CHAPTER 14: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
opening;
 The digestive system breaks down the
food you eat into nutrients needed for
metabolic processes, such as making
ATP, and rids the body of materials that
cannot be used, such as fiber.
 Chewing breaks down food into small
pieces easy for enzymes to access;
enzymes then chemically digest food into
nutrients that are actively transported into
blood and delivered to cells around the
body.
 The digestive system is essential for
providing the body with the energy and
building blocks it requires to maintain life.
 Digestive system ingests food (takes it
in), digests it (breaks it down) into
nutrient molecules, absorbs the
nutrients into the bloodstream, and then
defecates (excretes) to rid the body of
the indigestible wastes.
ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Homeostatic Imbalance!
 two main groups:
1. alimentary (aliment = nourish) canal
 Performs the whole menu of digestive
functions (ingests, digests, absorbs, and
defecates) as it propels the foodstuffs
along its length.
2. accessory digestive organs
 (teeth, tongue, and several large
digestive glands) assist digestion in
various ways, as described shortly
 Organs of Alimentary Canal
 alimentary canal, also called the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut, is a
continuous, coiled, hollow muscular tube
that winds through the ventral body cavity
from mouth to anus.
 Its organs are the mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
and large intestine. The large intestine
leads to the terminal opening, or anus.
 Mouth
 Food enters the digestive tract
through the mouth, or oral cavity, a
mucous membrane–lined cavity.
 lips, or labia, protect its anterior
 cheeks form its lateral walls;
 hard palate forms its anterior roof;
 soft palate forms its posterior roof.
 Uvula is a fleshy fingerlike projection
of the soft palate, which dangles from
the posterior edge of the soft palate.
 The space between the lips and
cheeks externally and the teeth and
gums internally is the vestibule.
 The area contained by the teeth is the
oral cavity proper.
 The muscular tongue occupies the
floor of the mouth. The tongue has
several bony attachments—two of
these are to the hyoid bone and the
styloid processes of the skull.
 lingual frenulum: a fold of mucous
membrane, secures the tongue to the
floor of the mouth and limits its
posterior movements.
 Children born with an extremely short
lingual frenulum are often referred to as
“tongue-tied” because movement of the
tongue is restricted, leading to distorted
speech. This congenital condition can be
corrected surgically by cutting the
frenulum.
 At the posterior end of the oral cavity are
paired masses of lymphatic tissue, the
palatine tonsils.
 The lingual tonsil covers the base of the
tongue just beyond. The tonsils, along
with other lymphatic tissues, are part of
the body’s defense system.
 Pharynx
 From the mouth, food passes
posteriorly into the oropharynx and
laryngopharynx, both of which are
common passageways for food,
fluids, and air.
 The pharynx is subdivided into the
nasopharynx, part of the respiratory
passageway;
a. oropharynx, posterior to the oral
cavity;
b. laryngopharynx, which is
continuous with the esophagus
inferiorly
 walls of the pharynx contain two skeletal
muscle layers. The cells of the outer layer
run longitudinally; those of the inner layer
 (the constrictor muscles) run around the
wall in a circular fashion.
 Esophagus
 esophagus or gullet, runs from the
pharynx through the diaphragm to the
stomach.
 About 25 cm (10 inches) long, it is
essentially a passageway that conducts
food (by peristalsis) to the stomach.
 walls of the alimentary canal organs
from the esophagus to the large intestine
are made up of the same four tissue
layers, or tunics:
1. mucosa is the innermost layer, a
moist mucous membrane that lines
the hollow cavity, or lumen, of the
organ.
2. submucosa is found just beneath the
mucosa. It is soft connective tissue
containing blood vessels, nerve
endings, mucosaassociated lymphoid
tissue (MALT), and lymphatic
vessels.
3. muscularis externa is a muscle layer
typically made up of an inner circular
layer and an outer longitudinal layer
of smooth muscle cells.
4. serosa is the outermost layer of the
wall. As half of a serous membrane
pair, the visceral peritoneum
consists of a single layer of flat,
serous fluid–producing cells. The
visceral peritoneum is continuous
with the slippery parietal
peritoneum, which lines the
abdominopelvic cavity by way of a
membrane extension, the
mesentery.
 Stomach
 C-shaped stomach is on the left side of
the abdominal cavity, nearly hidden by
the liver and diaphragm.
 cardial region, or cardia (named for its
position near the heart), surrounds the
cardioesophageal sphincter, through
which food enters the stomach from the
esophagus.
 fundus is the expanded part of the
stomach lateral to the cardial region.
 body is the midportion of the stomach; in
the body, the convex lateral surface is the
greater curvature, and its concave
medial surface is the lesser curvature.
 pylorus is continuous with the small
intestine through the pyloric sphincter,
or pyloric valve.
 When it is empty, it collapses inward on
itself, and its mucosa is thrown into large
folds called rugae (roo′ge; ruga =
wrinkle, fold).
 lesser omentum: a double layer of
peritoneum, extends from the liver to the
lesser curvature of the stomach.
 greater omentum:, another extension of
the peritoneum, drapes downward and
covers the abdominal organs like a lacy
apron before attaching to the posterior
body wall.

Homeostatic Imbalance!
 PERITONITIS the peritoneal membranes
tend to stick together around the infection
site. This helps to seal off and localize
many intraperitoneal infections (at least
initially), providing time for macrophages
in the lymphatic tissue to mount an
attack.
 Alimentary canal wall contains two
important intrinsic nerve plexuses—the
submucosal nerve plexus and the
myenteric (“intestinal muscle”) nerve
plexus.
 The stomach acts as a temporary
“storage tank” for food as well as a site
for food breakdown.
 Besides the usual longitudinal and
circular muscle layers, its wall contains a
third, obliquely arranged layer in the
muscularis externa.
 smooth lining is dotted with millions of
deep gastric pits, which lead into
gastric glands that secrete the
components of gastric juice.
 intrinsic factor, a substance needed for
absorption of vitamin B12 from the small
intestine.
 chief cells produce inactive protein-
digesting enzymes, mostly
pepsinogens.
 parietal cells produce corrosive
hydrochloric acid (HCl), which makes the
stomach contents acidic and activates
the enzymes, as in the conversion of
pepsinogen to pepsin.
 mucous neck cells produce a thin acidic
mucus with an unknown function that is
quite different from that secreted by the
mucous cells of the mucosa.
 enteroendocrine cells (entero = gut),
produce local hormones, such as gastrin,
that are important in regulating the
digestive activities of the stomach,
 After food has been processed in the
stomach, it is thick like heavy cream and
is called chyme. The chyme enters the
small intestine through the pyloric
sphincter
 Bile (formed by the liver) also enters the
duodenum through the bile duct in the
same area.
 The main pancreatic and bile ducts join
at the duodenum to form the flasklike
hepatopancreatic ampulla literally, the
“liver-pancreatic enlargement.”
 Villi are fingerlike projections of the
mucosa that give it a velvety appearance
and feel, much like the soft nap of a
towel.
 Within each villus is a rich capillary bed
and a modified lymphatic capillary called
a lacteal.
 Microvilli are tiny projections of the
plasma membrane of the mucosa cells
that give the cell surface a fuzzy
appearance, sometimes referred to as
the brush border.
 Circular folds( plicae circulares), are
deep folds of both mucosa and
submucosa layers.
 local collections of lymphatic tissue
(called Peyer’s patches) found in the
submucosa increase in number toward
the end of the small intestine.

 Small Intestine
 small intestine is the body’s major
digestive organ. Within its twisted
passageways, usable nutrients are finally
prepared for their journey into the cells of
the body. The small intestine is a
muscular tube extending from the pyloric
sphincter to the large intestine.
 It is the longest section of the alimentary
tube, with an average length of 2 to 4 m
(7 to 13 feet) in a living person.
 3 subdivisions:
1. duodenum (doo″ uh-de′num; “twelve
finger widths long”),
2. jejunum (j˘e-joo′num; “empty”),
3. ileum (il′e-um; “twisted intestine”)
- joins the large intestine at the
ileocecal valve.
 pyloric sphincter (literally,
“gatekeeper”) controls the movement of
chyme into the small intestine from the
stomach and prevents the small intestine
from being overwhelmed.
 enzymes that are produced by the
pancreas and then delivered to the
duodenum through the pancreatic
ducts, where they complete the chemical
breakdown of foods in the small intestine.

 Large Intestine
 is much larger in diameter than the small
intestine (thus its name) but shorter in
length. About 1.5 m (5 feet) long, it
extends from the ileocecal valve to the
anus.
 major functions are to dry out the
indigestible food residue by absorbing
water and to eliminate these residues
from the body as feces.
 It frames the small intestine on three
sides and has these subdivisions:
cecum, appendix, colon, rectum, and
anal canal.
 Subdivisions:
1. Cecum is the first part of the large
intestine. Hanging from the cecum is the
wormlike appendix.
2. appendix, a potential trouble spot.
Because it is usually twisted, it is an ideal
location for bacteria to accumulate and
multiply. Inflammation of the appendix,
appendicitis, is the usual result.
3. Colon
 (a) ascending colon travels up the right
side of the abdominal cavity and makes
a turn, the right colic (or hepatic) flexure,
to travel across the abdominal cavity as
the (b) transverse colon. It then turns
again at the left colic (or splenic) flexure
and continues down the left side as the
(c) descending colon to enter the
pelvis, where it becomes the S-shaped
(d) sigmoid colon.
4. The sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal
canal lie in the pelvis.
5. anal canal ends at the anus which
opens to the exterior. The anal canal has
two valves:
a. external anal sphincter,
composed of skeletal muscle, is
voluntary
b. internal anal sphincter, formed
by smooth muscle, is involuntary
 Because most nutrients have been
absorbed before the large intestine is
reached, no villi are present in the large
intestine, but there are tremendous
numbers of goblet cells in its mucosa
that produce alkaline (bicarbonate-rich)
mucus.
 , the longitudinal layer of the muscularis
externa is reduced to three bands of
muscle called teniae coli (“ribbons of
the colon”). Because these muscle
bands usually display some degree of
tone (are partially contracted), they
cause the wall to pucker into small
pocketlike sacs called haustra.
 Accessory Digestive Organs
 Teeth
 role teeth play in processing food needs
little introduction.
 We masticate, or chew, by opening and
closing our jaws and moving them from
side to side while continuously using our
tongue and cheek muscles to keep the
food between our teeth.
 two sets of teeth:
1. deciduous teeth, also called baby teeth
or milk teeth. The deciduous teeth begin
to erupt around 6 months; the first teeth
to appear are the lower central incisors.
A baby has a full set (20 teeth) by the age
of 2 years.
2. permanent teeth, enlarge and develop,
the roots of the milk teeth are
reabsorbed, and between the ages of 6
and 12 years they loosen and fall out.
o All of the permanent teeth but the
third molars have erupted by the
end of adolescence.
o third molars (wisdom teeth)
emerge between the ages of 17
and 25.
o Although there are 32 permanent
teeth in a full set, the wisdom teeth
often fail to erupt; sometimes they
are completely absent.
Homeostatic Imbalance!
 When teeth remain embedded in the
jawbone, they are said to be impacted.
Impacted teeth can exert pressure and
cause a good deal of pain, so they
usually must be removed surgically.
Wisdom teeth are the most commonly
impacted.
 Classification of teeth:
a. incisors are adapted for cutting;
b. the fanglike canines (eyeteeth) are for
tearing or piercing.
c. premolars (bicuspids) and (d) molars
have broad crowns with rounded cusps
(tips) and are best suited for crushing
and grinding.
 two major regions:
1. crown is the exposed part of the tooth
above the gingiva or gum. The crown is
covered with enamel, a ceramic-like
substance as thick as a dime, that
directly bears the force of chewing.
a. It is the hardest substance in the
body and is fairly brittle because it
is heavily mineralized with calcium
salts.
2. Root is the portion of the tooth
embedded in the jawbone the root and
crown are connected by a region called
the neck. The outer surface of the root is
covered by a substance called cement,
which attaches the tooth to the
periodontal membrane (ligament).
a. Dentin, a bonelike material,
underlies the enamel and forms
the bulk of the tooth.
b. It surrounds a central pulp cavity,
which contains a number of
structures (connective tissue,
blood vessels, and nerve fibers)
collectively called pulp. Pulp
supplies nutrients to the tooth
tissues and provides for tooth
sensations.
c. Where the pulp cavity extends into
the root, it becomes the root
canal, which provides a route for
blood vessels, nerves, and other
pulp structures to enter the pulp
cavity of the tooth.
 Salivary Glands
 (1) large parotid glands lie anterior to
the ears. Mumps, a common childhood
disease, is an inflammation of the parotid
glands. (2) submandibular glands and
the small (3) sublingual glands empty
their secretions into the floor of the mouth
through tiny ducts.
 Saliva, product of the salivary glands and
is a mixture of mucus and serous fluids.
 The mucus moistens and helps to bind
food together into a mass called a bolus,
which makes chewing and swallowing
easier.
 clear serous portion contains an enzyme,
salivary amylase, in a bicarbonate-rich
(alkaline) juice that begins the process of
starch digestion in the mouth.
 Pancreas
 a soft, pink, triangular gland that extends
across the abdomen from the spleen to
the duodenum.
 lies posterior to the parietal peritoneum;
hence its location is referred to as
retroperitoneal.
 Only produces enzyme that break down
all categories of digestible foods.
 pancreatic enzymes are secreted into the
duodenum in an alkaline fluid that
neutralizes the acidic chyme coming in
from the stomach.
  The pancreas also has an endocrine
function; it produces the hormones
insulin and glucagon.
 Liver and Gallbladder
 LIVER is the largest gland in the body.
Located under the diaphragm, more to
the right side of the body, it overlies and
almost completely covers the stomach.
 liver has four lobes and is suspended
from the diaphragm and abdominal wall
by a delicate mesentery cord, the
falciform ligament.
 its digestive function is to produce bile.
Bile leaves the liver through the
common hepatic duct and enters the
duodenum through the bile duct.
 Bile is a yellow-to-green, watery solution
containing bile salts, bile pigments
(chiefly bilirubin, a breakdown product of
hemoglobin), cholesterol, phospholipids,
and a variety of electrolytes.
o does not contain enzymes, but its
bile salts emulsify fats by
physically breaking large fat
globules into smaller ones, thus
providing more surface area for
the fat-digesting enzymes to work
on.
 GALLBLADDER is a small, thin-walled
green sac that snuggles in a shallow
fossa in the inferior surface of the liver.
 food digestion is not occurring, bile backs
up the cystic duct and enters the
gallbladder to be stored.
Homeostatic Imbalance!
 If bile is stored in the gallbladder for too
long or too much water is removed, the
cholesterol it contains may crystallize,
forming GALLSTONES.
o gallstones tend to be quite sharp,
agonizing pain may occur when
the gallbladder contracts (an
event called a gallbladder
attack).
 As the bile pigments circulate through the
body, the tissues become yellow, or
JAUNDICED. Blockage of the ducts is
just one cause of jaundice.
 actual liver problems such as
HEPATITIS, an inflammation of the liver,
or cirrhosis, a chronic inflammatory
condition in which the liver is severely
damaged and becomes hard and fibrous.
o often due to viral infection
resulting from drinking
contaminated water or transmitted
in blood via transfusion or
contaminated needles.
o Cirrhosis is almost guaranteed
when someone drinks alcoholic
beverages in excess for many
years, and it is a common
consequence of severe hepatitis.
FUNCTIONS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Overview of Gastrointestinal
Processes and Controls
 Major functions of the digestive tract are
usually summarized in two words—
digestion and absorption.
 6 processes of the GI tract:
1. Ingestion. Food must be placed into the
mouth before it can be acted on. This is
an active, voluntary process.
2. Propulsion. To be processed by more
than one digestive organ, foods must be
propelled from one organ to the next.
o Swallowing is one example of food
movement that depends largely
on the propulsive process called
peristalsis.
o Peristalsis is involuntary and
involves alternating waves of
contraction and relaxation of the
longitudinal muscles in the organ
wall.
3. Food breakdown: Mechanical
breakdown. Mechanical breakdown
physically fragments food into smaller
particles, increasing surface area and
preparing food for further degradation by
enzymes.
o segmentation in the small
intestine moves food back and
forth across the internal wall of the
organ, mixing it with the digestive
juices.
4. Food breakdown: Digestion. The
sequence of steps in which large food
molecules are chemically broken down to
their building blocks by enzymes (protein
molecules that act as catalysts) is called
digestion.
 must first enter the mucosal cells by
active or passive transport processes.
6. Defecation. Defecation is the elimination
of indigestible residues from the GI tract
via the anus in the form of feces.

 The building blocks, or units, of

carbohydrate foods are
monosaccharides, or simple sugars.
a. Glucose is by far the most important,
and when we talk about blood sugar
level, we are referring to glucose.  Activities Occurring in the Mouth,
b. Fructose is the most abundant sugar
Pharynx, and Esophagus
in fruits, and
c. galactose is found in milk.
1. Food Ingestion and Breakdown
 The only carbohydrates that our digestive  Once food has been placed in the mouth,
system digests, or breaks down to simple both mechanical and digestive
sugars, are sucrose (table sugar), (chemical) processing begins.
lactose (milk sugar), maltose (malt
 First the food is physically broken down
sugar), and starch. Sucrose, maltose,
into smaller particles by chewing. Then,
and lactose are referred to as
as the food is mixed with saliva, salivary
disaccharides, or double sugars,
amylase begins the digestion of starch,
because each consists of two simple
chemically breaking it down into maltose.
sugars linked together.
 Saliva is normally secreted continuously
 Starch is a polysaccharide (literally,
to keep the mouth moist, but when food
“many sugars”) formed by linking
enters the mouth, much larger amounts
hundreds of glucose units. Although we
of saliva pour out.
eat foods containing other
 the simple pressure of anything put in the
polysaccharides, such as cellulose, we
mouth and chewed, such as rubber
do not have enzymes capable of
bands or sugarless gum, will also
breaking them down.
stimulate the release of saliva.
 Proteins are digested to their building
 All these reflexes, though initiated by
blocks, which are amino acids. The
different stimuli, are brought about by
intermediate product of protein digestion
parasympathetic fibers in cranial nerves
is polypeptides.
VII and IX.
 lipids (fats) are digested, they yield two
 Essentially no food absorption occurs in
different types of building blocks—fatty
the mouth.
acids and an alcohol called glycerol.
 The pharynx and esophagus have no
5. Absorption. Absorption is the transport digestive function; they simply provide
of digestive end products from the lumen passageways to carry food to the next
of the GI tract to the blood or lymph. For processing site, the stomach.
absorption to occur, the digested foods 2. Food Propulsion: Swallowing and
Peristalsis
 For food to be sent on its way from the
mouth, it must first be swallowed.
 Deglutition or swallowing, is a complex
process that involves the coordinated
activity of several structures (tongue, soft
palate, pharynx, and esophagus).
 two major phases:
a. buccal phase, (voluntary) which
occurs in the mouth. Once the food
has been chewed and well mixed with
saliva, the bolus (food mass) is
forced into the pharynx by the tongue.
As food enters the pharynx, it passes
out of our control and into the realm of
reflex activity.
b. pharyngeal-esophageal phase,
(involuntary) transports food through
the pharynx and esophagus. The
parasympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system (primarily
the vagus nerve) controls this phase
and promotes the mobility of the
digestive organs from this point on.
 The tongue blocks off the mouth, and the
soft palate closes off the nasal passages.
 The larynx rises so that its opening (into
the respiratory passageways) is covered
by the flaplike epiglottis.
 Food is moved through the pharynx and
then into the esophagus inferiorly by
wavelike peristaltic contractions of their
muscular walls—first the longitudinal
muscles contract, and then the circular
muscles contract.
 Once food reaches the distal end of the
esophagus, it presses against the
cardioesophageal sphincter, causing it to
open, and the food enters the stomach.
 The movement of food through the
pharynx and esophagus is so automatic
that a person can swallow and food will
reach the stomach even if he is standing
on his head.
 Activities of the Stomach
1. Food Breakdown
 Secretion of gastric juice is regulated by
both neural and hormonal factors. The
sight, smell, and taste of food stimulate
parasympathetic nervous system
reflexes, which increase the secretion of
gastric juice by the gastric (stomach)
glands.
 presence of food and a rising pH in the
stomach stimulate the stomach cells to
release the hormone gastrin. Gastrin
prods the gastric glands to produce still
more of the protein-digesting enzymes
(such as pepsinogen), mucus, and
hydrochloric acid.
 Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach
contents very acidic. This can be
dangerous because both hydrochloric
acid and the protein-digesting enzymes
have the ability to digest the stomach
itself, causing ulcers.
Homeostatic Imbalance!
 cardioesophageal sphincter fails to close
tightly and gastric juice backs up into the
esophagus, which has little mucus
protection. This results in a characteristic
pain known as HEARTBURN, which, if
uncorrected, leads to inflammation of the
esophagus (esophagitis) and perhaps
even to ulceration of the esophagus.
 HIATAL HERNIA, a structural
abnormality in which the superior part of
the stomach protrudes slightly above the
diaphragm. Because the diaphragm no
longer reinforces the relatively weak
cardioesophageal sphincter, gastric juice
flows into the unprotected esophagus.
 The extremely acidic environment that
hydrochloric acid provides is necessary,
because it activates pepsinogen to
pepsin, the active protein-digesting
enzyme.
 Rennin, the second protein-digesting
enzyme produced by the stomach, works
primarily on milk protein and converts it
to a substance that looks like sour milk.
2. Food Propulsion
 Once the food has been well mixed, a
rippling peristalsis begins in the upper
half of the stomach.
 The contractions increase in force as the
food approaches the pyloric valve,
grinding the food into chyme.
 The pylorus of the stomach, which holds
about 30 ml of chyme, acts like a meter
that allows only liquids and very small
particles to pass through the pyloric
sphincter.
 Because the pyloric sphincter barely
opens, each contraction of the stomach
 muscle squirts 3 ml or less of chyme into
the small intestine.
 The contraction also closes the valve, so
the rest of the chyme (about 27 ml) is
propelled backward into the stomach for
more mixing, a process called
retropulsion.
 When the duodenum is filled with chyme
and its wall is stretched, a nervous reflex,
the enterogastric reflex, occurs. This
reflex “puts the brakes on” gastric
activity. It slows the emptying of the
stomach by inhibiting the vagus nerve
and tightening the pyloric sphincter, thus
allowing time for intestinal processing to
catch up.
Homeostatic Imbalance!
 Local irritation of the stomach, such as
occurs with bacterial food poisoning, may
activate the emetic center in the brain
(medulla).
 The emetic center, in turn, causes
VOMITING, OR EMESIS.
o Vomiting is essentially a reverse
peristalsis occurring in the
stomach (and perhaps the small
intestine), accompanied by
contraction of the abdominal
muscles and the diaphragm,
which increases the pressure on
the abdominal organs.
 Activities of the Small Intestine
1. Chime Breakdown and Absorption
 Chyme reaching the small intestine is
only partially digested.
 Here the process of chemical digestion is
accelerated as the food now takes a
rather wild 3- to 6-hour journey through
the looping coils and twists of the small
intestine.
 By the time the food reaches the end of
the small intestine, digestion will be
complete, and nearly all food absorption
will have occurred.
 brush border enzymes, that break
down double sugars into simple sugars
and complete protein digestion.
 Intestinal juice itself is relatively enzyme
poor, and protective mucus is probably
the most important intestinal gland
secretion.
 However, foods entering the small
intestine are literally deluged with
enzyme-rich pancreatic juice delivered
via a duct from the pancreas, as well as
bile from the liver.
 Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that:
1. along with brush border enzymes,
complete the digestion of starch
(pancreatic amylase);
2. carry out about half of protein
digestion (via the action of trypsin,
chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, and
others);
3. are totally responsible for fat
digestion, because the pancreas is
essentially the only source of lipases;
and
4. digest nucleic acids (nucleases).
 pancreatic juice contains a rich supply of
bicarbonate ions, which makes it very
basic (about pH 8).
Homeostatic Imbalance!
 PANCREATITIS is a rare but extremely
serious inflammation of the pancreas that
results from activation of pancreatic
enzymes in the pancreatic duct.
o This painful condition can lead to
nutritional deficiencies because
pancreatic enzymes are essential
for digestion in the small intestine.
 The release of pancreatic juice into the
duodenum is stimulated by both the
vagus nerve and local hormones.
 When chyme enters the small intestine, it
stimulates the mucosa cells to produce
several hormones. Two of these
hormones, (1) secretin and (2)
cholecystokinin (CCK), influence the
release of pancreatic juice and bile.
 secretin causes the liver to increase its
output of bile, and
 cholecystokinin causes the gallbladder
to contract and release stored bile into
the bile duct so that bile and pancreatic
juice enter the small intestine together.
 Bile is also necessary for absorption of
fats—and the fat-soluble vitamins (K, D,
E, and A) that are absorbed along with
them—from the intestinal tract.
Homeostatic Imbalance!
 Either bile or pancreatic juice is
absent, essentially no fat digestion or
absorption goes on, and fatty, bulky
stools are the result. In such cases,
blood-clotting problems also occur
because the liver needs fat-soluble
vitamin K to make prothrombin, an
important clotting factor.
 Most substances are absorbed through
the intestinal cell plasma membranes
by the process of active transport.
  The exception seems to be lipids, or fats,
which are absorbed passively by the
process of diffusion. Lipid breakdown
products enter both the capillary beds
and the lacteals in the villi and are carried
to the liver by both blood and lymphatic
fluids.
2. Chyme Propulsion
 Peristalsis is the major means of
propelling chyme through the digestive
tract.
 It involves waves of contraction that
move along the length of the intestine,
followed by waves of relaxation.
 The net effect is that the food is moved
through the small intestine in much the
same way that toothpaste is squeezed
from a tube.
 Rhythmic segmental movements
produce local constrictions of the
intestine that mix the chyme with the
digestive juices and help to propel food
through the intestine.
 Activities of the Large Intestine
1. Nutrient Breakdown and Absorption
 Few, 12-24 hours
 “resident” bacteria:
(1) Lumen; metabolize it and releases
flatus (methane and hydrogen sulfide)
that contribute to flatulence and the odor
of feces - About 500 ml/day
(2) make some vitamins K and some B
vitamins.
 Absorption
(1) Limited to vitamin K and B, some ions,
and remaining water.
(2) Feces, contains undigested food
residues, mucus, millions of bacteria,
and water for smooth passage.
2. Propulsion of Food Residue and
Defecation
(1) haustral contractions; contraction of the
colon when presented with food residue -
slow segmenting movements (1 minute after
every 30 min)
o as a haustrum fills with food residue it
contract to propel contents into the next
haustrum.
o movements mix the residue, which aids
in water absorption.
(2) Mass movements are long, slow-moving
but powerful contractile waves that move
over large areas of the colon 3 or 4 times
daily and force the contents toward the
rectum.
(3) The defecation reflex is a spinal (sacral
region) reflex that causes the walls of the
sigmoid colon and the rectum to contract and
the anal sphincters to relax.
 external voluntary sphincter can be
controlled to remain open or be
constricted to stop passage of feces.
Homeostatic Imbalance!
 Diverticulosis – formation of diverticula in
which the mucosa protrudes through the
colon walls due to increase pressure by
contraction of narrowed colon.
 Diverticulitis - diverticula become inflamed,
can be life-threatening if ruptures occur
 Watery stools, or diarrhea – rushes food
residue through the large intestine before an
organ had sufficient time to absorb the water
– dehydration and electrolyte imbalance
 Constipation - too much water is absorbed,
stool becomes hard, may result from lack of
fiber in the diet, poor bowel habits, narcotic
pain medications and laxative abuse.
NUTRITION AND METABOLISM
 fraction; build/replace cellular molecules
and structures
 Most; used as metabolic fuels - oxidized and
transformed into ATP.
 The energy value in units: kilocalories
(kcal), or Calories (with a capital C),
Nutrition
 a substance in food that the body uses to
promote normal growth, maintenance, and
repair.
 Major:—carbohydrates, lipids, and
protein
Minor—vitamins and minerals
Water, 60 percent of the food we eat
Dietary Recommendations
a. Healthy Eating Pyramid (1992) by Walter
Willett, looks at six major food groups,
subdividing some of them further. It uses the
traditional (horizontal) orientation of food
groups.
b. MyPlate (2011) shows food categories in
healthy proportions in sections of a place
 setting and can be personalize by age, sex,
and activity level

Dietary Sources of the Major Nutrients

(1) Carbohydrates
 milk sugar (lactose); glycogen in meats
and plants – fruits and vegetables
(2) Lipids
 Cholesterol from egg yolk, meats, and Metabolism
milk products.
 most are triglycerides  all chemical reactions that are necessary to
 saturated fats - meat; dairy foods; maintain life.
coconut o Catabolism - breakdown of substances
 Unsaturated fats - seeds, nuts, to simpler substances, energy release
vegetable oils. and captured to form ATP
(3) Proteins o Anabolism - building of larger molecules
 Complete Proteins - Animal products : or structures from smaller ones.
Eggs, milk, fish, meat
Carbohydrate, Fat and Protein Metabolism in
 Incomplete: Legumes (beans and peas),
Body Cells
nuts, and cereals
a. Carbohydrate Metabolism

 Glucose or blood sugar are the body’s major

energy fuel. As glucose is oxidized, carbon
dioxide, water, and ATP are formed.

(4) Vitamins
 organic nutrients that the body requires in  Metabolic pathways in cellular respiration:
small amounts.
 found in all major food groups (1) glycolysis (cytosol)
 Most vitamins function as coenzymes  glucose molecule to be split into 2 pyruvic
acid molecules and yield ATP.
(5) Minerals (2) citric acid cycle (mitochondria)
 (inorganic substances)— calcium,  produces CO2; yields ATP by transferring
phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, high-energy phosphate groups directly from
chloride, and magnesium—and trace phosphorylated substances to ADP
amounts of dozen others. (substrate-level phosphorylation).
 vegetables, legumes, milk, and some meats. (3) electron transport chain (mitochondria).

 Hydrogens are delivered by the coenzymes

to the protein carriers of the electron
transport chain, which form part of the
mitochondrial cristae membranes
 There the hydrogen atoms are split into
hydrogen ions (H+ ) and electrons (e– ). The
electrons give off their “load” of energy to
enable the cell to attach phosphate to ADP
and make ATP.
 Free oxygen is reduced (it binds with H+)
forming water and ATP (oxidative
phosphorylation).
Homeostatic Imbalances
 Hyperglycemia, excessively high level of
glucose in the blood; glucose is stored in
liver and muscle cell as glycogen or
converted to fat.
 Hypoglycemia, blood glucose level is too
low glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and
fat breakdown occur to restore the normal
blood glucose level.
b. Fat Metabolism
 Fats insulate the body, protect organs, build
some cell structures (membranes and
myelin sheaths), and provide reserve
energy. When carbohydrates are in limited
supply, more fats are oxidized to produce
ATP.
(1) fats broken down to acetic acid.
(2) Within the mitochondria, the acetic
acid is oxidized to form CO2, H2O water,
and ATP.
 Fat oxidation is fast but incomplete.
Excessive fat breakdown causes blood to
become acidic.
 Acidosis or Ketoacidosis:
 Accumulation of acetoacetic acid and
acetone in the blood.
 breath takes on a fruity odor as acetone
diffuses from the lungs.
 Excess fats are stored in fat deposits such
as the hips, abdomen, breasts, and
subcutaneous tissues.
C. Protein Metabolism
 Proteins form the bulk of cell structure and
most functional molecules. It will be broken
down into amino acids
 Amino acids are oxidized to form ATP when
other fuel sources are not available.
Ammonia (amine group) is released as it is
are catabolized
 It will be actively taken up from blood by
tissue cells to build proteins (only applicable
when all 20 amino acids are present both
for their own use) and for export (mucus,
hormones, and others).
 those that cannot be made by body cells are
called essential amino acids.
The Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism
 key metabolic organ.
Liver Cells:
 Manufacture bile for digestion
 detoxify drugs and alcohol
 degrade hormones
 make cholesterol, blood proteins
(albumin), clotting proteins, and
lipoproteins.
Hepatic portal circulation
 detour of nutrient-rich blood from the
digestive to the liver
 liver cells remove amino acids, fatty acids,
and glucose from the blood and store it for
later use
 liver’s phagocytic cells remove and destroy
bacteria
a. General Metabolic Functions
(1) To maintain blood glucose level (100 mg/100
ml blood):
 Glycogenesis, “glycogen formation”
(genesis = beginning). Glucose
molecules are removed from the blood
and combined to form glycogen which
are then stored in the liver
 Glycogenolysis, “glycogen splitting.”
liver cells break down the stored
glycogen then release glucose bit by bit
to the blood
 Gluconeogenesis, “formation of new
sugar” liver making glucose from non-
carbohydrate substances
(2) The liver also makes cholesterol and
secretes cholesterol’s breakdown products
in bile.
(3) Its cells make blood proteins from amino
acid and release them to blood
Albumin, holds fluid in the bloodstream.
When it is insufficient, fluid leaves the
bloodstream and accumulates in the
tissue spaces, causing edema.
(4) Liver cells also detoxify ammonia by
combining it with carbon dioxide to form
urea.
Urea, not harmful to the body cells, is
flushed from the body in urine
Nutrients not needed by the liver cells and the
products of liver metabolism, are released into
the blood entering systemic circulation, where
they become available to other body cells
b. Cholesterol Metabolism and Transport
 85% of cholesterol is made by the liver;
 it serves as the structural basis of steroid
hormones and vitamin D and is a major
building block of plasma membranes
(functional molecule rather than for ATP
synthesis).
 Fatty acids, fats, and cholesterol are
insoluble in water, so they cannot circulate
freely in the bloodstream. Instead they are
transported bound to the small lipid-protein
complexes called lipoproteins.
o Low density lipoproteins (LDLs)
transport cholesterol to body cells. If
large amounts of LDLs are circulating,
the chance that fatty substances will be
deposited on the arterial walls, initiating
atherosclerosis, is high.
o High density lipoproteins (HDLs)
transport from the tissue cells to the
liver for disposal in bile
 When it is broken down secreted in bile salts,
which eventually leave the body in feces.
Body Energy Balance
Dynamic balance exists between the body’s
energy intake and its energy output:
Energy intake = total energy output (heat +
work + energy storage)
 Energy intake is the energy liberated
during food oxidation
 Energy output is energy we lose as
heat; energy used to do work (driven by
ATP), plus energy that is stored in the
form of fat or glycogen.
Interference with this balance results in obesity
or in malnutrition leading to body wasting.
Metabolic Rate
 When the three major types of foods are
oxidized for energy, they yield different
amounts of energy. Carbohydrates and
proteins yield 4 kcal/gram; fats yield 9
kcal/gram.
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
 amount of heat produced by the body per
unit of time when it is under basal (resting)
state
 reflects the energy supply needed to perform
essential life activities such as breathing
 can be affected by surface area, age,
gender, and thyroxine production.
thyroxine dubbed the “metabolic
hormone.” The more thyroxine produced,
the higher the oxygen consumption and
ATP use, and the higher the metabolic
rate.
Total metabolic rate (TMR)
 total amount of kilocalories the body must
consume to fuel all ongoing activities.
 It increases dramatically as muscle activity
increases.
 When TMR equals total caloric intake,
weight remains constant; homeostasis is
maintained

Homeostatic Imbalance
(1) Hyperthyroidism - excessive metabolic
rate makes body catabolizes stored fats;
tissue proteins cause weight loss, bones
weaken, and body muscles, including the Homeostatic Imbalance!
heart, atrophy. (1) Frostbite - skin cells, chilled by internal ice
(2) Hypothyroidism results in slowed crystals and deprived of oxygen and
metabolism, obesity, and diminished nutrients, begin to die.
thought processes. (2) Hypothermia - low body temperature from
Body Temperature Regulation prolonged exposure to cold, the
individual’s vital signs decrease, metabolic
 Body temperature reflects the balance processes grind to a stop.
between heat production and heat loss. (3) Hyperthermia - elevated body
 The hypothalamus maintain the set point of temperature, increases the metabolic rate,
37°C which in turn increases heat production.
Heat-Promoting Mechanisms - Heat stroke
temperature continues to spiral upward
(1) vasoconstriction of blood vessels of the and caused permanent brain damage
skin - Heat exhaustion
- constricts, the blood temporarily heat-associated collapse of an individual
bypasses the skin and is rerouted to the during or following vigorous physical
deeper, more vital body organs (restored activity due to excessive loss of body
heat) fluids (dehydration)
(2) shivering
Fever
- “the chills,”
- involuntary shuddering contractions - - is controlled hyperthermia often it results
skeletal muscle activity produces large from infection somewhere in the body
amounts of heat. - by increasing the metabolic rate, helps
Heat Loss Mechanisms speed the various healing processes and
also appears to inhibit bacterial growth.
(1) radiation. - The danger of fever is that if the body
- the blood vessels dilate, and capillary thermostat is set too high, body proteins
beds become flushed with warm blood - may be denatured (unfolded), and
heat radiates from the skin surface. permanent brain damage may occur.
(2) Evaporation (1) Macrophages, white blood cells, and injured
- perspiration off the skin surface. tissue cells release chemical substances
called pyrogens that act directly on the
hypothalamus, to set to a higher temperature
- heat-promoting mechanisms are initiated.
(2) Body temperature is allowed to rise until it
reaches the new setting. Then, it is
maintained at the “fever setting”
(3) until natural body defense processes or 4. middle-age digestive problems:
antibiotics reverse the disease process. At b. ulcers and gallbladder problems
that point, the thermostat is reset again to (inflammation of the gallbladder or
the lower normal level, causing heat loss gallstones)
mechanisms to swing into action—the c. Obesity and diabetes mellitus
individual begins to sweat, and the skin d. irritable bowel syndrome (IBS),
becomes flushed and warm. characterized by alternating bouts of
diarrhea and constipation
DEVELOPMENTA; ASPECTS OF THE 5. Efficiency of all digestive system processes
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND METABOLISM decreases in the elderly. Gastrointestinal
cancers, such as stomach and colon cancer,
In Embryos, the alimentary canal forms as a
appear with increasing frequency in an aging
hollow tube extending from the mouth to the
population.
anus. Shortly after, the digestive glands
(salivary glands, liver, and pancreas) bud out Diverticulosis, the bulging of the colon wall
from the mucosa of the alimentary tube. into the lumen
Nutrients: from the placenta, colorectal cancers derive from initially
benign mucosal tumors called polyps, polyp
 rooting reflex helps the infant find the
formation increases with age
nipple
 sucking reflex helps him or her to hold
on to the nipple and swallow.

1. Common congenital defects include: all of

which interfere with normal nutrition.

a. cleft palate
b. cleft lip
c. tracheoesophageal
fistula
- abnormal connection
between the esophagus
and the trachea.

2. Common inborn errors of metabolism are:

a. cystic fibrosis (CF)
 huge amounts of mucus are produced,
which block the passages of involved
organs (lungs or pancreas)
 Blockage of the pancreatic duct prevents
pancreatic fluid from reaching the small
intestine makes fats and fat-soluble
vitamins not digested or absorbed, and
bulky, fat-laden stools result.
b. phenylketonuria (PKU).
 inability of tissue cells to use phenylalanine,
an amino acid present in all protein foods.
In such cases, brain damage and
intellectual dysfunction occur

3. Various inflammatory conditions:

a. gastroenteritis – inflammation of
gastrointestinal tract
b. Appendicitis - Inflammation of the
appendix