M-1 Offshore Production

NATURAL GAS: OFFSHORE PRODUCTION & HANDLING
Lecture by
M. Aslam Abdullah
24 August 2021 School of Chemical Engineering, VIT University. 1

Process of Offshore Oil and Gas Developments
The process of developing offshore oil and gas reserves can be divided into the following major
steps:
1. Exploration
2. Exploratory drilling
3. Development drilling
4. Production
5. Storage and offloading
6. Transportation
Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

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FACTORS DRIVING DEEPWATER RUSH
1. Growing global demand for energy.
2. Traditional fields fast exhausting.
3. Declining production & reserves.
4. Pressure to diversify supply.
5. Oil supply jitters.
6. Energy economics.
7. Technological advent.

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DEEP WATER TECHNOLOGIES
In order to meet the current demand for hydrocarbon based fuel, the scout for it is widespread
with demanding impetus on technological innovations.
Problems associated with Offshore (deep water) areas are:

1. Reservoir characterization. 7. Tidal waves
2. Reservoir management. 8. Corrosion
3. Source- rock prediction. 9. Wind
4. Formation water properties. 10. Fatigue
5. Granite reservoir characterization. 11. Salinity
6. Pore pressure & temperature prediction. 12. Thermal shock (steep gradient, seasonal
change, fluid injection)

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Factors affecting field services in deep water on a macro-basis can be
given as:
1. Unconventional oil (tar sands) vs. deepwater.
2. Novel Deepwater technology trends.
3. Drilling technologies.
4. Subsea technologies.
5. Forecast for deepwater oilfield services.
6. Hydrate formation.
7. High temperature High Pressure.

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Classification of problems encountered in general:
1. Deepwater projects take up to 10 years from discovery to first production.
2. Geology not cooperating (Like finding 100MMbl pockets when we used to find
500MMbl to 1bln barrel fields).
3. Cluster developments are expensive (five (100MMbl) fields do not equal one
(500MMbl) field).
4. Escalating rig rates were a leading indicator for the cost increases across the sector for
deepwater developments.

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To solve the deepwater issues it requires blend of many technologies
like:
1. Reservoir geophysics 6. Time-lapse seismic
2. Seismic imaging 7. Seismic litho stratiography
3. Seismic signal processing 8. Imaging while drilling
4. 3D seismic characterization of reservoirs 9. Ocean sensor arrays
5. Multi-component seismology

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Location Surveys for Offshore Drilling
The offshore environment has a much more significant influence on drilling operations than
the onshore environment. It is necessary to carry out a suite of location surveys before starting
drilling operations in order to obtain data such as weather forecast during drilling operations,
bathymetric map around the location, current profiles, properties of the sea bottom soil,
topography of the sea bottom, and shallow geological hazards.
The minimum requirement of the survey includes following instruments:
1. sparkers (Acoustic signal)

2. sub-bottom profilers (Physical Properties)
3. side-scan sonar (high frequency sound pulses)
4. fathometers
5. gravity corers (Sediment Extractor)
Wind and current measurements for several months would be carried out at a proposed
location about one year ago before operations.

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History of Offshore
1. 1st offshore well was drilled in 1947 in 15 feet of water in (Louisiana, USA).
2. 30 years ago, a deepwater operation implies exploring water depths up to 500 feet.
3. Today, deepwater refers to a well in up to 5,000 feet (1524m) of water .
4. Ultra-deepwater exploratory drilling now occurring in water depths over 5000 ft to 10,000
feet. i.e.,( 1524m to 3048m)
5. The challenges in ultra deep reserves are more complicated than exploring space.

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Classification of water depths
Shallow water generally refers to a depth less than 1000ft (304.8m).
Deep water refers to a depth greater than 1000ft (304.8m) and less than 5000ft (1524m).
Ultra-deepwater refers to a depth greater than 5000ft (1524m).

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Record depths achieved in Onshore/Offshore
Onshore
1. The scientific research well “SG-3” in Russia reached the depth of 12,263 m in 1988,
has had the depth record ever since.
2. The deepest exploration drilling for hydrocarbons was carried out to the depth of
9583 m in the United States of America in 1974.
Offshore
1. A hydrocarbon exploration well was drilled offshore Brazil in 2965 m of water in
2001.
2. A production well was completed with a subsea completion system offshore Brazil
in 1852 m of water in 1998.
The offshore technology is steadily in progress towards deeper and deeper seas to search and
produce subsea resources for the future welfare of the world.

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As per SPE publication:
“Since 1947, the offshore industry has moved from the first platform out of sight of
land to safely producing in 7,000 feet (2,100 meters) of water and safely drilling in
10,000 feet (3,050 meters) of water.”
The industry is still learning, and there is more to come…

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Offshore Drilling Structures
Technical Features of Offshore Drilling
1. Because of the location remote from infrastructure, offshore rigs also carry
on board a number of service systems such as cementing, geophysical logging,
and so on.
2. In addition, there are lots of specific services on board such as divers,

meteorological measurements, helicopter, etc.
3. Accommodations and catering for crews working for 24 hours are required
on the rig.
All these factors make offshore rigs complex and sophisticated, and therefore
offshore drilling costs are higher than land drilling costs for similar depth wells.

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There are two basic types of offshore drilling rigs:
1. Rigs that can be moved from place to place, allowing for drilling in
multiple locations.
2. Rigs that are permanently placed.

Moveable rigs are often used for exploratory purposes because they are much cheaper
to use than permanent platforms.
Once large deposits of hydrocarbons have been found, a permanent platform is built to
allow their extraction.

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Different types of moveable offshore platforms:
Rigs that can be moved from place to place, allowing for drilling in
multiple locations (Mobile bottom- supported and floating rigs).
1. Drilling Barges.
2. Jack-Up Rigs.
3. Submersible Rigs (swamp barges).
4. Semisubmersible Rigs (Anchor-stationed or dynamically positioned).
5. Drillships (Anchor-stationed or dynamically positioned ).

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Drilling structures used for developing offshore fields from stationary
platforms are of two types:
Rigs that are permanently placed.
1. Self-contained platforms: (The large production platform equips a complete set of

drilling equipment, and is called as self-contained platform)
2. Tender or jack-up assisted platforms or well-protector jackets :The small platform

has a space only to accommodate derrick and draw works, so a kind of tender
assists the work)

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Guidelines
To choose roughly the type of offshore drilling rigs according to water depth and conditions of
sea state and winds:
Water depth less than 25 m: Submersible rigs (swamp barges).
Water depth less than 50 m and calm sea: Tender or Jack-up assisted platforms.
Water depth less than 400 m and mild sea: Self-contained platforms.
Water depth from 15 m to 150 m: Jack-up rigs.
Water depth from 20 m to 2000 m: Anchored Drillships or Semisubmersible rigs.
Water depth from 500 m to 3000 m: Drillships or Semisubmersible rigs with dynamic
positioning system.
Isolated area with icebergs: Drillships with dynamic positioning system.
Severe sea conditions: Semisubmersible rigs or new generation Drillships .

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Mobile Bottom-supported Structures
1. Jack-up Drilling Rigs (Jack-up Rigs, Self-elevating Drilling Rigs)
2. Submersible Drilling Rigs (Submersible Rigs, Swamp Barges)
3. Tender-Assisted Platforms and Tenders

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Floating Offshore Structures (Floaters)
Neutrally buoyant structures which are dynamically unrestrained and are allowed to have 6
degrees of freedom (heave, surge, sway, pitch, roll and yaw) are:
1. Drillships.
2. Semisubmersible Drilling Rig (centre of buoyancy is typically above the centre of gravity).
3. Spars (centre of gravity is greater than its centre of buoyancy, hence it is intrinsically stable).
Positively buoyant structures which are tethered to the seabed and are heave-restrained are:
1. Tension Leg Platforms (TLPs)
2. Tethered Buoyant Towers (TBTs)
3. Buoyant Leg Structures (BLS)

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Offshore structures for drilling Offshore structures for production
1 Platform Rigs 1 Fixed Platforms

a) Steel Jackets
b) Concrete gravity-based structures
2 Mobile Offshore Drilling Units 2 Floating Production Systems

a) Drilling Tenders a) Semisubmersibles
b) Jackups b) Tension-leg Platforms
c) Submersibles c) Spar Platforms
d) Semisubmersibles d) Ship-Shaped FPSO’s
e) Drillships
For drilling as well as production these units are modified for dual function. (Excluding TLP
and SPAR, because of limited motions these are suitable for surface-completed wells only)
Example for Drilling, production & Storage in 1 unit is FPDSO (Floating Production Drilling
Storage & Offloading) (vessel motions is the only hesitation for its development)
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Largest Offshore Structures

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Various types of Offshore Structures

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General Classification of Structures:
(I) Bottom-Supported Structures
(II) Compliant Structures
(III) Floating Structures

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1. Minimal Platforms: Field development in shallow water uses fixed production
platforms with a small deck.
Example minimal
platform concepts
(LINX, MANTIS II and
TRIPOD) for
marginal field

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2. Jacket Structures:
Fixed jacket structures (or template
structures) consist of tubular members
interconnected to form a three-dimensional
space frame

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3. Gravity Base Structures:

Offshore structures that are placed on
the seafloor and held in place by their
weight are called gravity structures.

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Gravity Base Structure

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4. Jack-ups:
The jack-up barges are typically three-legged structures having a deck supported on their
legs. The legs are made of tubular truss members. The deck is typically buoyant.
5. Subsea Templates:
Subsea technology covers a wide range of offshore activities. Examples are subsea Xmas
trees, manifolds, templates, flowlines and risers, control systems, well fluid boosters,
multiphase pumping and metering, water separation, water injection, remote and diverless
connections, guideline-free installations, seabed electrical power distribution systems,
interventions, etc.
6. Subsea Pipelines:
Subsea pipelines are used to transfer oil from the production platforms to storage facilities
or to the shore.

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Jack-Up Drilling Rig with Triangular Shape and 3 Legs (JDC Hakuryu 8) (Reproduced Courtesy of
Japan Drilling Co.)
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There are two basic leg configurations of jack-up rigs:
1. Independent-leg type for relatively firm seabed:

Each independent leg has a spud can on the end. The
leg penetrates soil below the mud line, i.e. the sea
bottom. The penetration depends on the composition
of the soil and the shape of spud can.
2. Mat-supported type for soft seabed: Legs is

connected with a mat. The mat rests on the seabed to
stably support the rig. The type is used on flat sea-
bottom in water depth of up to 50 m. The penetration
is slight.

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7. Submersible Drilling Rigs (Submersible Rigs, Swamp Barges)
Submersible drilling rigs consist of upper and lower hulls connected by a network of
posts or beams. The drilling equipment and living quarters are installed on the upper
hull deck.
The lower hull has the buoyancy capacity to float and support the upper hull and
equipment. When water is pumped into the lower hull, the rig submerges and rests on
the seabed to provide a working place for the drilling.
Movement and drilling operations proceed as that of the jack-up rig. Most submerged rigs are
used only shallow waters of 8 to 10 meters.
Ship-shaped submersible rigs are also used, which are called swamp barges.

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Submersible Drilling Rig (Noble FriRodli) (Reproduced Courtesy of Noble Drilling Corporation)
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8. Tender-Assisted Platforms and Tenders

In regions where the weather conditions are not harsh, it is possible to use lower cost fixed
platforms that are designed to support only the derrick and the drawworks.
The tender anchored alongside the platform contains drilling equipment such as pumps and
tubular goods, and accommodation for personnel. A catwalk connects the platform and the
tender.
If weather conditions (wind, swell, and current) become too harsh, the drilling operations must
be shut down due to excessive motion of the tender.
The tender platforms are used in Gulf of Guinea and the Persian Gulf waters where good
weather conditions prevail, resulting in low downtime less than 2% of total operation time.

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Platform (left) and Semisubmersible Tender (right) (Atwood Oceanics SEAHAWK) (Reproduced
Courtesy of Atwood Oceanics, Inc.)
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Compliant structure by definition includes those structures that extend to the ocean
bottom and directly anchored to the seafloor by piles and/or guidelines.
Typically designed to have their lowest modal frequency to be below the wave energy, as
opposed to the fixed structures, which have a first modal frequency greater than the
frequency of wave energy.
1. Articulated Platforms:
One of the earliest compliant structures that started in relatively shallow waters and slowly
moved into deep water.
“Articulated tower is an upright tower, which is hinged at its base with a cardan
joint and is free to oscillate about this joint due to the environment.”
The base below the universal joint on the seabed may be a gravity base or may be piled.
The tower is ballasted near the universal joint and has a large enough buoyancy tank at the
free surface to provide large restoring force (moment).
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2. Compliant Tower:
A compliant tower is similar to a traditional platform and extends from surface to the
sea bottom, and it is fairly transparent to waves.
Compliant tower is designed to flex with the forces of waves, wind and current. It uses less
steel than a conventional platform for the same water depth.
3. Guyed Tower:
A guyed tower is a slender structure made up of truss members, which rests on the
ocean floor and is held in place by a symmetric array of catenary guylines.

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Floating Platform Types:

The floating structures may be grouped as Neutrally Buoyant and
Positively Buoyant.
Neutrally buoyant structures include

Spars, Semi-submersible MODUS and FPSs, Ship-shaped FPSOs
and Drillships.
Positively buoyant structures are TLPs, TLWPs and Buoyant Towers.

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Technologies Required by Floaters:
Outline of Drilling System of

Semisubmersible Rig (Modified from
Sekiyukaihatsu Gijutsu no Shiori (1st
edition). Reproduced Courtesy of
Japan Petroleum Development
Association)

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Technologies Required by Floaters:
The motion compensator is a device to

maintain constant weight on the bit
during drilling operation in spite of
oscillation of the floater due to wave
motion.
Crown Mounted Type of Heave Compensator (Reproduced Courtesy of National Oilwell -

Kristiansand)
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Production Units (FPSO and FPS)
Most floating production units are neutrally buoyant structures (which allows six-degrees
of freedom) which are intended to cost-effectively produce and export oil and gas.
1. FPSO:
The FPSO generally refers to ship-shaped structures with several different mooring
systems.
2. FPS
FPS refers to Floating Production systems which are finding application in marginal
and deepwater field development.

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A computer graphic of a ship-shaped offshore installation (FPSO) with a shuttle tanker offloading
system.
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Drillships
The Larger is a Drillship with Dual-Activity Drilling System (TSF Discoverer Enterprise), and the
Smaller is a Previous Generation Drillship (TSF Discoverer 534) Alongside with a Supply Boat
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3. Semi-Submersible Platform:
Semi-submersibles are
multi-legged floating
structures with a large
deck. These legs are
interconnected at the
bottom underwater
with horizontal
buoyant members
called pontoons.
Semisubmersible Platform
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A computer graphic of a
semisubmersible installation.
A computer graphic of a semisubmersible installation.

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The advantages of semisubmersibles include the following:
1. Semisubmersibles can achieve good (small) motion response and, therefore, can be more
easily positioned over a well template for drilling.
2. Semisubmersibles allow for a large number of flexible risers because there is no
weathervaning system.
Disadvantages of semisubmersibles:
1. Pipeline infrastructure or other means is required to export produced oil.
2. Only a limited number of (rigid) risers can be supported because of the bulk of the tensioning
systems required.
3. Considering that most semisubmersible production systems are converted from drilling rigs,
the topsides weight capacity of a converted semisubmersible is usually limited.
4. Building schedules for semisubmersibles are usually longer than those for shipshaped
offshore structures.
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Semisubmersible (As Drilling Rig)
Semi-submersibles are multi-legged floating structures with a large deck. These legs are
interconnected at the bottom underwater with horizontal buoyant members called pontoons.
Semisubmersibles have submerged pontoons (lower hulls) that are interconnected to the drilling
deck by vertical columns
The lower hulls provide improved stability for the vessel. Also, the open area between the
vertical columns of semisubmersibles provides a reduced area on which the environment can act.
In drilling operations, the lower hulls are submerged in the water about half-length of the column,
but do not rest on the seabed. When a semisubmersible moves to a new location, the lower hulls
float on the sea surface. Semisubmersible rigs are towed by boats, and some rigs have self-
propelled capacity.
On drilling site to keep the position, the anchors usually moor semisubmersibles, but the dynamic
positioning systems are used by new generation semisubmersibles.

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Semisubmersible Drilling Rig
Semisubmersible Drilling Rig (JDC Hakuryu 3) (Reproduced Courtesy of Japan Drilling Co.)
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Because of the reduced heave motion, the use of rigid risers (instead of flexible risers), which are self-buoyant, is easier.

4. Spar:
The Spar concept is a large deep draft, cylindrical floating Caisson designed to support
drilling and production operations. Its buoyancy is used to support facilities above the
water surface.
It is, generally, anchored to the seafloor with multiple taut mooring lines.
Because of the reduced heave motion, the use of rigid risers (instead of flexible risers),
which are self-buoyant, is easier.
Types of Spars:
1. Classic spar
2. Truss spar
3. Cell spar
(Cell spar is3rd generation spar. The hull consists of multiple ring-stiffened tubes, or “cells”,
which are connected by horizontal and vertical plates. This method of construction is
cheaper than the traditional plate and frame methods.)

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SPAR platforms

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5. Tension Leg Platform:

A Tension Leg Platform (TLP) is a vertically moored compliant platform. The
floating platform with its excess buoyancy is vertically moored by taut mooring
lines called tendons (or tethers).
The structure is vertically restrained precluding motions vertically (heave) and rotationally
(pitch and roll). It is compliant in the horizontal direction permitting lateral motions (surge
and sway).

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A computer graphic of a tension leg platform (TLP) installation.
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5.1. MiniTLPs: SeaStar and Moses

SeaStar is a deepwater production and utility mini-platform.
SeaStar is a small TLP with a single surface-piercing column.
It borrows from the concept of the tension leg platform and provides a cost-effective
marginal field application.
Moses MiniTLP appears to be a miniaturized TLP as the deck structure is supported by four
columns and the columns are connected by pontoons.
Motion characteristics of Moses is similar to that of SeaStar and, unlike the standard TLPs,
miniTLPs need to dedicate a large percentage of their displacement (35 - 45%) for
pretension.

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SeaStar Mini TLP
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Bottom-founded vs. floating structures
Function Bottom-Supported Floating
Payload support Foundation-bearing Buoyancy
capacity
Well access “rigid” conduits (conductors) surface "dynamic" risers subsea wellheads
wellheads and controls subsea or surface controls
Environmental Resisted by strength of structure and Resisted by vessel inertia and

loads foundation, compliant structure stability, mooring strength.
inertia
Construction Tubular space frame: fabrication Plate and frame displacement
yards hull: ship yards
Installation Barge (dry) transport and launch, Wet or dry transport, towing to site
upend, piled Foundations and attachment to pre-installed
moorings
Regulatory and Oil Industry practices and Oil industry practices, government
design practices government petroleum regulations petroleum regulations and Coast
Guard & International Maritime
regulations
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Worldwide offshore rigs and offshore production growth.
Worldwide offshore rigs
and offshore production
growth. For more than
20 years, there has been
a direct relationship
between offshore
production and the
number of development
drilling rigs operating, a
trend that is expected to
continue well into the
21st century.

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NATURAL GAS: OFFSHORE PRODUCTION & HANDLING

24 August 2021 School of Chemical Engineering, VIT University. 1

5. Storage and offloading

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

1. Growing global demand for energy.

2. Traditional fields fast exhausting.

3. Declining production & reserves.

4. Pressure to diversify supply.

5. Oil supply jitters.

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

Problems associated with Offshore (deep water) areas are:

2. Reservoir management. 8. Corrosion

3. Source- rock prediction. 9. Wind

4. Formation water properties. 10. Fatigue

5. Granite reservoir characterization. 11. Salinity

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

2. Novel Deepwater technology trends.

5. Forecast for deepwater oilfield services.

7. High temperature High Pressure.

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

Classification of problems encountered in general:

1. Deepwater projects take up to 10 years from discovery to first production.

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

2. Seismic imaging 7. Seismic litho stratiography

3. Seismic signal processing 8. Imaging while drilling

4. 3D seismic characterization of reservoirs 9. Ocean sensor arrays

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

The minimum requirement of the survey includes following instruments:

1. sparkers (Acoustic signal)

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

3. Today, deepwater refers to a well in up to 5,000 feet (1524m) of water .

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

Shallow water generally refers to a depth less than 1000ft (304.8m).

Ultra-deepwater refers to a depth greater than 5000ft (1524m).

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

The industry is still learning, and there is more to come…

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

Technical Features of Offshore Drilling

2. In addition, there are lots of specific services on board such as divers,

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

2. Rigs that are permanently placed.

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

3. Submersible Rigs (swamp barges).

4. Semisubmersible Rigs (Anchor-stationed or dynamically positioned).

5. Drillships (Anchor-stationed or dynamically positioned ).

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

1. Self-contained platforms: (The large production platform equips a complete set of

2. Tender or jack-up assisted platforms or well-protector jackets :The small platform

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

Water depth less than 25 m: Submersible rigs (swamp barges).

Water depth from 15 m to 150 m: Jack-up rigs.

Water depth from 20 m to 2000 m: Anchored Drillships or Semisubmersible rigs.

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

1. Jack-up Drilling Rigs (Jack-up Rigs, Self-elevating Drilling Rigs)

2. Submersible Drilling Rigs (Submersible Rigs, Swamp Barges)

3. Tender-Assisted Platforms and Tenders

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

1. Tension Leg Platforms (TLPs)

2. Tethered Buoyant Towers (TBTs)

3. Buoyant Leg Structures (BLS)

Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT

1 Platform Rigs 1 Fixed Platforms