loss of appetite,
indigestion, and fatty stools

Next is in the "Endocrine Gland, it consists of Healty Pancreas

pancreatic islet or islet of Langerhans, what is islet of How to take care Pancreas to maintain healthy
Langerhans? "It is a group of cells that secretes 2
hormones directly to bloodstream" to help control "Limit alcohol consumption
blood sugars level." "Insulin" is released when you
have too much sugar, and "glucagon" is released when Eat a low-fat diet
you don’t have enough sugar.  Exercise regularly and lose excess weight
 Skip crash diets Don’t smoke

16.7 LARGE INTESTINE

The large intestine consists of the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. The long, tube-like organ is
connected to the small intestine at one end and the anus. The large intestine is the portion of the
digestive system most responsible for the absorption of water from the indigestible residue of food.
The ileocecal valve of the ileum (small intestine) passes material into the large intestine at the cecum.
The material passes through the ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid portions of the
colon, and finally into the rectum. From the rectum, the waste is expelled from the body.

PARTS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE

Cecum- The cecum (sē′kŭm) is the proximal end of the large intestine where it joins with the small intestine at the
ileocecal junction. The cecum is a sac that extends inferiorly about 6 cm past the ileocecal junction. Attached to the
cecum is a tube about 9 cm long called the appendix.
A. Appendix- attached to the cecum which contains lymphoid tissue

The colon (kō′lon) is about 1.5–1.8 m long and consists of four parts:
 Ascending colon- extends superiorly from the cecum to the right colic flexure, near the liver, where it turns to
the left.
A. Left colic flexure (or splenic flexure) is the bend in the large intestine in the left upper
quadrant of the abdomen.
B. Right colic flexure (or hepatic flexure) is used to describe the bend in the colon as the
ascending colon continues as the transverse colon.
Image:
 Transverse colon- extends from the right colic flexure to the left colic flexure near the spleen, where the colon
turns inferiorly.
 Descending colon- extends from the left colic flexure to the pelvis
 Sigmoid colon- The sigmoid colon forms an S-shaped tube that extends medially and then inferiorly into the
pelvic cavity and ends at the rectum.
a. Crypts- The mucosal lining of the colon contains numerous straight, tubular glands.
 tubular glands- tubular glands in the large intestine are straight, unbranched invaginations of the lining
epithelium. These glands extend down to the muscularis mucosae and are composed primarily of
goblet and absorptive cells.
The large intestine is comprised of these bands of smooth muscle called:
b. Teniae coli- The longitudinal smooth muscle layer of the colon does not completely envelop the intestinal wall
but forms three bands.
c. Haustra
d. Epiploic appendages
Rectum- The rectum is a straight, muscular tube that begins at the termination of the sigmoid colon and ends at the
anal canal. The muscular tunic is composed of smooth muscle and is relatively thick in the rectum compared to the rest
of the digestive tract.
Anal canal- The last 2–3 cm of the digestive tract is the anal canal. It begins at the inferior end of the rectum and ends
at the anus (external digestive tract opening). The smooth muscle layer of the anal canal is even thicker than that of the
rectum and forms the internal anal sphincter at its superior end. The external anal sphincter at the inferior end of the
anal canal is formed by skeletal muscle.
A. internal anal sphincter- The internal sphincter is part of the inner surface of the canal; it is
composed of concentric layers of circular muscle tissue and is not under voluntary control. The
internal sphincter is composed of smooth muscles and is innervated by the autonomic nervous
system.
B. external anal sphincter- The external sphincter is a layer of voluntary (striated) muscle encircling
the outside wall of the anal canal. The external sphincters are of striated muscle and have
somatic (voluntary) innervation provided by nerves called the pudendal nerves.
Hemorrhoids are enlarged or inflamed rectal, or hemorrhoidal, veins that supply the anal canal. Hemorrhoids may
cause pain, itching, and/or bleeding around the anus.

Anatomy of the Large Intestine

The large intestine absorbs water from the remaining indigestible food matter and compacts feces prior to defecation.
The large intestine starts in the right iliac region of the pelvis, just at or below the right waist, where it is joined to the
bottom end of the small intestine. It is about 4.9 feet (1.5 m) long, which is about one-fifth of the entire length of the
intestinal canal.
The appendix is attached to its inferior surface of the cecum. It contains the least lymphoid tissue, and it is a part of
mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue that gives it a significant role in immunity.
On the surface of the large intestine, three bands of longitudinal muscle fibers called taeniae coli, each about 0.2
inches wide, can be identified. They start at the base of the appendix and extend from the cecum to the rectum.
 Large intestine: A schematic of the large intestine, with the colon marked as
follows: cecum; 1) ascending colon; 2) transverse colon; 3) descending colon; 4) sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus.

Histology of the Large Intestine

The large intestine, or large bowel, is the last part of the digestive system. Its function is to absorb water from the
remaining indigestible food matter, and then to pass the useless waste material from the body. The large intestine
consists of the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal.
It starts in the right iliac region of the pelvis, just at or below the right waist, where it is joined to the bottom end of
the small intestine. From here it continues up the abdomen, across the width of the abdominal cavity, and then it
turns downward, continuing to its endpoint at the anus.
The large intestine differs in physical form from the small intestine in being much wider. The longitudinal layer of the
muscularis is reduced to three strap-like structures known as the taeniae coli—bands of longitudinal muscle fibers,
each about 1/5 in wide. These three bands start at the base of the appendix and extend from the cecum to the
rectum.

Overview of the Large Intestine

Digestive processes in large intestine: This image shows the relationship of the colon to the other parts of the
digestive system.
The large intestine takes about 16 hours to finish up the remaining processes of the digestive
system. Food is no longer broken down at this stage of digestion. The colon absorbs vitamins created
by the colonic bacteria—such as vitamin K (especially important as the daily ingestion of vitamin K is
not normally enough to maintain adequate blood coagulation), vitamin B12, thiamine, and riboflavin.
It also compacts feces and stores fecal matter in the rectum until it can be defecated.

Functions of the Large Intestine

Normally, 18–24 hours are required for material to pass through the large intestine, in contrast to the 3–5 hours
required for chyme to move through the small intestine. Chyme is converted to feces (fē′sēz) in the colon. Feces
formation is due to the absorption of water and salts, the secretion of mucus, and extensive action of microorganisms.
The colon stores the feces until they are eliminated by the process of defecation (def-ĕ-kā′shŭn).
Numerous microorganisms inhabit the colon. They reproduce rapidly and ultimately constitute about
30% of the dry weight of the feces. Some bacteria in the intestine synthesize vitamin K and other
vitamins, which are passively absorbed in the colon.

Large intestines also contain trillions of bacteria which is part of our microbiome. These bacteria and the large
intestine have an important symbiotic relationship. The bacteria produce Vitamin K and Vitamins B are vital for
digestion and health of your large intestine.
Vitamin K- helps with blood clots, build our bones and aids in keeping correct insulin levels.
B vitamin- helps your digestive system produce cholesterol and process proteins, carbohydrates, and fatty
acids.
Water and salt are absorbed in the large intestine and also food converted into feces, feces stored in the sigmoid
until it travels to the rectum and exits the body through the anal canal.

16.8 DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND  cellulose - forms the walls of plant

TRANSPORT cells; not digested but is important for
providing fiber in the diet
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate Digestion
Carbohydrates are important source of energy. It
provides structural support for cells and help with 1. Salivary amylase - begins the digestion of
communication between cells and it is made up of C carbohydrates in the mouth. As the bolus is
(Carbon), H (Hydrogen), and O (Oxygen) or CHO. swallowed, it enters the esophagus and then
the stomach.
Carbohydrate is divided into:
2. The low pH of the stomach inactivates the
Simple Carbohydrates salivary amylase and as the bolus moves from
the stomach into duodenum and jejunum – the
 Monosaccharides first parts of the small intestine, pancreas then
- glucose, fructose, and galactose releases juice in the small intestine called
 Disaccharides pancreatic amylase – an enzyme that
- sucrose (fructose and glucose) continues the breakdown of carbohydrate into
- lactose (galactose and glucose). shorter strands of glucose.
- maltose (2 glucose) 3. The disaccharides are broken down into
monosaccharide by enzymes (disaccharides –
Complex carbohydrates.
maltase, lactase, sucrase) which are also
 Oligosaccharides present in brush border or microvilli - these
 Polysaccharides are tiny hair like projections located on the
 glycogen - is an energy-storage enterocyte cells of the small intestine.
molecule in animals and is contained 4. The enzymes on the microvilli also finish the
in muscle and in the liver breakdown monosaccharide into single
 starches - broken down by enzymes glucose molecules that are ready for
absorption.
  maltase break down into maltose
containing 2 glucose
 sucrase break down into sucrose
(fructose and glucose)
 lactase break down into lactose
comprise of galactose and glucose
Carbohydrate Absorption and Transportation
 Glucose, galactose, and fructose are absorbed
by intestinal epithelial cells.
 Absorption of the monosaccharides, glucose,
and galactose occurs through cotransport.
Glucose and galactose enters enterocyte
(simple columnar epithelial cells which line
the inner surface of the small and large
intestines) by SGLT1 (active carrier
transport). This transport requires an energy-
dependent electrochemical gradient of sodium.
Glucose and galactose are absorbed by the
enterocyte along with two sodium ions that is
pumped out of the cell by a membrane ATP-
dependent ion pump (active transporter), this
also maintains the sodium gradient by
exchanging three sodium ions for two
potassium ions or the ”sodium-potassium
ATPase”. The energy expended by this
ATPase allows the enterocyte to transport
glucose and galactose against a concentration
gradient (lower concentration in the intestinal
lumen, higher concentration in the enterocyte).
Galactose and glucose also exits the cell via
GLUT2, enters the interstitial fluid and into
the blood via facilitated diffusion.
 Fructose is absorbed through facilitated
diffusion. Fructose enters enterocyte or across
the apical enterocyte membrane by GLUT5.
Then exits the basal-lateral side of the
enterocyte by GLUT2 without using ATP,
after that, the fructose moves into the
interstitial fluid from which they are taken into
the bloodstream by the portal vein.
 As the monosaccharides exits the enterocyte
via GLUT2, they pass through interstitial
fluid and to the blood stream, then is carried
through the hepatic portal vein to the liver.
The rate of glucose transport into most types
of cells is greatly influenced by insulin and
can increase tenfold in the presence of insulin.
Without insulin, glucose enters most cells
very slowly.
 Inside the liver, fructose and glucose are
mainly converted into glucose, the glucose
energy that are transported can be:
- stored as glycogen, with the majority of it in
the muscle and liver.
- become part of blood-glucose
- stored as muscle glycogen
- converted/stored as fat
Lipids
Molecules are insoluble or only slightly soluble in
water – non polar in nature. Made up of Carbon,
Hydrogen, and Oxygen or CHO and are classified into
fat, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
Fats or triglycerides are the most common type of
lipid. It is divided into:
Saturated fatty acids - single bonded between
neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain
Unsaturated fatty acids - the hydrocarbon chain that
contains double bond
Unsaturated fatty acids are also divided into:
 Monounsaturated fat – one double bond
between carbons in their fatty acids
 Polyunsaturated fat –have more than one
double bond between carbons in their fatty
acids
Lipid Digestion
1. Lipid digestion starts with the mouth. Food is
broken into small particles mixed with lingual
lipase and begins some enzymatic digestion of
triglycerides. However, lingual lipase is not
activated in the mouth.
2. The stomach produce another lipase, called
gastric lipase, the lipase starts to break down
triacylglycerols into diglycerides and fatty
acids. Lingual lipase swallowed with food and
saliva will be activated in the stomach due to
the stomach's highly acidic environment.
3. Stomach contents enter the small intestine, but
most of the dietary lipids are undigested and
clustered in large droplets. Bile, which is made
in the liver and stored in the gallbladder, is
released into the duodenum. Bile salts have
both a hydrophobic (water-fearing) and a
hydrophilic (water-loving) side, so they are
attracted to both fats and water. The
hydrophobic ends of the bile salts are directed
toward the lipid particles, and the hydrophilic
ends are directed outward or toward the water
environment. This process is called
emulsification, meaning that they break large
fat globules into smaller droplets.
Emulsification makes lipids more accessible to
digestive enzymes by increasing the surface
area for them to act.
4. After that, the pancreas secretes pancreatic
lipases into the small intestine and it breaks
down the fats into free fatty acids and
monoglycerides. Once the lipids are digested
in the intestine, bile salts envelop the fatty
acids and monoglycerides to form micelles
which help the fats get close enough to the
microvilli of intestinal cells so that they can be
absorbed.
Lipid Absorption
1. Absorption of lipids starts when a micelle
comes in contact with the epithelial cells
of the small intestine. The lipids, fatty
acids, and monoglyceride molecules pass
by simple diffusion, from the micelles
through the cell membranes of the
epithelial cells.
2. Once the lipids - fatty acids and
monoglycerides enters the enterocyte,
short- and medium-chain fatty acids and
glycerol are directly absorbed by the
bloodstream via capillary. While long-
chain fatty acids, monoglycerides need to
undergo another process to be absorbed
and transport to the blood stream. Lipids
like cholesterol, phospholipids, long-chain
fatty acids and monoglycerides are again
reassembles into triglycerides within the
intestinal cell through smooth endoplasmic
reticulum then as it enters golgi apparatus
the reassembled triglyceride is modified
and pack it protein then it export from
golgi apparatus as chylomicrons.
3. Chylomicrons are large structures with a
core of triglycerides and cholesterol and
an outer membrane made up
phospholipids. The outer membrane is
water-soluble that is why lipids that are
not directly absorbed can now travel to
aqueous environment of the body.
Chylomicrons from small intestine go into
lymph vessels then to the bloodstream.
Lipid Transportation
Transportation)
Chylomicrons exit from the epithelial cells via
exocytosis and enter to lacteals lymphatic
capillaries within the intestinal villi. Lacteal
is a lymphatic capillary that absorbs dietary
fats in the villi of the small intestines. The
lacteals merge to form larger lymphatic vessels
that transport chyle to the thoracic duct where
it is emptied into the blood stream at the
subclavian vein. Lacteals form a component of
the lymphatic system, which is designed to
absorb and transport material that is too large
to enter the blood stream directly. Chyle is
lymph that has large amounts of absorbed
lipid. Then the lymphatic system transports
chyle to the bloodstream. Chylomicrons are
then transported to the liver. There are three
possible fates for lipids in the liver:
1. the lipids can be stored
2. the lipids can be converted into other
molecules
3. the lipids can be used as energy
In addition to lipid transport, lipids specifically
cholesterol can also be transported into
adipose tissue, where they are stored until
needed by body. Cholesterols are oil based
substance and poorly absorbed when
compared to phospholipids and triglycerides. It
does not mix with the blood, which is water-
based. It travels around the body in
lipoproteins.
There are two main types of cholesterol: High
density lipoprotein (HDL) is known as “good
cholesterol” because it transports cholesterol
to the liver that expels from the body. HDL
helps rid of the body's excess cholesterol so
it’s less likely to end up in arteries.
Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is called
“bad cholesterol” because it takes cholesterol
to the arteries. Too much cholesterol in the
arteries may lead to a buildup of plaque known
as atherosclerosis. This can increase the risk
of blood clots in the arteries. If a blood clot
breaks away and blocks an artery in the heart
or brain, and may have a stroke or heart
attack.
Plaque buildup may also reduce blood flow
and oxygen to major organs. Oxygen
deprivation to organs or arteries may lead to
kidney disease or peripheral arterial disease, in
addition to a heart attack or stroke.
PROTEIN
Protein is a large molecule composed of one or more
amino acids. Amino acid is the building blocks of
protein amino acid can help to our enzymes. Amino
acids and proteins are the building blocks of life. When
proteins are digested or broken down, amino acids are
left. The human body uses amino acids to make
proteins to help the body, Break down food, Grow,
Repair body tissue, Perform many other body
functions. Amino acids can also be used as a source of
energy by the body. Protein is found in a must plant
and animal product we eat. When we eat egg that
known as food that rich in protein. The digestion of
protein will start on our stomach. Pepsin is a stomach
enzyme that serves to digest proteins found in ingested
food. Pepsin will breakdown Protein into polypeptides.
Polypeptides is chain of amino acid that linked
together. This Polypeptides will go to our intestine and
digest by our enzymes called Trypsin Chymotrypsin
and Carbonxypeptidase this enzymes will came from
our Pancreatic Duct. When the polypeptides digest by
this enzymes this called peptides. Other enzymes like
peptidase will help to break down small peptides into
tripeptides dipeptides or single amino acids. The
amino acids then enter blood capillaries it the Villi and
are carried by the hepatic portal vein to the liver. The
amino acids may be modified in the liver. or they may
be released into the blood and distributed throughout
the body. Amino acids are actively transported into the
various cells of the body. This transport is stimulated
by growth hormone and insulin. Most amino acids are
used as building blocks to form new proteins, but some
may be metabolized, with a portion of the released
energy used to produce ATP. The body cannot store
excess amino acids, Instead, they are partially broken
down and use to synthesize glycogen or lipids, which
can be stored. The body can store only small amounts
of glycogen, so most of the excess amino acids are
converted to lipids. And this is how proteins works in
our body.
WATER AND MINERALS
Water enter in digestive tract each day with
approximately 9 liters of water. We ingest about 2l in
food and drink that’s why it is important to drink 8
glasses of water everyday. The remaning 7 liters are
from digestive secretions. About 1l fromSalivary gland
secretions, 2l from gastric secretions ,1.2 pancreatic
secretions , 0.7 l from bile, 2l from small intestine.
After the secretions 92% of 9l will absorb by small
intestine Water and lipids are absorbed by passive
diffusion throughout the small intestine. While the7%
absorb by large intestine and the last 1% leaves the
body feces. The direction of water movement is
determined by osmoticgradients across the epithelium.
When the chyme is dilute, water moves out of the
intestine into the blood. If the chyme is concen- trated,
water moves out of the blood into the small intestine.
The minerals like Sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, and phosphate ions are actively
transported from the small intestine. Vitamin D is
required for the transport of Ca?+. Negatively charged
C1- moves passively through the wall of the duodenum
and jejunum with the positively charged Na*, but CI-
is actively transported from the ileum.
DIARRHEA AND OTHER DISEASES
Diarrhea
- a very common condition and usually
resolves without interventions
- one of the common complaints in clinical
medicine
What causes DIARRHEA?
- it may result of eating food to which the
digestive tract is not accustomed or
ingesting food or water contaminated with
pathogens
(Pathogens is a bacterium, virus or
microorganism (amoebic parasites) that causes
disease
- it is a result of a decrease in fluid
absorption in the intestine or an increase in
fluid secretion
- it can also caused by increased bowel
motility that moves chyme rapidly through
the small intestine, so that more water
enters the colon
- Mucus secretion increases dramatically
• This mucus contains bicarbonate ions,
that enter the mucus, this results in a
condition called Metabolic acidosis
( when too much acid is produced in the
body)
Symptoms of DIARRHEA
- 1-2 hours after bacterial toxins are
ingested to as long as 24 hours or more for
some strains of bacteria
- Bacterial Diarrhea are associated with
severe vomiting, whereas others are not
- Acute Diarrhea lasts less than 2-3 weeks
- Chronic Diarrhea is longer than 2-3
weeks
Treatment for DIARRHEA
- Replacing lost fluid
- Eating a bland diet without dairy
( or trying the BRAT diet)
B - banana
R - rice
A - apple sauce
T - Toast
- Normal diet can resume after 2-3 days
STOMACH
Peptic Ulcer
- Lesions in the lining of the stomach or
duodenum( or the first part of the small
intestine)
What causes PEPTIC ULCER?
- Due to infection by bacterium
Helicobacter pylori a type of bacteria
- Stress, diet, smoking, alcohol, Frequent
use of Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDS) and family history
Symptoms of PEPTIC ULCER
• Bloating, Heartburn, Nausea or Vomiting, Gnawing
pain in your middle or upper part of stomach between
meals or at night
Treatment for PEPTIC ULCER
- Antibiotic therapy (aspirin, Naprosyn,
Ibuprofen)

LIVER
Cirrhosis
- a late-stage liver disease in which healthy
liver tissue is replaced with scar tissue and
the liver is permanently damaged
What causes CIRRHOSIS?
- Result in loss of normal liver function and
interference with blood flow through the
liver
- Alcoholism
Symptoms of CIRRHOSIS
• loss of appetite, feeling weak or tired, Nausea,
enlarged abdomen, hand tremors, fever, unexpected
weight loss, Jaundice, Nosebleed
Treatment for CIRRHOSIS
- Liver Transplant and continues medication
Hepatitis
- Inflammation of the liver that causes liver
cell death and replacement by connective
tissue
- If not corrected, results in loss of liver
functions and might result of death
What causes HEPATITIS?
- It’s commonly caused by a viral infections
- Caused by any of seven distinct viruses
3 Types of Hepatitis
HEPATITIS A
- Infectious hepatitis
- It is usually transmitted by poor sanitation
practices or from molluscs living in
contaminated waters
Symptoms of HEPATITIS A
• Jaundice, loss appetite, nausea or Vomiting, fever,
dark urine, diarrhea
Treatment for HEPATITIS A
- There is no specific treatment exists
- The liver heals within six months with no
lasting damage
- But controlling it with rest, managing
nausea, avoid alcohol and use medications
with care
HEPATITIS B
- Serum hepatitis
- Vaccine- preventable liver infection
caused by the hepatitis b virus (HBV)
- Usually transmitted by other body fluids
like blood semen and other body fluids
whose infected
Symptoms of HEPATITIS B
• fever, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea or vomiting,
abdominal pain, dark urine and clay colored bowel
Treatment for HEPATITIS B
- Hepatitis B vaccine to prevent it within 12
hours of exposure
HEPATITIS C
- Often chronic disease that leads to
Cirrhosis and possibly cancer of the liver
- It is caused by (HCV) or the Hepatitis C
Virus
- Transmitted by blood
Symptoms of HEPATITIS C
• bleeding easily, bruising easily, fatigue, poor
appetite, Jaundice, dark colored urine
Treatment for HEPATITIS C
- Direct Acting Antiviral (DAA) Tablets,
this are the safest and most effective
medicine for treating Hepatitis C (taken
for 8-12 weeks)
INTESTINE
Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
- Localized Inflammatory degeneration that
may occur anywhere along the digestive
tract but most commonly involves the
distal Illumina and proximal colon
- Is a term for two conditions (Crohn's
Disease and Ulcerative colitis) that are
characterized by chronic inflammation of
the gastrointestinal tract
What causes the INFLAMMATORY BOWEL
DISEASE?
- The intestinal wall often becomes
thickened, constricting the lumen, with
ulcers and fissures in the damaged areas
- Smoking
Symptoms of INFLAMMATORY BOWEL
DISEASE
• Diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, fatigue, weight loss
and rectal bleeding
Treatment for INFLAMMATORY BOWEL
DISEASE
- Anti-inflammatory drugs, avoidance of
foods that produce symptoms (nuts,
 seeds,beans,kernerls) surgery in some
cases
Irritable Bowel Syndrome
- Is a common disorder that affects the large
intestine
What causes IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME?
- Muscle contractions in the intestine
- May be linked to stress or depression
- High familial incidence
Symptoms of IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME
• stomach cramps or pain, bloating, diarrhea
Treatment for IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME
- Stress management, relaxation techniques
- Alosetron or Lotronex (designed to relax
the colon)
Gluten Enteropathy
- Commonly called Celiac Disease
- An autoimmune inflammatory disease of
the small intestine that precipitated by the
ingestion of Gluten ( component of wheat
protein)
What causes GLUTEN ENTEROPATHY?
- Eating gluten (wheat, barley and rye)
Symptoms of GLUTEN ENTEROPATHY
• Diarrhea, bloating, abdominal pain, fatigue, nausea,
headaches, muscle pain, anxiety,confusion, anemia
Treatment for GLUTEN ENTEROPATHY
- Avoid food with Gluten
Constipation
- Slow movement of feces through the large
intestine, causing the feces to become dry
and hard because of increase fluid
absorption while being retained
What causes CONSTIPATION?
- Results of inhibiting normal defecation
reflexes
- Spasms of the sigmoid colon resulting
from irritation can also result in slow feces
movement and Constipation
Symptoms of CONSTIPATION
• the inability to have a bowel movement for several
days or passing hard, dry stools
• abdominal pain, bloating and cramps, decrease
appetite, lethargy
Treatment for CONSTIPATION
- High- fiber diet, drink more water
INFECTIONS OF THEDIGESTIVE TRACT
Food Poisoning
- An illness by eating contaminated food
What causes FOOD POISONING?
- Ingesting bacteria or toxins, such as
Staphylococcus aureus,Salmonella, or
Escherichia coli
Symptoms of FOOD POISONING
• Nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhea
• in severe cases, death can occur
Treatment for FOOD POISONING
- Preventing complications and dehydration
- Drink plenty liquids
- Ensuring fluid intake even if vomiting
persist, sipping small amounts of water or
allowing ice cubes to melt in the mouth
- Start eating bland foods like cereals, rice,
toast, and bananas
Giardiasis
- It is a Diarrheal disease
What causes GIARDIASIS?
- It is caused by protozoan, called the
Guardia lambda, that invades the intestine
- Transmitted in the feces of humans and
other animals
- Often by drinking from contaminated
wilderness streams
Symptoms of GIARDIASIS
• nausea, abdominal pain, weakness, weight
loss
Treatment for GIARDIASIS
- Drugs like metronidazole, tinidazole and
nitazoxanide
- Others can include paromomycine,
quinacrine and turazolidone
Intestinal Parasite Infection
- A condition in which a parasite infects the
gastrointestinal tract of human and other
animal
What causes INTESTINAL PARASITE
INFECTION?
 - Caused by poor sanitation
- Caused by parasites including tapeworms,
pinworms, hookworms, and roundworms
Symptoms of INTESTINAL PARASITE
INFECTION
• Abdominal pain, diarrhea,nausea, bloating,
dysentery, rashes, stomach pain, malaise
Treatment for INTESTINAL PARASITE
INFECTION
- Raw garlic, pumpkin seeds, pomegranates,
beets and carrots in natural way
- Mebendazole (Vermont, emverm),
Allendale ( albenza)
Dysentry
- An infection of the intestines that causes
diarrhea containing blood and mucus
- Severe form of Diarrhea

What causes DYSENTRY?

- Caused by bacteria, protozoa or amoeba
Symptoms of DYSENTRY
• Diarrhea with belly cramps, fever, nausea and
vomiting, blood or mucus in the diarrhea
Treatment for DYSENTRY
- It will get better on its own for 3-7 days
- Oral rehydration solutions
- Paracetamol for releiving the pain and for
fever
Effects of Aging on the Digestive System
As a person ages, gradual changes occur throughout the digestive tract. The connective
tissue layers of —the submucosa and serosa—tend to thin. The blood supply
decreases. The number of smooth muscle cells in the muscularis also
decreases, resulting in reduced motility in the digestive tract. Goblet cells within the
mucosa secrete less mucus. Glands along the digestive tract, such as the gastric
glands, the liver, and the pancreas, also tend to secrete less with age.

Through the years, the digestive tract, like the skin and lungs is directly exposed to
materials from the outside environment. Some of those substances can cause
mechanical damage to the digestive tract, and others are toxic to the tissues. The
connective tissue of the digestive tract becomes thin with age and because the
protective mucous covering is reduced, an elderly person’s digestive tract becomes less
and less protected from these outside influences.

The mucosa of elderly people tends to heal more slowly following injury. Declines
also occur in the liver’s ability to detoxify certain chemicals and ability to store
glycogen. The overall decline in the defenses of the digestive tract leaves elderly
people more susceptible to infections and toxic agents.

Therefore, elderly people are more likely to develop ulcerations and cancers of the
digestive tract. Colorectal cancers, for example, cancer that occurs in the colon or
rectum, are the second leading cause of cancer deaths in the United States, with an
estimated 135,000 new cases and 57,000 deaths each year. Gastroesophageal
reflux disease caused by frequent acid reflux increases with advancing age. It is
probably the main reason why elderly people take antacids, H2 antagonists, and
proton pump inhibitors.

Disorders that are not necessarily age-induced, such as hiatal hernia and esophageal
motility, can be worsened by the effects of aging because of general decreased motility
in the digestive tract. The enamel on the surface of elderly people’s teeth
becomes thinner with age and may expose the underlying dentin. Exposed
dentin may become painful and change the person’s eating habits. Many elderly people
also lose teeth, which can have a marked effect on eating habits. The muscles of
mastication tend to become weaker; as a result, older people tend to chew
their food less before swallowing.

Another age-related complication in the digestive system involves the way medications
and other chemicals are absorbed from the digestive tract. The decreased mucus
covering and the thinned connective tissue layers allow chemicals to pass more readily
from the digestive tract into the blood. However, a decline in the blood supply to the
digestive tract hinders the absorption of such chemicals. Drugs administered to treat
cancer, which occurs in many elderly people, may irritate the mucosa of the digestive
tract, resulting in nausea and loss of appetite.