EngineeringGeophysics4thstagelecturesDr WadhahM Shakir

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Lectures in Engineering Geophysics
Method · December 2020
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Wadhah Mahmood Shakir Al-Khafaji

ALKARKH UNIVERSITY FOR SCIENCE
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Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific
Research
Al-Karkh University of Science
College of Geophysics and Remote Sensing
Department of Geophysics
Engineering Geophysics
Lectures Prepared and Edited by:
Dr. Wadhah Mahmood Shakir AL-Khafaji
PhD. In Geophysics
Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

College of Geophysics and Remote Sensing, Department of Geophysics
The Electrical Resistivity Methods and Engineering Applications
The resistivity methods engineering applications are so various since this

method is so effective in geophysical exploration. Briefly, the main applications
of this method are:
1- Earthling surveys
2- Detecting Lateral changes of soil properties.
3- Detecting faults and weakness zones at structures foundation before and
after construction.
4- Detecting groundwater table, aquifers thickness and its physical
properties and groundwater pollution with salts and hydrocarbons.
5- Exploring subsurface sources of mineral ores.
6- Detecting underground seepages near earth filled dams and sewer
leakages and groundwater pollution with chemical fluid seepages.
7- Detecting subsurface archeological remains.
8- Monitoring subsurface seepages for environmental applications.
1-Earthling Survey: is the most required survey for most civil structures and
transporting pipes. There are more than one specification standard for
conducting such survey such as G57, EEE8. Winner and Schlumberger
configurations are used with special electrode spacing in order to detect the
depth, thickness and conductivity of a low resistivity subsurface layer. The
engineers use the resistivity readings directly in certain equations in order to
identify the low resistivity layer and use it for earthling. According to the
resistivity value the engineer choose the best earthling design. In infra structures
such as power plants, power stations, electrical railways, and highways a
complete survey by using the resistivity method is required. The area should be
covered by a network and the survey should be to a certain depth. In this case
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the interpretation for the resistivity data is important. The vertical and horizontal
changes in the resistivity should be identified. Cross sections and maps at
different depths will be very helpful for the engineer to choose the suitable
earthling design.
In areas of Baghdad or other southern cities the soil resistivity is not a problem
since the water table is high and the salinity of the soil is high. But in the
northern and western parts the low resistivity layers cannot be found easily and
some time they need to drill boreholes of tens of meters or choose a very
complicated earthling design.
Earthling survey is also required for cathode protection. This usually needed for
transporting pipes, railways, bridges, to prevent fast corrosion of metals. Such
survey should be conducted along the pipe (or any structure) as a resistivity
profile. The geophysicist should put a plan for such survey which should be with
minimum coasts and efforts. Where ever there is a soil facies changes, then it is
required to perform the resistivity survey. The depth of such surveys is usually
few meters below the structure itself.
2-Detecting lateral changes of soil properties: Lateral changes in soil physical

properties, is probably mean lateral changes in soil engineering properties. This
is quite dangerous for the civil structures since it will give differential
settlement. The profiling technique by using the resistivity method can detect
such lateral changes. The depth of such test depends on the distance between the
two current electrodes. However, for infra-structure a complete resistivity
survey for the site is required. This can be done as many profiles or as a surface
network of surveying data. The geophysicist should be able to put the right plane
for such survey. The results should be geo-electric sections and contour maps.
Such soil problems become very announced in the northern parts of Iraq where

you have dipping layers of Lower Fars and Upper Fars formations or different
types of the alluviums with secondary gypsum. In the middle and southern parts
such problem usually can be found near the rivers and old canals.
3-Detecting faults and weakness zones in structures foundation before and

after construction: Active faults can be a real problem for infra structures.
Active faults could be detected easily by resistivity surveying since they leave
some indications in the covered soil. Along these faults usually you can find
weakness zones and cavities. Resistivity sounding and profiling techniques can
detect such features. The north eastern transversal faults are the most active
faults in Iraq. It can be found in the northern parts and even in the western parts
of Iraq. In the southern parts they are still active too, This is in Kut , Amara and
Basrah. The effects of such faults can be considerably dangerous for dams,
canals, transporting pipes, railways, bridges.
4-Detecting groundwater table, aquifers thickness and physical properties

and groundwater pollution with salts and hydrocarbons: The resistivity
methods are the best for detecting the groundwater table particularly when we
are talking about depths of tens of meters. However with the Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR) method the detecting of the groundwater table is much easier. For
dams and its their reservoirs it is rather necessary to identify the water table in
the early stages of the dam construction. The reservoirs surface water will affect
the ground water of the surrounding areas. It will change the underground water
system of the dam and reservoirs areas.
In some engineering projects the ground water can be essential for such projects.
The projects itself cannot be accomplished if there is no enough good quality or
quantity of groundwater. The geophysicist here should be able to explore for the
groundwater and it is productivity. This case is quite common in Iraq and in all

regions that are away from the rivers or surface water resources. The resistivity
method could also be applied for zoning aquifers of fresh and saline
groundwater, or to delineate the groundwater aquifers which are polluted with
salts or hydrocarbons which may affect the environment and agriculture.
5-Exploring subsurface sources of mineral ores and construction raw

materials: For infra structures the existing of raw materials at the
surrounding areas is one important factor for executing the project. The raw
building materials can be found on the surface or subsurface. In both cases
the resistivity tests can identify the economic volume , quality and the
extension of subsurface raw materials. It is the geophysicist duty to put the
right survey design by using the resistivity method which should give clear
results. Mineral ores like phosphate mineral for example is also detectable by
applying the resistivity method, resistivity maps , profiles and geoelectrical
sections represents an effective tools to detect such subsurface ore bodies and
their economic volumes.
6-Detecting underground seepages near earth filled dams and sewer

leakages and groundwater pollution with chemical fluid seepages:
seepages produced by factories, canals, dams, cause engineering and
environmental problems. Subsurface seepages are detectable by applying the
resistivity surveys. The industrial seepages usually have special properties
that can easily to be detected by resistivity tests. However such materials
could be of high conductivity (Very low resistivity) which takes the injected
current and leave the instrument readings as negative values. In this case you
cannot apply the known methods of interpretation, but you can use this
behavior as indicator for the seepage. Nevertheless, using resistivity methods
inside industrial places cannot give correct results. The underground pipes,

cables and metal objects can create a real problem for such tests. The
geophysicist must have a good experience in order to overcome these
problems.
7-Detecting subsurface archeological remains:
For any infra-structure site there should be an archaeological survey. The

resistivity survey can be used for such prospecting. It should be along profiles or
sounding as a network. In the traditional methods however the main target is to
detect the lateral variation of the subsurface properties. Archaeological buried
remains and features may consist of conductive or resistive materials which
make it easy to be detected in some certain depths. This can be done by applying
resistivity profiling and mapping across the surveyed area of interest.
1- Monitoring subsurface seepages for environmental applications.
Monitoring and environmental studies: monitoring means that you have to

take periodical readings for comparison. These tests are needed for
environmental studies to detect the influence of artificial activities. It is also
applicable for seepage from dams, pipes, and canal. The problem in such tests is
that you should do the readings exactly at the same place and with same
configurations. Sometimes this cannot be the situation, i.e. the same conditions
at each measurement. But with the new advanced technology now this kind of
monitoring can be done much easier. With the new 2D and 3D imaging
techniques the periodical measurements can be programmed or even controlled
through the internet communications. The electrodes can be installed at fixed
positions and the readings can be taken every while and send to the interpreter.
Such tests have been done in many places of the world. One can be shown here
along the dam axis for monitoring the seepage, figure (1-a).

Environmental pollution from factories and refineries can be detected by
resistivity methods too. Usually such pollution has special property of
mineralized subsurface fluids. It shows different resistivity values. The
geophysicist should choose the best configuration and put the best plan to detect
such kind of pollutions.
Figure (1-a) : detecting subsurface seepages along a small earth filled dam.

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Seismic Reflection and Refraction methods
For reflection methods the engineering applications are very limited as

following:
1- For identifying the soil cover or the depth of the hard rock’s particularly
in Dam axis locations where the dam body should lay directly on hard
foundation rocks.
2- For the identification of subsurface faults depth and extension especially
for infra-structures like dam and its reservoir. With a suitable energy
source the depth of investigation can be much more than that detected by
applying the refraction method. In addition, the low velocity layers can be
hidden when using the refraction method, so the morphology of the hard
rock’s can be much obvious with reflection method than that of refraction
method.
3- For mining investigations particularly of high depth the reflection
methods can give good results.
4- Ultrasonic survey for lakes and revisers bottom where a continuous source
(transmitter) sending waves then received by receivers. Now days,
however this technology has substituted by advanced ultrasonic methods
which sends electromagnetic waves of low frequencies which able to
penetrate the bottom sediments up to 200 meters. With the Global
Positioning System GPS and sophisticated software the survey can be
done very easily and the results can be presented as cross sections (2D) or
in map (3D).
Accordingly the reflection methods have limited application for engineering

purpose and even their instrumentation is limited too. ABEM, Sweden
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manufacturer has made (RAS 24 and 48) as a portable seismic reflection
instrument mainly for engineering and mining applications.
For Refraction seismic method s there are many engineering applications. This
method is working for shallow depths where most engineering applications are.
The main applications are:
1- For identifying the soil cover or the top weak soil layer.
2- For locating the cavities or lateral changes in the soil constituents
3- For locating the subsurface faults or weakness zones
4- For identifying the ground water table. This quite important particularly
for the soil where the groundwater change the seismic velocity greatly.
5- For identifying the P-wave and S-wave velocities of the subsurface rock
layers. These velocities can be used to determine the main dynamic elastic
moduli.
6- For locating and estimating the size of the subsurface construction
materials.
7- To identify the morphology and hardness of subsurface rock layers this
considered as the foundations for infrastructure.
The new technology has come with very easy and powerful instrumentation that
reveals the subsurface features quite clear. Instruments for seismic refraction
survey try to show the data and the results directly on the instrument screen. It
gives the operator a real chance to see the data and results before moving to
another location. In some of these instruments the operator can do the filtering
directly in the field and the picking for the first seismic wave arrivals and even
to calculate the subsurface layers velocities and thicknesses.
The seismic refraction instruments come with 12, 24, 48 channels. Usually each
cable of 12 geophones takes out come on one reel. The spacing between one
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geophone and another depends on the instrument and the manufacturer. ABEM
for example makes the inter-distance of 12.5 meters. In this case the operator
can work with inter-distance of 1 to 12.5 meters.
For the survey itself you can choose the suitable method, but the new technology
permit the surveyor for 2D and 3D. For example you can use the 24 channel for
roll along survey method. In this method the total spreading line move certain
distance, which usually two third of the spreading distance. This will give a
continuous survey with 1/3 overlap. The overlap depends on the type of the
survey and the details wanted. In this roll along method the survey section
length can be unlimited. The limitation however will depend on the
interpretation software. The software here is very important to take all the data
and connected to produce one cross section. The depth of the survey is mainly
depending on the distance between the energy source and the geophones. In roll
along survey method this distance always kept constant.
For 3D survey the geophone spreading can be arranged to cover the whole area.
The data of this survey can be handled by sophisticated software. With this
software you can do the filtering and connection for all spreading and get the 3D
results. Some of these software are:
GPR / Reflection seismics 2D

REFLEXW 1 containing 2D data - analysis
GPR / Reflection seismics 2D / 3D
- containing 2D data analysis
REFLEXW 2 - 3D data interpretation
Refraction / Reflection seismics&
GPR 2D
REFLEXW 3 - containing 2D data analysis
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- modelling with wavefield
simulation
- traveltime inversion
Complete reflection / refraction 2D /
3D
containing 2D data - analysis
- refraction traveltime analysis
- CMP processing, 3D data
interpretation
- FD forward modelling /
REFLEXW 4 tomography
Seismic Refraction Field work
The field work can be arranged following the target of the survey and depth of
the survey. When we use the full standard spreading of the 12.5 meters inter-
distance, then the total spreading length 137.5 meters. The energy source should
be 12.5 meters away from the first and last geophone. This will give 150 meters
length which means the depth of investigation is about 50 meters. Usually there
are two hammer (weight drop) strikes at both ends of the spreading. A middle
strike is preferable too. By this way you can easily calculate the depth beneath
each strike. The subsurface morphology of the layers can be detected in this
way.
The most important application for engineering purpose is to find the shear wave
velocity and the elastic dynamic moduli. Both P-wave and S-wave should be
measure. In Iraq soil and particularly for the middle and south part where the
soil is silty clay or sand clay the energy source should be enough to reach the
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end of the spreading. But this can be not happen. The attenuation is too high for
such soil and usually we have to use a heavy weight drop to ensure enough
energy. The problem here you can get the P-wave but not the S-wave. The
seismic record should have the first arrival which is the p wave following by S-
wave. This is not easy and mostly not the case. It is very difficult to distinguish
between the S-wave or the reflected waves. The modern instruments can easily
monitor the background noise and automatically change the geophone gain to fit
the conditions of the working area. But again the geophone will recorded the
first arrival and all waves that reach afterword. Because the S-wave velocity is
too low for clay and silty clay the reflected and direct wave seismic waves can
reach the geophones prior to the S-wave. In other ward it will be very difficult to
tell if this is the S-wave or not.
To detect the S-wave we have to create horizontal strike and use S-wave
geophones. The maximum distance we can get for this kind of energy is around
60 meters. This is true for the silty clay soil of Iraq which also rich in gypsum
and salt grains. On the seismic record the S-wave will represent as the first
arrival. It can be recognized from the wave sign. It should show positive on one
end strike and negative on the other end.
Table No. 3 seismic refraction velocities and the average elasto-dynamic parameters for
the two layers
Profile . Soil Thickness Density Vp (m/sec) Vs (m/sec) Poisson Young Bulk Shear
No 3
Layers (meters) (kN/m ) Ratio Modulus E Modulus Modulus G
(MPas) (MPas)
K (MPas)
Average Average Average Average Average Average Average

st
1 1 Layer 2.8 to 3.6 20.07 1070.0 512.5 0.35 1469.6 543.73 1649
nd
2 More than 21.01 1677.0 870.0 0.31 4182.45 1591.45 3786.86
Layer 9.0 meters
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st
2 1 Layer 20.07 1224.0 505.0 0.39 1475.5 527.99 2397.2
nd
2 More than 21.01 1666.0 835.5 0.33 3907 1466.67 3875.8
Layer 8.0 meters
st
3 1 Layer 3.7to 4.2 20.07 645.0 334.0 0.31 608.6 213.17 553.34
nd
2 More than 21.01 1971.0 896.5 0.37 4634.49 1691.87 5925.95
Layer 8.0 meters
st
4 1 Layer 3.7 to 4.4 20.07 755.0 365.0 0.37 755.49 281.58 813.51
nd
2 More than 21.01 1909.0 926.0 0.34 4827.35 1805.07 5266.5
Layer 8.0 meters
st
5 1 Layer 4.2 to 5.2 20.07 655.0 321.0 0.33 572.75 213.42 603.75
nd
2 More than 21.01 1180.0 626.5 0.3 2156.82 824.92 1868.26
Layer 8.0 meters
st
6 1 Layer 5.9 to 6.6 20.07 767.0 367.5 0.35 726.28 279.9 845.46
nd
2 More 21.01 1517.5 669.0 0.37 2582.28 941.45 3604.85
Layer than7.0
meters
st
7 1 Layer 2.7 to 3.3 20.07 712.0 332.0 0.35 620 228.49 754.26
nd
2 More than 21.01 1742.0 826.0 0.35 3865.75 1440.04 4467.65
Layer 9.0 meters
st
8 1 Layer 2.8 to 3.6 20.07 951.0 417.0 0.38 1023.7 370.38 1462.67
nd
2 More than 21.01 1797.0 777.5 0.36 3654.75 1270.5 4283.1
Layer 8.0 meters
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SEISMIC METHOD \ SURFACE WAVE METHOD FOR
GEOTECHNICAL APLICATION
The seismic survey is one form of geophysical survey that aims at measuring the
earth’s (geo-) properties by means of physical (-physics) principles such as
magnetic, electric, gravitational, thermal, and elastic theories. It is based on the
theory of elasticity and therefore tries to deduce elastic properties of materials
by measuring their response to elastic disturbances called seismic (or elastic)
waves.
Figure (1): Schematic of overall field setup for a seismic survey.
A seismic source-such as sledgehammer-is used to generate seismic waves,

sensed by receivers deployed along a preset geometry (called receiver array),
and then recorded by a digital device called seismograph (Fig. 1). Based on a
typical propagation mechanism used in a seismic survey, seismic waves are
grouped primarily into direct, reflected, refracted, and surface waves (Fig. 2).
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Figure (2): Major types of seismic waves based on propagation
There are three major types of seismic surveys: refraction, reflection, and
surface-wave, depending on the specific type of waves being utilized. Each type
of seismic survey utilizes a specific type of wave (for example, reflected waves
for reflection survey) and its specific arrival pattern on a multichannel record
(Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. A field record and interpretation of different seismic events based on

the arrival pattern. Fig. 4. (Below) Illustration of active versus passive waves and
inline versus offline waves.
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Seismic waves for the survey can be generated in two ways: actively or
passively. They can be generated actively by
using an impact source like a sledgehammer or passively by natural (for
example, tidal motion and thunder) and cultural (for example, traffic) activities.
Most of the seismic surveys historically implemented have been the active type.
Seismic waves propagating characteristics within the vertical plane holding
both source and receivers are also called inline waves,
whereas those coming off the plane are called offline waves (Fig. 4).
FIGURE 4
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Surface Waves surveying Method
When seismic waves are generated, there is a special type of wave propagating
along the free surface called surface waves whose penetration depth is
wavelength-dependent; the longer wavelength influences the deeper portion of
the earth (Fig. 1). Because of this property, surface waves are usually dispersive
(Fig. 2), meaning different frequencies have different propagation velocities;
whereas body waves (refraction, reflection, head, etc., waves) rarely take such
property to a noticeable extent. Two types of surface waves are generally
known: Rayleigh and Love waves. The disturbance (vibration) direction of the
former is mainly perpendicular to the surface, whereas it is parallel for the latter.
Theoretically, the dispersion property of surface waves is determined by several
elastic properties including density (ρ), and depth-variation of S- and P-wave
velocities (Vs and Vp). Among these parameters, the depth-variation of Vs is
the most influencing factor. Because of this, surface waves are often used to
deduce Vs properties of near-surface earth materials. In comparison to using
conventional body-wave methods to achieve similar Vs information (for
example, S-wave refraction, reflection, down-hole, cross-hole surveys), the
surface-wave method has several advantages:
 Field data acquisition is very simple and tolerant because surface waves
always take the strongest energy.
The data processing procedure is relatively simple and easy even for the
non-experienced.
 A large area can be covered within a relatively short time period.
 Because of all above reasons, it is highly cost effective and time efficient.
Utilization of surface waves for geotechnical engineering purposes has a history

dating back to the early 1950s. Since the early 2000s a multichannel approach
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called the MASW (multichannel analysis of surface waves) method has been
widely used.
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Cross Hole Seismic Shooting Method
For this method a transmitter and a receiver is used. Both should be placed in
two holes. The transmitter is usually an electric spark that produced from
powerful capacitor. And for the most reliable results there should be an
orientation for the transmitter and receiver, which can be done by magnetic
compass on the surface.
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Method of survey:
1- Borehole to borehole shooting at same level

2- Borehole to borehole shooting at different level (Vertical Fan shape
coverage)
3- Borehole to two boreholes shooting
4- Borehole to multi boreholes shooting (horizontal fan shape coverage).
In all of the above methods the targets are the P-wave and S-wave velocity
measurements. However, using sophisticated software the readings converted to
images. These images can show the defect area quite easy.
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The seismic crosshole test provides dynamical soil parameters down to depths of
100 or 150 m based on the determination of wave velocities. Seismic waves are
generated in a source borehole and recorded in a receiver borehole.
The focus of the crosshole test is on the determination of the shear wave velocity
(s-wave velocity). Therefore s-wave source has to be applied (e.g. a s-wave
sparker or a borehole hammer). A borehole geophone is installed in the receiver
hole and tightly coupled to the borehole walls by means of a pneumatic
packer. A good coupling is needed since s-waves cannot be transmitted by the
groundwater only. Example signals:
Source and receiver are always installed at same depths and moved parallel
along the boreholes to achieve a velocity profile with depth. The usual vertical
spacing between two measuring points is 1 to 2 m. The shear modulus (i.e. the
dynamic stiffness) can be calculated if a value of the material density is
assumed.
The measurements can be performed below and above the groundwater table. A
grouted casing (e.g. PVC) with a diameter between 3 and 6 inch needs to be
prepared. Typical surface distances between source and receiver borehole are
between 5 and 20 m.
Cross Hole And Down Hole Seismic Method

The surface seismic methods cannot give the exact seismic velocities of the
subsurface later for many reasons. These methods measure in average the
velocities which sometimes do not correspond to the actual subsurface situation.
Besides in the existence of the low velocities layers the surface method cannot
identify these layers. In engineering applications it is quite common low velocity
layer can be found beneath the hard layers. The right solution is to go for cross-
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hole seismic methods, in which the seismic velocities can be identified much
better. Though this method is costly and much slower than the surface methods.
CROSS HOLE SEISMIC METHODS:
1- Down hole method:
In this method a special probe consists of three or eight geophones is used. This
geophone usually lowered in borehole which is drilled for such test. The
geophones of this probe usually are one p-wave geophone and the rest are S-
wave geophones. For the two geophones the s-wave are perpendicular to each
other, while for the eight geophone probe the s-wave distributed along the circle.
In the probe there is magnetic compass which is connected to the control units at
the surface. With this compass the orientation of the s-wave can be oriented in
the desired direction. Within the probe itself there is a rubber sector which is
connected to hose. The hose is connected to the surface pump. This is to push
the probe against the well wall. In this case the geophone will pick up the
seismic wave directly from the adjacent soil. The energy source is usually a
hammer strike away from the borehole few meters but at a location related to the
probe orientation. The field procedure starts by lowering the probe meter by
meter. At each step there will be a hammer strike and there will be three traces
on the recording seismograph. One for P-wave and the other two are for the S-
wave. The geophones here measure the first arrival for p and s waves. These
waves can be direct, refracted or reflected waves. By this method the velocities
can be identify at each meter depth.
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2- Dual Down hole seismic method:
Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP) is a common surveying technique to obtain P-

wave and S-wave velocities along a borehole for dynamic soil testing.
Dual Downhole System VSP; The Dual Downhole System consists of two 3C
borehole receiver which are placed at 2m distance to each other in one borehole.
Each borehole receiver contains x,y,z directed geophones. The lowest receiver
does have an in-built magnetic compass for orientation. Receivers are inflated
by air and coupled to the borehole wall.
Typical seismic signals generated at surface signals and travelling to the DDS do
have same trigger time and same source signal. In this case, the first break or
even the maximum amplitude is qualitative good measures for an interval
velocity. Further, the DDS system can be lowered at any desired depth interval
making it possible to obtain interval velocities every meter or less.
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3-Multi-Electrode-Liner System (2"- 3") :
Ominidirectional: ‫تستلم االشارات من عدة جهات‬
Noise and Ground Vibration

Ground vibration can generated from different sources of human activities and
cause real problems. These problems can affect other activities. Environmental
standards have shown that noise should be considered as it is directly affect the
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human civilization. There are special instruments for measuring and monitoring
the vibration
“Vibraloc”isan instrument of ABEM Sweden Manufacturer. The Vibraloc is a
full waveform Blast Vibration Monitor with an integrated tri-axial geophone
system. Airblast recording can be made on a fourth channel using microphone
connected to an external connector.
The individual time history series of seismic (V, L & T) channels and external
airblast channel are stored in built-in memory. The memory stores up to 1000
events with the oldest events automatically replaced by the newest. It is a fully
computerized unit that can continuously record, calculate and save the results.
The vibration levels are usually restricted to direct measurement units (called
engineering units). The frequency range of interest may be small or very large.
Further, the desired parameter for assessment purpose could be displacement,
velocity, or acceleration caused by vibration.
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There are no published standards from international agencies establishing
minimum vibration levels that would cause no damage. These standards vary
from one country to another. The International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) has published vibration criteria in areas such as operating theaters,
residential buildings and office buildings, as environmental limitations.
The ISO vibration criteria can be applied to vibration either originating inside
the building or transmitted into the building from outside. External sources of
vibration can result in vibration of building floors and walls of sufficient
amplitude to interfere with vibration-sensitive activities and be perceptible or
annoying to building occupants.
Traffic-induced ground vibration travels through the ground to adjacent

receivers in a source-path-receiver scenario. In this scenario, each road vehicle
appears physically as a single moving source on the roadway and is modeled as
such. The source of vibration is characterized by the following: the type of road
vehicle, the nature of the pavement surface, the structure of the pavement/sub-
grade, and the alignment of the roadway relative to the receiver.
The assessment of traffic-induced vibration is a very site-specific problem. The

vehicle pavement system is the primary vibration source. Other significant
parameters are the vehicle speed and weight. Away from the roadway, traffic-
induced vibration decreases with increasing distance.
Blasting is potentially the greatest source of ground vibration during heavy

Construction.. However, limited pile driving is anticipated during some phase of
construction. Pile driving is also a source of ground-borne vibration, and
vibration levels generated by the pile driver are largely associated with the type
of equipment used.
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Construction equipment vibration levels indicate that sonic pile drivers may
provide a substantial reduction of vibration level compared to conventional
impact type pile drivers. However, continuous operation of sonic pile drivers or
vibratory pile drivers may be more noticeable even at low vibration levels.
Furthermore, with the use of the pile drivers, the steady excitation of the ground
may increase the resonance response of building components. Impact pile
drivers, on the other hand, produce a high vibration level for a short time with
sufficient time between impacts to allow any resonant response to decay. The
construction contractor should decide the type of driver to use on this project.
The decision would be based on the soil conditions in the area.
Vibration can generated from factories, underground tunnels, power stations,

etc. There are certain limits for these vibrations when we are talking about
human activities. In some places like hospitals using advance magnetic
resonance instruments the vibration can deeply affect the results. Others who use
sensitive balances vibration cause a real problem. The table below showing
some criteria for the vibration limits.
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In one site where there is a very sensitive historical buildings and some
engineering work the vibration were measured in connection to these buildings.
The most important parameter is the velocity of the ground motion should be
with the limit. Sometimes the velocity can be within the limit but the vibration
built up a resonance that ends in disaster. In Example below the three velocity
components are measured but you can notice there is a resonance built up that
could cause a complete damage.
47

Gravity Methods and Engineering Applications
The gravity applications for engineering applications are very limited. It is
mostly related to the subsurface cavities and weak zones. The high ambiguity of
this method makes it not workable for engineering purposes. However it has
been used for detecting the subsurface cavities for many projects sites. In this
way the results can be dependable and by using sensitive gravity meter the
results can be more reliable. But using these methods inside buildings or
48

surrounded by many artificial civil structures the results could be not consider as
reliable.
The gravity survey needs a good leveling and the right corrections. This is
cannot be done easily inside any building. Besides, this method is not fast as the
GPR for example.
The Autograv gravity meter can be considered as the most reliable instrument
for accurate and quick measurements. Like other geophysical instrumentation
this instrument also has the inside computer which helps a lot in the field survey.
For example it has the auto leveling that reduces the time for a measurement
setting. Also you can take one reading and consider it as a base station reading
for all other readings. In this way all the readings will be relative to the base
station. This will help to identify the gravity anomaly while you are in the field.
There is a screen that could be used for checking the readings. Also the plane for
any survey can be established in the instrument computer so the measurement
stations, their profile number can be all identified in one file. With sophisticated
software all kind of the correction can be done so easily and the data can be
represented as B.A maps or sections. Theoretical modeling can be done also to
predict the subsurface structures. The instrument itself is equipped with GPS.
However this GPS is not the differential one though you can replace it by the
differential GPS. With normal GPS the errors usually is few meters. Such kind
of error can be neglected for regional survey but for engineering purpose you
have to have the differential GPS or an accurate topographic survey.
For infra structures site the gravity survey can be useful to detect the
subsurface lateral changes but with no exclusive results. The Seismic or
resistivity methods can detect the subsurface cavity but with detail gravity
49

survey the depth and size of this cavity can be identified more clearly. This
needs an experience in the field survey and the interpretations too.
Magnetic Method and Engineering applications

This method is also of limited applications for engineering purposes just like the
gravity method. However the magnetic method can be real useful for detecting
the archeological remnants. The new development in the instruments
manufacturing has given this method some engineering applications. The cesium
magnetometer is known to be much accurate than the proton one. The accuracy
reaches to 0.01 Gamma. This instrument is also can do continuous
measurements. With the continuous measuring mode one can use this instrument
to detect the subsurface metal materials. For the normal survey one can do the
50

continuous measuring on profiles. These profiles can be processed immediately
after finishing the field measurements. The results can be represented as contour
map on the screen of the instrument.
In Iraq the magnetic survey may be needed for new projects sites particularly
in the south. A quick survey looking for buried metals is required for many infra
structures. The magnetic method can be used for preliminary detection. This can
be followed by other geophysical method for the right location and dimension.
Sometimes the preliminary detection is quite enough. There is also another
application for this method which is the exploration for buried ships and metals
under in the rivers bed. In the south of Iraq the buried objects are real problems
for future civil work.
It is very important to know that magnetic method should be applied in areas of

free of any artificial materials. In other word it cannot be used near buildings,
factories or other civil structures. So it can be used for choosing and inspection
of new project site.
51

Ground Penetrating Radar Technique
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a geophysical measurement technique, non

destructive test method, which used to scan the shallow targets (tens of meters),
where is distinguished by high resolution, accurate information and rapid
survey. The basic of this technique depending on sends out pulses of
highelectromagnetic energy (in frequency range 10-2700 MHz) into the ground
from an antenna, and then listens for reflections for a small amount of time.
GPR reflections are generated when a pulse hits an object or layer with different
electromagnetic properties.
The development of this technique was rapid during past 15-20 years ago in
technology, technique and rank of applications. There are about 40 applications
of this method are listed by Reynolds (1997) within the following fields:
1. Geology and hydrology

2. Engineering and construction
3. Environment
4. Archeology
5. Forensic science
6. Glaciology
GPR methods has even used for detecting the river cross-section bottom. Pipe
lines or buried objects in river beds have been detected by GPR. However the
river water salinity should be lower than 500 PPM in order to have good results.
Ground penetrating radar, is one of the exploration techniques that use certain
part of radio band (VHF-UHF) for detecting underground bodies and targets at
different depths. It uses the seismic reflection techniques.
52

The velocity of the E. M. wave V can obtain by many terms, but the relation
with dielectric constant gives the common form of V:
Where: c is the E. M. velocity in free space (0.2998  0.3 m/ns), and  is the
dielectric constant of the medium.
Loss of Electromagnetic Energy:
The decreasing in strength of radio wave signals is controlled by many factors.

A fundamental cause of the loss of energy is the attenuation. As GPR signals
travel through the ground, they are attenuated at a rate determined by the
dielectric constant of the ground. The attenuation of radar wave increases with
frequency and dielectric constant as the water content increases. In soil ground,
the attenuation of the radar signal in the soil depends strongly on both soil water
content and soil solid material.
Miller (2001) gives the one-way attenuation loss in decibel* per meter (db/m)
Attenuation Loss = 8.6855d
Where: d = the depth of the reflector, = the attenuation factor
The Resolution of GPR:
The resolution is the ability of the system to distinguish two signals that are
close to each other in time. Resolution indicates how the position and
geometrical attributes of the target can be extracted. The E.M. wave propagates
inside the earth as cone-like shape, and the dimensions of this cone determined
by a number of wave properties such as frequency, velocity and skin depth. The
resolution of a GPR is approximately equal to 1/3 to 1/2 of a wavelength of the
GPR signal.
53

The depth of GPR waves depends on the frequency, dielectric constant and the
attenuation. In general, high frequency means low depth and low frequency
means high depth. Therefore as deeper the GPR wave is as lower resolution it is.
Modes of GPR operation
Radar system can be operating in numerous basic modes depending on

distribution of antenna and the separation between them:
(A)
(B)
Figure 2-14 Shows the operation modes, (A), Reflection profiling, (B), WARR mode,
(modified after Davis Annan, 1989).
54

1- Reflection profiling (common off set single fold reflection profiling):
In this mode, mono-static and bi-static antenna can be used. Where one or more
radar antenna is moved over the ground surface. This mode of surveying is
analogous to seismic reflection profiling.
2-Wide-Angle Reflection and Refraction (WARR):
In this mode, the transmitter is kept at affixed location and the receiver is toward
away at increasing offsets. This method used to obtain an estimate of the radar
signal velocity versus depth in the ground by varying the antenna spacing at a fixed
location and measuring the change of two way travel time to the reflections (Annan,
2001). In this surveying mode, two important points must be taken in the account;
the location of the sounding should be over an area where principal reflectors are
planar and other horizontal or dipping only at very small angles. It is also assumed
that the material properties are uniform and that the reflector characteristics are the
same over the subsurface area over which the WARR sounding is under taken. The
assumption of uniformity of material properties and similarity of reflector
characteristics can avoid by use a preferable deployment is the common midpoint
(CMP).In the mode both the transmitter and receiver are moved away from each
other, so that, the midpoint between them stays at same location.
2.9.1 Transillumination (Radar Tomography):

In this mode, the transmitter and receiver are located on opposite sides of the
medium that under investigation. The method is used underground within mines
and down boreholes as well as is also represented a non-destructive testing (NDT)
in investigation of man-made structures, such as concrete columns and masonry
pillars. It can be down hole or cross hole. The same borehole techniques of the
seismic methods can be applied with the GPR method.
55

Processing of GPR data
The heterogeneity of the soil media causes deformation and not accurate in
GPR signals. This leads to using some processing and filtering techniques to
remove these effects. During the acquisition phase, It is advisable to keep the
filter settings as broadband as possible so that potentially valuable data are not
excluded. Data processing includes four fundamental steps and to product the
final image of the radargram not necessarily use all these steps in processing
path. These four fundamental steps are displayed in the following figure:
56

57

In GPR techniques the instrumentations have made this method quite easy. The
transmitter and receiver are usually connected to a control unit which sends
continuous pulses from the transmitter and picked up from the transmitter. Each
pulse represents a trace which is exactly like seismic trace. These traces are all
represented on the same gram to give radar gram. This radar gram after filtering
can give an image to scanned area. The interpretation of such radar gram also
resembles seismic interpretation methods. It needs the velocity of the propagate
wave. There are many methods to calculate this velocity. The modeling can be
done too for the radargram. Nowadays there are much software which can do the
processing and modeling, but it needs experience.
GPR Instrument
The GPR instrument consists of antennas, control unit, monitor. The best
instrument is that can work with a wide range of antennas. Antennas can be
shielded or unshielded. Antennas frequency can be ranged from 25 MHz to
2700MHz. The shielded antennas are usually used for engineering purposes
while the unshielded are used for geological prospecting where there are no
noise affect the readings.
58

59

60

61

62

63

References
1-Dahlin and Loke 1998 , A 3-D resistivity investigation of a contaminated site

at Lernacken, Sweden,Lund University.
1- https://www.guidelinegeo.com/product/abem-terrameter-ls-2/
2- https://www.guidelinegeo.com/product/mala-el-pro/
3- https://www.guidelinegeo.com/product/mala-groundexplorer/
4- https://americas.guidelinegeo.com/product/abem-vibraloc/
5- https://archive.epa.gov/esd/archive-
geophysics/web/html/general_crosshole_procedures.html
6- Prof. Dr. Basim R. Hijab , 2011, Engineering Geophysics Lectures,
University of Baghdad, College of Science , Department of Geology.
64

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Lectures in Engineering Geophysics

Method · December 2020

Wadhah Mahmood Shakir Al-Khafaji

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Al-Karkh University of Science

College of Geophysics and Remote Sensing

Lectures Prepared and Edited by:

Dr. Wadhah Mahmood Shakir AL-Khafaji

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

The resistivity methods engineering applications are so various since this

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

2-Detecting lateral changes of soil properties: Lateral changes in soil physical

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

3-Detecting faults and weakness zones in structures foundation before and

4-Detecting groundwater table, aquifers thickness and physical properties

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

5-Exploring subsurface sources of mineral ores and construction raw

6-Detecting underground seepages near earth filled dams and sewer

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

7-Detecting subsurface archeological remains:

For any infra-structure site there should be an archaeological survey. The

1- Monitoring subsurface seepages for environmental applications.

Monitoring and environmental studies: monitoring means that you have to

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

For reflection methods the engineering applications are very limited as

Accordingly the reflection methods have limited application for engineering

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

GPR / Reflection seismics 2D

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Seismic Refraction Field work

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Average Average Average Average Average Average Average

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Figure (1): Schematic of overall field setup for a seismic survey.

A seismic source-such as sledgehammer-is used to generate seismic waves,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Fig. 3. A field record and interpretation of different seismic events based on

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Utilization of surface waves for geotechnical engineering purposes has a history

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,

Engineering Geophysics, Dr. Wadhah M. Shakir, AL-Karkh University of Science,