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Geoelectrical investigation of old/abandoned, covered landfill sites in

urban areas: Model development with a genetic diagnosis approach

Article  in  Journal of Applied Geophysics · May 2000

DOI: 10.1016/S0926-9851(00)00011-2

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 Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 Ž2000. 115–150
www.elsevier.nlrlocaterjappgeo

Development of surface-process models and correspondence principles for geophysical

anomalies

Geoelectrical investigation of oldrabandoned, covered landfill

sites in urban areas: model development with a genetic diagnosis
approach
Maxwell A. Meju )
EnÕironmental and Industrial Geophysics Research Group, Department of Geology, UniÕersity of Leicester,
UniÕersity Road, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
Received 21 September 1998; accepted 3 March 2000

Abstract

Geoelectrical methods have an important, albeit difficult role to play in landfill investigations. In the present economic
conditions, with the environmentally sensitive regime, adequate desk-study and model development are essential ingredients
for a successful site investigation of landfills. This paper attempts to develop a genetic investigative model for oldraban-
doned landfill sites where the records of operations are not available. The main elements of the model are the site
boundaries, age and nature of anthropogenic deposits, depth and dip of the layers of refuse and sealing materials, the
integrity and shape of the capping zones or separating walls and basal floor slopes, the position of concealed access roads in
the site, the water table Žor perched water bodies within the refuse. and the presence of leachate. The attendant geotechnical,
hydrogeological, and bio-geochemical constraints at such sites are also incorporated in the model for consistency of practical
solutions to landfill problems. The nature of anthropogenic deposits and the spatial–temporal characteristics of leachates are
reviewed in a geoelectrical context. The analogy between waste degradation and leaching, and the well-known weathering
processes of supergene mineral enrichment and saprolite formation in crystalline rocks is explored, and used to develop a
conceptual resistivity-vs.-depth model for landfill sites. The main tenet of the model is that vertical conductivity profiles will
attain maximum values in the zone of mineral enrichment near the water table and tail-off away from it. This conceptual
resistivity model is shown to be consistent with non-invasive observations in landfill sites in different geographical
environments. Power–law relationships are found to exist between some geoelectrically important hydrochemical parameters
Žfluid conductivity, chloride content and total dissolved solids. in leachates and leachate-contaminated groundwater from
some landfill sites. Since some chemical parameters of fill are known to vary consistently with time, a plausible
hydrochemical and age-deductive scheme for saturated fill is proposed for geoelectrical models of landfills without
significant amounts of metal. Practical suggestions are made for a consistent approach in geoelectrical investigation and
diagnosis of old landfill sites. A few field examples are used to illustrate the diagnosis approach. q 2000 Elsevier Science
B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Landfill sites; Leachate characteristics; Conceptual resistivity model; Geophysics

)
Tel.: q44-116-252-3628; fax: q44-116-252-3918.
E-mail address: mxw@le.ac.uk ŽM.A. Meju..

0926-9851r00r$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 6 - 9 8 5 1 Ž 0 0 . 0 0 0 1 1 - 2
116 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150
1. Introduction
Waste disposal by landfill is very popular,
and the ever increasing demand for larger space
for domestic and industrial wastes from urban
areas makes them a necessary part of the human
cycle of activities. Landfill sites commonly use
the space available in disused quarries or spe-
cial-purpose-built structures but unauthorised
waste disposal in moats Ž defence ditches around
ancient city walls. and dry river channels can
also be found near some urban areas. These
large waste containment facilities are typically
polluted, hence the need for stringent statutory
controls. Unfortunately, not all past landfill op-
erations were adequately controlled or docu-
mented such that the site boundaries, and the
type and volume of fill are unknown in some
covered landfill sites. Moreover, even in con-
trolled sites, the final form and depth extent of
the landfill may not conform to those indicated
in the original plan submitted to the regulatory
authorities during the application for a site li-
cense. Thus, a significant amount of work is
required to accurately define the relevant pa-
rameters of a covered landfill site.
Our interest in landfill sites may lie in assess-
ing the pollution threat they pose since they
may contain hazardous substances. We may also
be interested in gauging their construction feasi-
bility, since some old landfill sites, previously
considered as unattractive or marginal building
land, are now being developed for light indus-
trial and domestic infrastructure as a result of
the decline in heavy industrial activity and the
ever increasing need for urban regeneration in
many old industrialised regions. In standard
landfill site investigations, the usual goals are to
determine the geometrical characteristics Ž size
and shape., the physical properties and the
chemical composition of the fill. Geophysics
has an important albeit difficult role to play in
fulfilling parts of these requirements. For exam-
ple, geophysical methods can furnish useful data
for locating the boundaries of a landfill site and
fill thickness. Physical property distribution in
the subsurface, which may have geotechnical
significance, can be derived from the geophysi-
cal data. Additionally, since some geophysical
methods respond to changes in the physico-
chemical conditions in the subsurface, useful
chemical information may be gleaned from con-
tinuous geophysical site monitoring investiga-
tions. A few confirmatory boreholes may serve
to validate the geophysically derived informa-
tion.
Of the several non-invasive geophysical
methods used in landfill studies Ž see Whiteley
and Jewell, 1992., the electrical and electromag-
netic ŽEM. methods are the most popular owing
to their inherent ability to detect changes related
to variations in fluid content, chemical composi-
tion and temperature in the subsurface, and the
minimum capital and labour outlay required to
use them in small-scale surveys. Since the pres-
ence of saline fluids in the ground enhances its
ability to conduct electrical current, it is possi-
ble to locate a contaminant plume by measuring
the resistivity distribution in the subsurface. The
two main ground resistivity measurement tech-
niques employed in landfill or groundwater con-
tamination studies are the direct current Ž dc.
resistivity methods Ž e.g. Cartwright and McCo-
mas,1968; Warner, 1969; Stoller and Roux,
1973; Klefstad et al., 1975; Barker, 1990, 1992;
Ross et al.,1990; Carpenter et al., 1990a,b, 1991;
Meju, 1993, 1995a,b. and transient electromag-
netic ŽTEM. methods Že.g. Buselli et al., 1988,
1992; Meju, 1993, 1995a. , but the radio- or
audio-frequency magnetotelluric Ž RMT or AMT.
method is rapidly emerging as a powerful tool
for such investigations Že.g. Tezkan et al., 1996.
and the self-potential ŽSP. method is a vital
complement to these other techniques in near-
surface groundwater flow detection work Ž e.g.
Ogilvy et al., 1969; Stierman, 1984. . For land-
fill construction feasibility investigations, a
combined approach involving the seismic re-
fraction method Že.g. Carpenter et al., 1991. is
useful. Note that several other geophysical
methods have been successfully applied in land-
fill characterisation. For example, where there
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150
are appreciable density contrasts between the
fill and the surrounding geological materials
Že.g. Whiteley, 1983; Roberts et al., 1990.,
gravimetric techniques could be used for defin-
ing the geometry and depth extent of the land-
fill. Heterogeneities within the fill Že.g. metal
drums. may be mapped using magnetometric
and ground probing radar ŽGPR. methods Že.g.
Hinze et al., 1990. . The shallow seismic reflec-
tion and GPR methods are undoubtedly the best
geological mapping tools in ideal situations Ž e.g.
Hill and Ali, 1988; Ali and Hill, 1991; Beres
and Haeni, 1991. but old landfill sites constitute
an entirely different target in which the loose
fill is typically associated with poor energy
propagation and the clayey horizons limit the
usefulness of radar signals.
In comparison with the traditional field tech-
niques used in natural resources exploration,
geoelectrical investigation of landfill sites is on
a different scale and requires special attention to
details. To start with, the area under investiga-
tion is often geometrically constrained and be-
deviled by cultural noise, yet the sampling rate
and data quality requirements for target defini-
tion are more stringent. The consequences of
inadequate or unsuccessful site investigation
may be more serious in pollution-related stud-
ies, with insurance or legal connotations. Thus,
in the present economic and legal climate, ade-
quate desk-study and model development are
essential ingredients for a successful cost-effec-
tive geoelectrical investigation of old landfill
sites.
The main thrust of this paper is to develop a
consistent exploration model for anthropogenic
deposits in oldrabandoned sites where the nec-
essary record of operations is no longer avail-
able or never existed, as in the case of unautho-
rised dumping grounds. The model will draw
from current concepts in geotechnics and con-
taminant geochemistry, and stress the complex
geometry of landfill sites, the heterogeneous
material compositions, and the attendant com-
plex biogeomorphic processes in landfill envi-
ronments. The analogy between refuse decom-
117
position processes and weathering of geological
materials will be explored, and used to guide
the development of a conceptual resistivity-vs.-
depth model for old covered landfill sites. The
versatility of this particular model will be tested
using depth soundings from various geographic
regions. In line with the exciting geochemical
observation that some chemical parameters of
landfill leachates vary consistently with age Ž e.g.
Farquhar, 1989; DoE, 1996. , we investigate the
relationships between diagnostic leachate chem-
ical parameters Želectrical conductivity, total
dissolved solids ŽTDS. and chloride content.
and attempt to propose a plausible practical
scheme for fill-age and hydrochemical predic-
tions using surface geoelectrical measurements.
Some illustrative field examples will be pre-
sented in support of the proposed predictive
scheme.
2. Model development
2.1. Characteristics of landfill sites and anthro-
pogenic deposits
Landfill sites are geotechnically classified as
inert sites, urban and low-strength industrial
sites, or high strength industrial Ž or
hazardousrco-disposal. sites, depending on the
type of fill content. Although there will be no
single model that can adequately characterise all
types of landfills, we will adopt a generalised
approach in this paper. To understand how the
attendant processes in landfill environments can
influence our geoelectrical measurements, it is
instructive to examine the consistent features of
models derived from geological, geotechnical,
biological and biogeochemical observations on
landfills Ž plus other contaminated lands. and
rock weathering that can be adopted as the basic
building blocks for any geoelectrical model for
landfill sites. Three main features Ž complex ge-
ometry of landfill sites, heterogeneous material
composition, and complex biogeomorphic pro-
118 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150
cesses in harsh environmental conditions. are
recognised and adapted into a simplified geo-
electric model in this section.
2.2. Geometry of landfill sites
Landfill sites come in various shapes, sizes
and depths, and as previously mentioned, they
may be located in purpose-built facilities, dis-
used softrockrhardrock quarries, opencast coal
mines or other convenient holes in the ground.
They may be situated above, below or astride
the regional water table. In some oldraban-
doned waste disposal sites, a lining of relatively
impermeable material may be present, or the
refuse may be in direct contact with granular or
crystalline geological materials Ždubbed the ge-
omatrix in geotechnical parlance.. In landfill
capping, a soil cover layer is required when
returning the site to agricultural or ammenity
use and steep sided cover systems are often
incorporated in the cover design Ž see Fig. 1. to
maximize the landfill capacity Ž Hall and
Gilchrist, 1995. . The cover system could be
multi-layered in sophisticated waste storage fa-
cilities or single-layered in some old uncon-
trolled landfills. The side slopes of cover sys-
tems commonly vary from about 38 up to a
maximum of 408. In the UK, for example, the
Fig. 1. Common cover types at old landfill sites. Ža.
Steeply sloping side, and Žb. domed cap.
side slopes of the lining system are often re-
quired to be in excess of 208 and ‘‘doming’’ of
capping systems Ž Fig. 1. is common Ž Hall and
Gilchrist, 1995.. There may be basal floor slopes
to promote leachate drainage to sumps but it can
be expected that many pre-regulation landfill
sites may have inadequate basal containment
and leachate collection systems; there will also
be cases where the landfill bottom is neither
graded nor lined. Landfills generally range in
thickness from about 3 to 20 m but deeper sites
Žca. 30 m. are known to exist.
2.3. Nature and characteristics of anthro-
pogenic deposits
Landfill deposits are characterised by com-
plex material composition, non-uniform com-
paction within each layer, non-uniform decom-
position process, non-uniform settlement and
varying pore fluid composition ŽFang, 1995a..
The deposits may be intermixtures of domestic
and industrial wastes, soils and exhumed geo-
logical materials Žsee Table 1. but are geotech-
nically grouped into four classes: inert wastes,
urban Žsanitary or compostable. wastes, low
strength industrial Ž non-hazardous. wastes, and
high strength industrial Žhazardous. wastes. The
composition of urban waste will vary from com-
munity to community, from country to country,
and from season to season ŽFang, 1995a. as
partly illustrated in Table 1.
The wastes in old landfill sites may not be as
well compacted as in modern regulated landfill
practice and will thus have substantial internal
permeability. They will, in general, consist of
degradable and non-degradable materials Žfood
and garden wastes, ashes, paper, textiles, plas-
tics, metals, building waste, mill tailings, or-
ganic liquids etc. but it is their chemical compo-
sition Ž Table 2. that is important when assessing
their potential for groundwater pollution. For
example, the chemical composition of the un-
processed waste from Zagreb in Croatia listed in
Table 1 is 75.8% mineral content and 24.2%
organic matter ŽKovacic et al., 1995. , and its
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150 119

Table 1
Composition Žpercentage by weight. of typical municipal solid wastes. Data taken from Sowers Ž1968.; Yamamura Ž1983.;
Kovacic and Mayer Ž1995.; Sanchez-Alciturri et al. Ž1995a. and Wasti Ž1995.. The superscripts refer to original
classifications at data sources
Types New York City, Osaka, Zagreb, Meruelo, Ankara, Beijing,
USA Japan Croatia Spain Turkey China
Food and garden r 19.3 17.7 23.3 ) 52.0 ) 50.8 ) 45
organic wastes )
Paper, paper board 58.8 37.1 20.5 21.9 8.9 5
Metal 7.6 5.5 2.4 3.2 1.2 1
Glass 8.6 12.3 7.3 4.1 1.4 1
Wood 2.5 2.5 1.1 2.4 –
Textiles, rugs 0.8 4.0 3.8 1.4
Rubber, leather, 0.8 0.3 2.6 b 1)
Žbones b, wood ) .
Plastic 0.8 15.2 10.8 8.3 2.1 1
Earth, ash, cinder 1.4 32.4
Construction rubble 28.2 1.8
Others 6.7 46

influence on groundwater will be dominated by
the amount of heavy metals and trace elements
or the organic acid derivable from the solid
waste. Many potentially hazardous materials find
wide application in industry. For example, poly-
chlorinated biphenyls ŽPCBs. have wide indus-
trial usage due to their high dielectric constant,
fire resistance and thermal stability; they come
under various tradenames — for example
‘‘askarel oil’’ found in some old transformers.
Some of the common industrial wastes are listed
in Table 2. Many of these wastes ultimately find
their resting places in landfill sites. Methylene
chloride, trichloroethylene Ž TCE. , toluene and
m-xylene are among the hazardous organic
compounds most commonly found in landfill
sites.
Since landfills are a complex mixture of an-
thropogenic deposits, their physical properties
would show a wide range of variation. For
example, the density of urban refuse varies from
275 kgrm3 to 6400 kgrm3 depending on the
amount of metal and construction debris it con-
tains Že.g. Knight, 1990; Sharma et al., 1990;
Fang, 1995a; Sanchez-Alciturri et al., 1995b.
but in general, old landfills normally have low
density and seismic velocity ŽWhiteley and Jew-
ell, 1992. . The published resistivity of solid
waste and contaminated substrate range from
1.5 to ca. 20 V m Že.g. Knight et al., 1978;
Laine et al., 1982; Everett et al., 1984; Carpen-
ter et al., 1991. with the associated leachate
being highly conductive Ž Whiteley and Jewell,
1992.. The seismic P-wave velocity of urban
refuse may range from 180 to over 700 mrs
Že.g. Knight et al., 1978; Calkin, 1989; Sharma
et al., 1990. depending on the degree of com-
paction and state of saturation with the cover
material having higher velocities than the under-
lying fill Že.g. Calkin obtained a cover velocity
of 320 mrs and refuse velocity of 180 mrs
over a municipal landfill near Chicago. . Fortu-
nately, these physical properties are often
markedly different from those of the host geo-
logical materials so that geophysical methods
can be used for determining the volumetric
distribution of fill.
2.4. Leachate formation and dispersal
Degradable refuse will decompose with time
into organic andror inorganic soils plus other
byproducts depending on its chemical composi-
120 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150

Table 2
Some industrial wastes commonly buried in landfill sites Žadapted from Fang, 1995a with additions.
Sources Type of wastes Approximate composition
Food and food products
Additives Trimmings Organics and acids
Grain mills Residues
Meatrfish Sludges
Paper and paper products Sludges, pulping Sulphates, organics,
sludges soaps, mercaptans
Soaps, detergents Sludges Surfactants, polyphosphates,
aluminium–copper–oxides
Textile products: silk,cotton, Sludges Acids, alkalis, metallic
wool, synthetics salts, solvents
Leather products Sludges Chrome salts, oils, dyes
Wood and wood products Sludges, residuesr Solvents, preservatives
mill tailings
Paints, varnishes Sludges Metallic salts, toxic liquids
Energy and petroleum Sludges, residues, Hydrocarbons, acids,
coal, nuclear and cindered coking, metallic salts,
petroleum refining fly ash radioactive materials
Metals, fabricatedr Sludges, slag, Sulphur, chlorides,
scrap metals slime, tailings phenols, PCBs, oils,
scrap heap grease, chrome, alkalis,
acids, metallic salts
Miningrmineral processing Sludges, mine Acids, cynanide,
tailings metallic salts
Chemicals, fertilizer Sludges Sulphuric acids,
organo-phosphates,
copper sulphate,
mercury arsenates

tion. Plausible biogeomorphic processes are
summarised here and draws from observations
and concepts in other geoscientific disciplines
Že.g. Schoell, 1980; Levinson, 1980; Perec,
1981; Robinson et al., 1982; Crawford and
Smith, 1984; Jones, 1985; Bennet and Siegel,
1987; Palacky, 1987; Farquhar, 1989; Robinson,
1989; Yong et al., 1992; Bell and Jermy, 1995;
Fang, 1995a,b..
2.5. Mechanical decomposition
Other transient mechanical loads Žsuch as snow,
rainwater and surcharge loads. will also con-
tribute to the settlement process. Owing to the
heterogeneous nature of the usually organic-rich
urban waste, the distribution of settlement will
be non-uniform ŽFang, 1995a. and often leads
to severe fracturing of the top seal of the landfill
cover. The top seal is then highly vulnerable to
erosion and infiltration of rainwater and snow-
melts.

Urban waste deposit undergoes an initial
short-term process of mechanical alteration due
to loading and its bulk density and other physi-
cal properties may change in response to this
preliminary settlement process Ž Fang, 1995a. .
2.6. Physico-chemical and microbial weather-
ing
The decomposition of landfilled wastes by
long-term physico-chemical, chemical Ž notably
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150
hydrolysis, hydration, carbonation, oxidation and
solution. and biological degradation Ž mostly mi-
crobial. processes cause the dissolution or dete-
rioration of landfill materials, gas generation
and production of leachate. Landfill sites pro-
vide ideal environments for bacterial colonies to
grow Ž since nutrients availability, and substrate
composition and temperature requirements are
met. and most bacteria flourish in the aerobic
condition above the groundwater table Ž e.g.
Fang, 1995b. . Initially, the microbial degrada-
tion of landfill materials occurs under aerobic
conditions. As the oxygen becomes depleted by
the microbial activity, anaerobic conditions
rapidly set in and the biodegradation of organic
materials becomes anaerobic. Methane gas is
generated bacterially from the abundant organic
materials under the prevailing anaerobic condi-
tions.
Although it is now widely required in land-
filling that refuse be dynamically compacted Ž to
minimise volume. and then covered by a thin
layer of soil or clayey seal Ž to minimize wind
dispersion. at the end of each operative day,
rainwater ingress commonly takes place in wet
seasons during landfilling and for capped sites,
through cracks in the cover and along contact
points between fill and host material. Infiltrating
rainwater, groundwater, or other liquids dis-
posed of within the wastes will dissolve some
soluble mineral constituents of the landfill once
the absorbent or field capacity of the fill is
exceeded and free drainage of water can occur.
This leaching process may remove the common
mineral elements such as calcium, magnesium,
potasium, nitrogen and phosporous or remove
the bonding materials Ž e.g. clay. resulting in
changes in matrix cement or the ion concentra-
tion within the landfill-porewater system and
consequently causing significant physical prop-
erty changes. The ion exchange reaction,
speeded up by bacterial activity, also causes
changes to the structure and composition of the
landfill–porewater system. ŽFor example, hy-
drogen sulphide may be converted to sulphuric
acid, methane gas may become converted to
121
carbon dioxide and water by microbial
metabolism while the carbon dioxide by-product
may combine with water to form carbonic acid..
The resulting liquid Ž termed leachate. is rich in
fungi, bacteria, inorganic salts and organic mat-
ter; but the compositional trend may be water
and dissolved inorganic salts, water and dis-
solved organic wastes and organic fluids, or
simply organic acids depending on the availabil-
ity of solvent and solute types in the leached
mass.
In terms of availability of solute types, the
bottom ash residues from urban solid waste
incinerators contain considerable amounts of
leachable heavy metals Žlead, zinc, cadmium,
copper, and chromium. and salts Ž Bahout et al.,
1995., and this will be reflected in the composi-
tion of leachate derived from such deposits. If
pyrite is available in wastes containing mine
tailings, it may be oxidised to sulphuric acid
while the decomposition of vegetation may pro-
duce organic acids. PCBs have low solubility in
water, and if present in the landfilled wastes, we
can expect low concentrations of PCBs in the
leachate dissolved phase, but they are more
likely to occur in solid organic matter or in the
oil fraction.
Since higher volumes of water would have
passed through poorly compacted waste materi-
als in old landfill sites compared to modern
compacted landfills, there should be relatively
lower concentrations of chemical constituents in
leachates derived from old landfills with effi-
cient migration processes ŽRadnoff et al., 1992. .
Note that for poorly consolidated or uncom-
pacted wastes at shallow burial depths, and with
inadequate capping, the absorbent or field ca-
pacity may be achieved within only a few years
following initial waste emplacement, thus al-
lowing early generation of leachate. For well
compacted and deeply buried wastes with low
permeability capping, the field capacity may not
be achieved until after several years, but the
waste compression process may facilitate early
formation and expulsion of leachate from the
lower layers of waste into the substrate Ž Lewin
122 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150

et al., 1997 .. Note also that the decomposition
of organic and inorganic solids will be associ-
ated with a fill volume change Žcausing shrink-
age or swelling..
In general, the pore fluids produced from
landfill are mostly acidic, but will vary in com-
position from country to country ŽTable 3. ,
community to community and with season. Bac-
teriogenic methane is formed by fermentation of
organic material in conditions of depleted oxy-
gen supply, and for a given leachate, a number
of chemical changes occur as it evolves from
the aerobic Žacetogenic. stage to the anaerobic
Žmethanogenic. stage Ž Robinson, 1989. ; the to-
tal organic content ŽTOC., total free fatty acids
content or acetone content and TDS are high
during acetogenesis and low during methano-
genesis. That is, the composition of the leachate
will change as the refuse in the landfill ages
ŽFarquhar, 1989. . In general, the leachate from
a young landfill may be characterised by high
levels of organic acids, ammonia and TDS, but
as much of the biodegradable mass is broken
down with time, the concentrations of these
parameters will decrease in the leachate pro-
duced from the ageing landfill Ž see Table 4. .
The leachate may contain toxic or hazardous
substances in solid or gaseous forms and might
show up as high concentrations of chloride, iron
and zinc ions. Those elements with high ionic
mobility generally have the highest concentra-
tion whilst those having low mobility usually
have the lowest concentration in leachates
ŽBagchi, 1987.. The pH tends to increase with
time Ži.e., from an initial acidic state to a neutral
state. while the biological and chemical oxygen
demands ŽBODrCOD. decrease with age Ž see
Table 4.. The concentration of organic carbon

Table 3
Regional variations in leachate composition. Data for columns 2–6 are from Robinson et al. Ž1982., Ehrig Ž1983., Fang
Ž1995a., Niininen et al. Ž1995. and Vendrame and Pinho Ž1997., respectively. All quantities are in mgrl except pH Žin
standard units.. N s nitrogen. P s Phosphorus. TDS s total dissolved solids. BOD s biological oxygen demand. CODs
chemical oxygen demand. TOC s total organic content
Parameter England Germany USA Finland Brazil
TDS 1–520 402–6794
pH 6.2–7.4 6.1–8.0 3.7–8.5 3–8 6.05–7.51
BOD - 2–8000 180–13 000 22 000–30 000 1–3900
COD 66–11 600 3000–22 000 800–50 000 52–5200 90–2000
TOC 21–4400 17–1900
Ammoniacal N 5–730 741 0.3–480 1–480 14–1080
Total P or phosphate ) - 0.02–3.4 5.7 0.5–130 ) - 0.02–3.9 ) 0.057–2.312
Chloride 70–2777 2119 50–2400 1–600 275–1949
Sulphate 20–750
Calcium 165–1150 80–1300 240–2400 65–69
Sodium 85–3800
Potassium 28–1700
Magnesium 12–480 250–600 64–410 23.8–59.8
Iron 0.1–380 15–925 0.15–1640 - 0.1–692 4.504–9.9
Manganese 0.3–26.5 0.7–24 0.1–7.4
Zinc - 0.1–1.0 0.6–5.6 0.02–130 - 0.1–1.4
Cadmium - 0.005–0.01 0.0052 - 0.0001–0.0047 0–0.033
Chromium - 0.05–0.16 0.275 - 0.001–0.134 0.005–0.056
Nickel 0.05–0.16 0.166 0.15–0.9 - 0.003–0.394 0–0.333
Lead 0.05–0.22 0.087 - 0.001–0.042 0.021–0.7
Copper 0.01–0.15 0.065 - 0.001–0.056 0.008–0.19
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150 123

Table 4
Typical changes in leachate concentrations with age of refuse Žafter Farquhar, 1989; Birks and Eyles, 1997.. All quantities
are in mgrl except pH Žin standard units.
Parameter Age of refuse
0–5 years 5–10 years 10–20 years ) 20 years
TDS 10 000–25 000 5000–10 000 2000–5000 - 1000
pH 5–6 6–7 7–7.5 7.5
BOD 10 000–25 000 1000–4000 50–100 - 50
COD 15 000–40 000 10 000–20 000 1000–5000 - 1000
Ammoniacal N 500–1500 300–500 50–200 - 30
Total P 100–300 10–100 - 10
Chloride 1000–3000 500–2000 100–500 - 100
Sulphate 500–2000 200–1000 50–200 - 50
Calcium 2000–4000 500–2000 300–500 - 500
Sodiumq potassium 2000–4000 500–1500 100–500 - 100
Magnesiumq iron 500–1500 500–1000 100–500 - 100
Zinc q aluminium 100–200 50–100 10–50 - 10
Alkalinity 10 000–15 000 1000–6000 500–2000 - 500

often exceeds 8000 mgrl in the leachates from
young landfills and 465 mgrl in leachates from
old landfills ŽDearlove, 1995..
The composition of the leachate will depend
on the type and age of fill, water infiltration rate
and pH ŽFarquhar, 1989. but the rate and quan-
tity of leachate and landfill gas production will
be affected by the depth of burial of fill, re-
gional climatic conditions, variations in water
table, the landfill capping practice and fluid
inflow and outflow controls at the site. It can be
expected that surface layers of refuse Ži.e., shal-
low burial depth. may experience rapid aerobic
decomposition whilst the bulk of the waste at
depth may have only been partially decomposed
under anaerobic conditions thus leading to dif-
ferent physical properties. Also, landfill degra-
dation will be quicker in humid tropical regions
than in cold regions and for identical fill com-
position and water influx–efflux conditions, the
leachate from the warmer climate will have a
higher concentration of dissolved materials rela-
tive to the background groundwater composition
Žin analogy to variation in saprolite composition
in chemically weathered rocks ŽPalacky, 1987..
as also suggested by the data presented in Table
5. If precipitation is the main source of water
for leachate generation in the fill, then it can be
expected that storms will have a role in leachate
discharge.
The transport of leachate through the landfill
is slow, unsteady, non-uniform and sometimes
discontinuous ŽFang, 1995a. depending on the
degree of compaction of the fill and seasonal
changes in water supply to the system. Within
the landfill, this liquid may collect in various
areas Že.g. perched saturated zones. or mound at
the bottom of the landfill. This leachate starts
seeping as soon as enough hydrostatic head is
developed. Biochemically controlled exothermic
reactions are known to cause higher groundwa-
ter temperatures in leachate Ž MacFarlane et al.,
1983. and because of the ingress of leachate
from the upper leached zones, the temperature
in the lower portion of the landfill is often
significantly higher than elsewhere in the
leached section ŽFang, 1995a.. Consequently,
there are higher bacterial activities and higher
ion exchange reactions in the lower parts of the
landfill as time progresses. These microbial–
chemical decomposition reactions may cause
significant changes to the existing pore fluids
Žand to the substrate if the fill is in direct
contact with geological materials. .
 124
M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150
Table 5
Comparison of some leachate components at four sites in different geographic regions. Data for the Durban sites IP10-SS2 ŽSouth Africa. are from Bell and Jermy
Ž1995.; SS2 is a surface stream sample and the rest are from inspection pits ŽIP.. Data for site NE Žnorthern England. are from Kalteziotis et al. Ž1995.. Data for
Beverly ŽBEV. and Upper Ottawa Street ŽUOS. landfill sites ŽCanada. are from Birks and Eyles Ž1997.. Electrical conductivity ŽEC. is in mSrm and except for
pH, the rest are in mgrl. In the last two columns, the average values of the parameters as well as their respective ranges Žin parenthesis. are given
Parameter Sites
IP10 IP11 IP17 IP20 IP9 IP4 IP19 IP21 SS2 NE BEV UOS
pH 6.9 7.5 6.9 6.9 7.3 7.45 7.7 7.05 7.35 7.2 7.9 Ž7.6–8.3.
TDS 11047 9902 557 2166 9726 9003 3722 2807 261 933 Ž40–1764. 8181.2 Ž6140–10108.
EC 1397.4 1530 85.7 300.9 1448.4 1254.6 581.4 418.2 38.8 501 140.1 Ž19–349.9. 1123.3 Ž750–1500.
Chloride 3938 3832 76 504 3782 3620 1033 820 71 510 150 Ž0–750. 1344 Ž29–3150.
COD 656 1920 6240 272 3520 2960 960 448 40 800 97 Ž0–283. 1772 Ž96–4706.
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150
On passing through the base of the landfill,
the metal ions in solution may be removed from
the aqueous phase by ion exchange, sorption or
precipitation onto the substrate Žespecially if
clayey.. However, organic carbon in colloidal
form in the leachate often has higher cation
exchange capacity than clay and can sorb high
concentrations of metal ions from solution Ž as
can some inorganic colloids which form under
certain chemical conditions. . The metal ions
sorbed preferentially onto the surface of col-
loidal particles may thus by-pass the natural
attenuation processses as the leachate seeps into
the substrate Ž Dearlove, 1995.. Within the sub-
strate, it mixes with groundwater forming a
leachate plume.
Initially, on entering the anaerobic groundwa-
ter system, the organic material in the leachate
is slowly biodegraded forming more acids which
may react with aquifer materials Ž cf. Bennett
and Siegel, 1987. with attendant changes in the
fluid chemistry near the water table. In this
deoxygenated environment, inorganic materials
in the leachate Že.g. iron, manganese. may be
dissolved in the groundwater. The dispersing
leachate extends laterally and vertically as it
sinks towards the bottom of the substrate form-
ing a 3-D contaminant plume that may be steeply
dipping Žsee Fig. 2.. The amount of groundwa-
ter contamination resulting from this invasion
will depend on the hydrogeology of the area and
Fig. 2. Geometry of typical 3-D contaminant plume migrating downgradient from a landfill site.
125
the attenuation capacity of the substrate. It may
be effectively diluted and dispersed by ground-
water in highly permeable geological formations
with high flow rates. Given enough time in less
permeable formations, or with slowly moving
groundwater, the plume Žladen with inorganic
salts. may enhance mineralisation of groundwa-
ter. Since it is a moving and continuously evolv-
ing 3-D feature, it will in time be dispersed over
a sizeable area, possibly with distinct composi-
tional zonations.
2.7. Conceptual resistiÕity model
A conceptual resistivity model can be devel-
oped in line with the above biogeomorphic and
hydrochemical considerations, since the observ-
able geoelectrical response of landfill sites and
environs will vary in relation to significant
changes in the chemistry of subsurface pore
fluids. It can be expected that surface layers of
refuse may experience rapid aerobic decomposi-
tion whilst the bulk of the waste at depth may
have only been partially decomposed under
anaerobic conditions, thus leading to different
physical properties. For a leachate-generating
landfill in contact with granular substrate, the
interactions between the invading leachate and
substrate material may cause geochemical alter-
ations of substrate depending on its buffering
and cation exchange capacities.
126 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150

Accordingly, several zones are recognised in
the generalised conceptual model shown in Fig.
3. The top soil and clay cap Ži.e., zones 1 and 2.
form the uppermost confining layers. The resis-
tivity of the top soil will vary from region to
region and with season but the usually 0.3 to 1
m thick clay cap will in general be relatively
conductive. Landfill sites are notorious for high
levels of soil gas Žprincipally methane and car-
bon dioxide.. Fractured clay caps would also

Fig. 3. A conceptual resistivity model for old landfill sites with leachate generation and migration into groundwater system
in granular substrate and environs. Part of the sub-water table hydrogeological processes were adapted from DoE Ž1996..
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150
allow gas migration. The geoelectrical signa-
tures of zones 1 and 2 will be affected by
seasonal changes. In wet seasons, infiltrating
water may drive out gas thus lowering its bulk
resistivity. Conversely, rising vapours in the dry
periods will drive out soil moisture with atten-
dant increase in bulk resistivity. The degree to
which these changes are detectable will depend
on the nature of the materials in zones 1 and 2.
For instance, the influx of gas into pore spaces
in some clays may cause appreciable resistivity
increases Žif water or leachate is displaced. but
not so for a highly resistive dry sandy topmost
layer. If these cover materials are iron-rich, it is
conceivable that the rising methane and sulphur
dioxide in landfills may lead to the formation of
a pyritic geochemical alteration halo akin to the
so-called ‘sulphide chimney’ over fractured hy-
drocarbon accumulations overlain by iron-rich
sediments or redbeds Že.g. Oehler and Stern-
berg, 1982,1984; Ostrander et al., 1983. which
might be detectable in 3-D or time-lapse geo-
electrical surveys.
The clay cap is underlain by a zone of perva-
sive leaching of refuse and residual products
Ži.e., zone 3 in Fig. 3.. This is the top part of the
landfill waste where oxygen and bacterial sup-
ply is abundant Žand will thus decompose
quicker than the deeper parts. . The bulk resistiv-
ity of this oxidized zone will show a relative
increase with time Žas the organics for microbial
degradation become depleted in supply, oxida-
tion of inorganics tends towards completion and
much of the soluble elements have been re-
moved. . The leaching of clay minerals from the
original landfill-soil mixture would leave behind
the non-degradable fill material and siliceous
geomaterial with average soilrrock grains of
larger size fraction Žcf. Witmer et al., 1984. and
of relatively higher resistivity than the parent
landfill material. It may thus be relatively resis-
tive in comparison with the clay cap and the
underlying zone of incomplete refuse decompo-
sition Ži.e., zone 4.. However, the rate of water
flux through zone 3 will affect its eventual
resistivity characteristics — it will be more
127
resistive for fast flows in comparison to slow
fluxes that will cause lower resistivities.
Zone 4 occurs in the lower part of the waste
deposit and is dominated by relatively immature
leaching and will exhibit relatively low bulk
resistivities. For landfill resting on highly im-
permeable substrate, leachate mounding may
occur in the basal part of the waste deposits
rendering it the most electrically conductive part
of the entire landfilled section. However, if the
landfill rests directly on a relatively permeable
substrate saturated with groundwater, fluctua-
tions in the water table may occur within a
section encompassing the basal part of the land-
fill Žzone 5. and the uppermost part of the
substrate Ž zone 6. as schematised in Fig. 3.
The mineral salts and organic material leached
from the fill materials will be deposited near the
water table depending on the local hydrogeolog-
ical and Eh–pH conditions Ž in analogy with the
well-known process of supergene enrichment of
metallic sulphide minerals Ž Levinson, 1980. and
chemical weathering of soilsrrocks. causing an
increase in TDS Žand therefore electrical con-
ductivity. and other chemical parameters in the
porewater Žcf. Knight et al., 1978, Fig. 8.. Due
to water table fluctuations, the zone of deposi-
tion or mineral enrichment may extend from the
basal part of the landfill into the upper part of
the subjacent geological formation or may lie
well beneath the base of the landfill depending
on the permeability, fluid saturation, groundwa-
ter flow and dispersion characteristics of the
substrate and the mobilities of the ions in solu-
tion. Below the water table, the leachate mixes
with groundwater and reacts with substrate ma-
terial Ž cf. Bennet and Seigel, 1987. forming a
relatively conductive plume Žzone 7.. Beyond
the plume, the uninvaded substrate Žzone 8. will
have TDS and conductivity parameter values
intrinsic to the natural medium Ži.e., background
concentrations..
The main tenet of this hypothesis is that the
TDS and conductivity profiles will peak near
the water table and tail-off in either direction
outside the zone of mineral enrichment. It can
128 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150

be expected that this zone will have a dis-
cernible conductivity signature on geoelectrical
soundings in leachate-bearing landfill environ-
ments. For unsaturated substrate in contact with
leachate-generating landfill deposits, the
leachate will advance with the infiltrating water
and displace the air or residual connate water in
the pores spaces of the substrate. This displace-
ment will cause a decrease in the resistivity of
sandy or carbonate formations but the effects
may not be geoelectrically appreciable in some
clayey substrate. If the unsaturated section were
thick enough, the rate of advance of the leachate
front Žand hence the depth location of the zone
of maximum leachate concentration. will de-
pend on the buffering and cation exchange ca-
pacities of the substrate. For instance, calcite-
rich sands may attenuate the leachate better than
dominantly siliceous sands Že.g. DoE, 1996.
with consequent differences in the position of
occurrence of leachate-related geoelectrical con-
ductors in unsaturated substrates.
In Fig. 4 are shown the typical landfill sound-
ing curves from various geological, climatic and
geoenvironmental settings. Note that all the
curves are of the minimum or H-type. The most
conductive segment of each sounding curve cor-
responds to the saturated basal section of the
respective landfill andror leachate-invaded sub-
strate. Note, however, that an apparently highly
resistive terminal segment of a sounding curve
at a landfill site Žas exhibited by the curves
shown in these figures. may not always be
indicative of a resistive nature for the substrate
but rather may be due to 3D distorting influ-
ences of the typically complex site geometry

Fig. 4. Typical resistivity sounding curves from landfill sites in different geographical regions. Ža. Australia ŽKnight et al.,
1978., Žb. USA ŽCarpenter et al., 1991., Žc. UK ŽBarker, 1990., and Žd. UK ŽMeju, 1995a..
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150
especially when the expanding electrodes oc-
cupy positions outside the actual confines of the
landfill site.
2.8. Relationship between geoelectrically impor-
tant hydrochemical parameters
Electrical conductivity is usually taken as a
measure of the total dissolved salts in ground-
water by hydrogeochemists whereas chloride
content is used as a conservative leachate indi-
cator parameter in water sample studies since,
apart from dilution, it undergoes very little
chemical or biological change in the groundwa-
ter system ŽBaedecker and Apgar, 1984. . Some
chemical analyses of groundwater contaminated
by leachate seeping from a landfill site that
closed in 1989 in Durban, South Africa Ž Bell
and Jermy, 1995. are shown in Table 5. ŽThe
data were presented at the GREEN ’93 confer-
ence in June 1993 and were probably collected
in 1992. . Also shown in this table are the
chemical parameters for leachate from a 6-year-
old landfill in northern England Ž Kalteziotis et
al., 1995. and for the leachates from the Beverly
landfill Žactive from 1965–1980. and Upper
Ottawa Street landfill Ž active from 1950–1980.
near Hamilton in Ontario, Canada Ž Birks and
Eyles, 1997. . For the Canadian examples, the
Žaverage, minimum and maximum. values of
the respective parameters for the monitoring
period 1980–1994 are presented. The levels of
TDS and conductivity for the leachate-impacted
groundwater from downgradient measurements
in the vicinity of the Durban landfill are higher
than those recorded within the younger landfill
site in the UK and comparable to those for the
Canadian sites. Since even higher values may
be obtained for leachate samples from the Dur-
ban landfill than those presented here Ž possibly
diluted offsite samples., the data in Table 5
could be interpreted as supporting the earlier
contention that apart from age, climatic differ-
ences might lead to variations in the amount of
soluble material removed from a given landfill
material in different geographical locations.
129
The spatial variation of plume properties is of
geoexploration interest and will be examined
here using the data for Durban landfill. The
Durban landfill sampling points were distributed
over a grid across the southeastern border of the
landfill where seepage was occurring Ž see Bell
and Jermy, 1995, Fig. 3. . Sampling stations IP9,
IP4, IP19 and IP21 in Table 5 were located
along the axis of the plume at increasing dis-
tances from the southeastern border of the Dur-
ban landfill Ž the typical inspection pit spacing
was about 35 m. . For these stations, note the
decrease in TDS and electrical conductivity with
increasing distance from the landfill. To illus-
trate the relationship between groundwater con-
ductivity and TDS Žand chloride content. in the
plume emanating from the Durban landfill, the
data from all the sampling stations in Table 5
are shown graphically in Figs. 5 and 6. Note the
almost linear relationship between conductivity
and TDS in Fig. 5 and between conductivity
and chloride content in Fig. 6. Simple straight-
line fitting of the Durban data yielded the rela-
Fig. 5. Relationship between fluid conductivity and TDS.
The round symbols represent the data from Durban landfill
in South Africa ŽBell and Jermy, 1995.. The data from
Beverley and Upper Ottawa Street landfill sites in Hamil-
ton, Canada ŽBirks and Eyles, 1997. are shown by triangu-
lar symbols. The data from NE Brazil ŽMeju et al., 1997.
are shown by cross symbols.
130 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150

Canada ŽBirks and Eyles, 1997. and Morley

Fig. 6. Relationship between conductivity and chloride
content for two landfill sites. The data from the Durban
site are shown by circular symbols while the triangular
symbols represent the data from Morley landfill site in
Australia ŽBuselli et al., 1990..
tionships TDS s y54.4 q 7.04sw and Cl s
y257.2 q 2.83 sw , where the electrical conduc-
tivity of the groundwater Ž sw . is in mSrm and
the other two parameters are in mgrl. However,
it is often preferable to consider the relation-
ships between the logarithms of these data Ž cf.
Table 6.. The resulting relationships for the
same data sets are
log TDS s 0.8 q 1.015 log sw
= Ž or TDS s 6.3096 sw1.015 . Ž1.
log Cl s y0.256 q 1.2 log sw
1.2
= Ž or Cl s 0.5546 s w .. Ž2.
Some published data for the Beverly and
Upper Ottawa Street landfills in Hamilton in
landfill site in Australia Ž Buselli et al., 1990. are
also presented in Figs. 5 and 6 for comparison
with the Durban data. The fluid conductivity
and chloride content data from Morley landfill
show the same trend as the Durban data Žsee
Fig. 6.. Although not an ideal data set, the
published average, minimum and maximum
conductivity and TDS values for the two landfill
sites in Hamilton ŽBirks and Eyles, 1997. are
also in accord with the Durban Ž see Fig. 5. . It is
interesting Žas shown in Fig. 5 and Table 6. that
a similar linear trend exists in data from a
non-landfill environment — a hydrogeochemi-
cally zoned regional aquifer with high back-
ground inorganic salts near the city of Picos in
northeast Brazil Ž Meju et al., 1997. , which could
suggest that the leachates from the selected
landfill sites derive their conductive nature
largely from inorganic salts.
It might be expected that if similar relation-
ships exist between bulk resistivity and TDS,
then it will be possible to predict compositional
trends in hydrochemical parameters such as TDS
and chloride content from surface geoelectrical
soundings Že.g. Buselli et al., 1990. . No such
relations have been found as yet for routine
geoelectrical use. However, from a dc resistivity
study of acid-mine drainage problem, Ebraheem
et al. Ž1990. obtained the relation,
log s b s y0.333 q 0.6453 Ž log TDS .
= Ž or s b s 0.4645 TDS 0.6453 . Ž3.
while a re-appraisal, by this author, of the re-
sults of a TEM–AMT study of part of a highly
saline, relatively homogeneous, sandstone

Table 6
Summary statistics for regression analysis of fluid conductivity vs. TDS in some groundwater systems. In columns 2 to 4,
the top set of numbers relates to logarithmic fitting while the numbers in brackets are for non-logarithmic fitting. The data
used were from various sources ŽBell and Jermy, 1995; Birks and Eyles, 1997; Meju et al., 1997.
Regression parameter Durban, S. Africa Picos, NE Brazil Combined set Žinc. Canada.
Intercept 0.8 " 0.05 Žy54.4 " 341 . 1.1 " 0.17 Ž81.6 " 60.9. 0.8 " 0.09 Ž7.69 " 88.
Slope 1.015 " 0.003 Ž7.04 " 0.21. 0.9 " 0.01 Ž6.68 " 0.3. 1.018 " 0.009 Ž7.01 " 0.11.
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150
aquifer Ž Meju et al., 1997. suggested the rela-
tion
log s b s y0.3215 q 0.7093 Ž log TDS .
= Ž or s b s 0.477 TDS 0.7093 . Ž4.
where s b is the bulk conductivity of the forma-
tion in mSrm and the TDS is in mgrl.
For the sake of completeness, we may tenta-
tively adopt the above relations Ž Eqs. Ž 3. and
Ž4.. in the present discussions but note that they
were determined for relatively homogeneous
materials and thus, may not hold in the typical
landfill environment where significant quantities
of conductive metal and clay may be present.
Moreover, even under favourable conditions,
the two constants Žintercept and slope. in the
above Eqs. Ž3. and Ž4. may have to be evaluated
for different landfill environments to enable a
working relation between the bulk conductivity
of the contaminated homogeneous substrate, or
saturated basal fill and the fluid conductivity, to
be determined in conjuction with variants of the
other relations given above. Assuming that Eq.
Ž4. is applicable to landfill environments, com-
bining Eqs. Ž 1. and Ž4. leads to
log s b s 0.2452 q 0.7196 log sw
= Ž or s b s 1.7587 sw0.7196 . Ž5.
relating fluid and saturated fill conductivities.
An alternative approach may be sought based
on the popular Archie’s Ž 1942. law, s b s
k sw f m, where f is porosity, m is the cementa-
tion factor and k is a constant. Along this line,
Yaramanci Ž 1994. developed a relation between
in situ resistivity and water content in salt rocks;
a simplification of the formula yields the work-
ing relation
s b s swW m Ž6.
with W m as the water content and m ( 1.6–1.9.
This would suggest that under ideal Ži.e., clay-
free. conditions, we may directly estimate the
proportion of contaminated water in an invaded
homogeneous geomatrix of known bulk and
fluid conductivities. It is stressed that Eq. Ž 6. is
131
adopted here only for illustration purposes-the
reader is referred to Worthington Ž1993 and
references therein. for sophisticated adaptations
of Archie’s law.
2.9. Conceptual prediction of hydrochemical
parameters and age of saturated fill
The chemical parameters and age of fill are
important components of any genetic recon-
struction scheme. Variations in fill compositions
of different ages have been noted by several
workers Žsee, e.g. Knight et al., 1978. . How-
ever, from a geoelectrical viewpoint, an exciting
development in geochemical characterisation of
landfill leachates is the observation that these
variations are consistent with age Ž e.g. Far-
quhar, 1989; DoE, 1996. as can be gleaned
from Table 4. If the approximate concentrations
of the relevant hydrochemical parameters can be
predicted by virtue of the emprical relationships
developed in the previous section, it follows
that one can, at least at a conceptual level,
predict the age range of a given saturated fill
using the information furnished by surface
andror borehole geoelectrical measurements.
The main problem that will bedevil such an
approach is the fact that there are three main
sources that contribute to the observed leachate
composition — infiltrating groundwater or rain,
waste deposits and ambient geological materi-
als. Section 3 will focus on the effective integra-
tion of the above concepts and models in rou-
tine geoelectrical investigations.
3. Development of a consistent investigative
geoelectrical approach
In line with the above developments, we may
propose a four-phase diagnosis approach for
landfill investigations. The analysis of historical
documents Žtown development plans and topo-
graphic maps. and any available geotechnical
reports for the area of study should be seen as
132 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150
the first phase in site investigation since this can
furnish much of the necessary information to
address some important practical issues to be
discussed below. The second phase will be to
define the site constraints and boundary condi-
tions Žnatural and gradational or anthropogenic
and abrupt. and thence a site-specific explo-
ration model that is consistent with geotechni-
cal, biological, geological and physico-chemical
considerations. Site-specific model development
involves posing the problem with the attendant
constraints in a form that can be addressed
using the chosen geoelectrical methods. In gen-
eral, the main elements of a closed landfill site
are the site boundaries Žwhich are typically
irregular., buried near-vertical rock faces in dis-
used hard-rock quarries, dome-shaped or tabular
cap, depth locations and dips of the layers of
refuse and sealing materials, the integrity of the
sealing zones, the position of access roads or
buried bund walls, and the presence of high
levels of hazardous gases, leachate Žor corrosive
chemicals in the case of industrial waste dis-
posal sites. or perched groundwater bodies.
The third phase is to design and execute a
geophysical survey to define the model parame-
ters. The geophysical methods should be se-
lected to define the various parts of the above
model and with data quality and integrity as key
considerations. Obviously, the various methods
would respond differently to specific aspects of
this model and would suggest that an integrated
approach is the best option, barring financial
constraints. In designing and executing surveys
to investigate covered landfill sites, it may be
necessary to combine geoelectrical measure-
ments with some other geophysical technique
Žsuch as seismic refraction. but electrical and
EM methods must be seen as a necessary com-
bination. The final phase will be the provision
of an appropriate physico-chemical solution to
the given problem, based on site-constrained
analysis of the geophysical field data Ž and for
added value, the definition of future monitoring
requirements.. Some of the above issues are
explored in more detail in what follows and it
will be conveniently assumed that we are deal-
ing with electrical and EM investigative tools.
3.1. Practical considerations in surÕey design
and implementation
3.1.1. Desk study: problem definition and site
description
Some pre-survey considerations that have
been found from experience to be very useful
are listed in Table 7. Analysis of problematical
observations and detailed site description consti-
tute the desk study. It is important that the
perceived or identified geoenvironmental prob-
lem is well posed taking into account all the
available information. It is even more important
to have a clear definition of what form of
solution is expected since the investigative strat-
egy will vary depending on whether the survey
goal will be served merely by a non-committal
reporting or require suggestions andror recom-
mendations for partial or full implementation.
For example, the presence of leachate poses the
threat of groundwater contamination and it is
important to design the geophysical survey to
map the leachate and any possibly linked aquif-
erous materials at the site. The site dimensions
and current usage will influence the choice of
field methods since some techniques would re-
quire more space for depth probing than others
while some other ones may be sensitive to
metallic constructions or other obstructions
within the site, say. Also, a change in land use
such as the introduction of domestic or indus-
trial infrastructure at the site may have disturbed
the ground Žcreating potential pathways for pol-
lutant migration..
It is important to know whether the landfill
site originally served as a quarry, in which case
we may expect irregular boundaries or whether
it was specially constructed with regular borders
for waste containment. At disused quarry sites,
it is also not uncommon to have several other
minor excavations in the vicinity of the main
excavation and any interconnections between
them Že.g. access roads and drains. must be
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150
Table 7
Ranked practical considerations for a consistent investigative approach. Ranks 1 to 11 provide problem definition and
detailed site description. Ranks 12–13 relate to geoelectrical field study while ranks 14–15 relate to problem solution and
environmental diagnostics
Practical considera- Model features and enviro-economic
tions constraints
1 Environmental prob - Identified hazardous gases and leachate
lem and demanded so- or perceived threat to environment
lution
2 Site dimensions and Landfill sites vary in size and shape.
current usage Reclaimed site may contain domestic,
recreational, agricultural or light indus-
trial infrastructure with new cover over
disturbed parts.
3 Type of initial excava- Site may be a disused quarry with
tion steep or sloping irregular borders or
purpose-built structure with regular
borders. Multiple excavations or cells
may be present and linked.
4 Type and state of basal Basal liner, if present, may be thin
lining and drainage compacted clay-till layer or zone of
system graded granular substrate. Basal
drainage to sumps common
5 Fill type, tipping his- Fill may be of domestic, industrial or
tory and burial pattern co-disposal type and roughly homoge-
noeus with compaction layering or
strongly heterogeneous with separating
Žbund. walls
6 Age of fill and burial Field Žabsorbent. capacity of fill may
depth be attained with time and burial depth
with consequent leachate production;
fill stabilization with leaching and age
7 Topography, differen- Fracturing of landfill cover caused by
tial subsidence and subsidence. Linear fracture systems
landfill cover integrity may follow decompaction trends; al-
low erosion and thinning of cover,
infiltration of surface water, and escape
of landfill gas
8 Climatic environment Rate of fill leaching and leachate gen-
eration dependent on infiltration and
climate
9 Host rock geology, hy- Host may be unsaturated or saturated
drogeology and geo- aquifer, compact or fractured aquitard
chemistry or complex glacial deposits. Leachate
attenuation processes occur in sub-
strate; calcite-rich aquifers and clays
have good buffering and cation-ex-
change capacities. Off-site migration of
133
Effect on electrical surveying and diag-
nosis
Detailed solution required for remedia-
tion and monitoring; non-comittal re-
porting may involve less detailed sur-
veys
Methods appropriate to site geometry
and existing constructs are to be se-
lected. Change in land use or cover
material may limit model resolution
Nature of borders controls gross struc-
tural dimensionality; multiple excava-
tions will require dense sampling.
Basal clay liner and active drainage
system may have comparable resistiv-
ity to saturated fill. Focused 3D depth
probes and specialized data processing
required for assessment of liner in-
tegrity.
Well-compacted and homogeneous fill
may be approximately 1D; separating
walls, steeply-sloping cover and com-
plex site borders impart 2Dr3D signa-
tures
Fill resistivity structure will be con-
trolled by fill stability and form of
occurrence of leachate. Fill resistivity
will vary with age and requires peri-
odic monitoring
Anisotropy and topographic distortions
are to be expected. Azimuthal or 3D
surveys required to maprmonitor dis-
turbed cover. Sounding parallel to frac-
ture group trend for approximate 1D
inversion
Conductivity of leachate from fill of
given composition will vary with cli-
matic region
Heterogeneous host rocks will compli-
cate electrical response. Geometry and
conductivity of leachate plume will be
affected by dilution and hydrodynamic
dispersion in host. Buffering and
cation-exchange capacities of host rock
will influence rate of attenuation and
134 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150

Table 7 Ž continued .
Practical considera- Model features and enviro-economic Effect on electrical surveying and diag-
tions constraints nosis
methane gas depends on nature of host of maximum concentration of leachate
rock in unsaturated aquifers.
10 Geochemical alter - Seepage of methane gas may lead to 3D surveys required to map geochemi-
ation halo alteration of surficial materials Že.g. cal alteration haloes or mineralisation
pyrite formation in iron-rich sedi- chimney. IP method best for detecting
ments.; leachate migration may cause zones of pyritic alteration.
mineralization of groundwater
11 Physical property con- Electrical properties of fill and sub- Lack of contrast limits model resolu-
trasts and background strate may be similar, or seeping tion. High background noise reduce
noise leachate may overprint signatures from data accuracy and demands improved
fill-substrate contact. Urban sites are signal detection capability Žhighly sen-
typically noisy sitivity equipment needed..
12 Budgetary constraints Limits the range of field measurements
and reporting time and the level of sophistication of inter-
pretation
13 Applicable geophysi- Site condition, expected contrasts, sub-
cal methods and sam- surface structural complexity and fi-
pling frequency nancial constraints influence choice of
tools. Pilot study will aid selection of
techniques with optimum potential for
target definition. Sampling frequency
affects resolution of anomalies
14 Quantitative data inter- Data may be corrupted by cultural Data quality assurancercontrol pro-
pretation requirements noise. There may be insufficient con- gram must be implemented. 1Dr2D
trasts between fill and host. Leachate inversion may suffice for layered fill;
plumes may have gradational bound- 3D modelling needed for complex
aries. structures. Smooth models appropriate
for leachate plume, low-contrast sys-
tems or noisy data
15 Model-based hazard Leachate contamination of groundwa- Characterisation of subsurface hazards
identification and anal- ter; accumulation of methane gas poses or pollution potential rests on capabil-
ysis fire and explosion hazards ity to map geology and emitted fluids

ascertained as they may serve as possible migra-
tion paths for the fluids expelled during the
backfilling operations. The presence or absence
of a basal lining must be ascertained and has
implications for the pollution potential of a
landfill site. The landfill may rest directly on a
natural liner Ž e.g. clayey formation or graded
coarser-grained granular substrate. or on syn-
thetic geomembranes Ž as in modern waste con-
tainment facilities. .
It is useful to know what method of tipping
was used, what type of waste was buried, how it
was distributed at the site, and whether the
shape of excavation has remained unchanged
during the backfilling operations ŽTable 7. . The
tipping method is important in defining the
dimensionality characteristics of the site. For
example, where only one type of commercial
waste was buried and when, as in Britain, it is
mandatory that the refuse is formed into a layer
as soon as possible after tipping by compaction,
then the degree of fill compaction and homo-
geneity may be so enhanced that the structure
locally approximates a horizontally stratified
ground. It is common in Britain to fill the
lowest parts of a disused quarry first and these
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150
are then successively covered by layers of fill
Žseparated by sealing materials. built up by
end-tipping. The distribution may be such that
the layers are not laterally continuous across the
whole site and any gaps are filled with sealing
materials Žcommonly sand and gravel in a clay
matrix dubbed ‘‘hoggin’’. . We therefore expect
some degree of heterogeneity and possible slop-
ing boundaries near the edges of the compacted
layers separated by the differently filled gaps or
bund walls. This factor is very important where
the investigation is concerned with the feasibil-
ity of construction at the site. It was also com-
mon practice in the past to use building rubble
in the final stages of backfilling, which may
affect the resistivity Žand seismic P-wave veloc-
ity. distributions. We would expect to encounter
high resistivity in the upper part of the fill Žand
velocity inversion in refraction seismics. when
probing beneath the rubble.
The presence of topographic features or dif-
ferential settlements at the site may demand
specialised survey layouts and data processing
techniques especially for construction feasibility
sudies. For example, variations in topography or
cover thickness may cause spurious effects in
the geoelectrical measurements, and the pres-
ence of a domal cap may reinforce the need for
multi-dimensional data processing. There may
also be seasonal variations in electrical proper-
ties of the disturbed fill cap.
3.1.2. Host rock geology and physical property
contrasts
A good knowledge of the underlying geology
is important as it is undesirable for the fill to be
in contact with permeable geological materials.
The presence of geological structures Že.g. faults
or fractures. that will permit fluid flow or lead
to structural instability is also undesirable Ž but
these can be mapped using azimuthal geophysi-
cal methods. . Background noise and physical
property contrasts at the site are important phys-
ical constraints since high background noise
may reduce the accuracy of the geophysical
measurements Že.g. timing of seismic refraction
135
first arrivals in integrated surveys. and thus lead
to poor model resolution. The background noise
and expected physical property contrasts would
help in determining whether the sensitivities of
the available geophysical instrumentation are
adequate for the given problem.
3.1.3. Optimisation of surÕey design
In many situations, rapid solutions are de-
sired for pressing landfill problems and the
degree of effectiveness of geoelectrics to a large
extent hinges on the level of instrumentation
that can be realistically deployed using the
available funds and on whether the data can be
processed within the given period. The applica-
ble geophysical field methods and sampling fre-
quency will depend on the reporting time-frame,
funding constraints and the measurement band-
width Žand sensitivities. of the available field
equipment. It is possible to determine the meth-
ods that have optimum potential for target defi-
nition by forward modelling studies. The sam-
pling interval should be sufficiently high to
define the key structural features Ž and in partic-
ular, the thin clay cap. as well as give a repre-
sentative range of results for the typically vari-
able waste materials. A dense network of obser-
vational stations and small vertical sampling
intervals would normally be required if the
ground were highly variable, but the eventual
ground sampling frequency will be dictated by
the attendant financial constraints and the stipu-
lated reporting time.
3.1.4. Data analysis and hazard identification
The appropriate interpretative schemes are
determined by the dimensionality characteristics
of the site but the available computational plat-
form will often dictate what interpretative tools
are ultimately selected and applied to the
recorded field data. It is important to correctly
identify whether the cover system is multi-
layered or single-layered and the presence of
steeply sloping cover systems. A domed or
steeply sloping impermeable disturbed cover
system Ž‘‘clay cap’’. over relatively permeable
136 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150

gas-generating refuse might constitute a good
trap Žas well-known in petroleum geology. for
hazardous gases Ž e.g. methane and carbon-di-
oxide. . If the integrity of the sealing zones in a
landfill site has been breached Že.g. by natural
or man-made disturbance. , then hazardous sub-
stances can escape into the air or into the
groundwater system and thus the pollution po-
tential of the site rests mainly on the nature and
amount of emitted fluids and the surrounding
geology. It may be noted that the subsurface
accumulation of methane gas poses a fire and
explosion hazard at the landfill site; also, the
methane migrating from the landfill as a free-gas
phase into surficial sediments and the exsolved
methane from groundwater might pose a
flammability hazard in the areas adjacent to the
site ŽRice and Ladwig, 1983. . Thus, the identifi-
cation of gas migration pathways and subsur-
face accumulations must be seen as important
deductive goals.
3.2. Generating consistent resistiÕity models
from surface soundings
A major problem in the utility of resistivity
soundings over landfill sites is the lack of
uniqueness or consistency of reconstructed sub-
surface models. There are several approaches to
resistivity reconstructions Ž see Meju, 1992, 1996
and references therein. and the various schemes
often yield different solutions for a given data
set. A consistent approach is desirable in geoen-
vironmental investigations and the solutions

Fig. 7. A comparison of well data and the result of two-stage 1-D inversion of dc resistivity sounding at a landfill site in a
suburb of Leicester. The apparent resistivity curve Žshown in the left-hand top panel. is first transformed into a near
continuous resistivity-vs.-depth structure Žshown as squares in the right-hand plot. which is then used to guide the
construction of an initial layered model for the second-stage iterative updating. The resulting optimal model is shown Žsolid
structure. in the right-hand and its computed responses Žsolid curves. are superposed on the actual field data in the left-hand
panels; the lower left-hand panel shows the measured and computed resistance data Žin Ohms.. The borehole-evidenced
depths to the boundaries between Ž1. disturbed cover soil and clay liner, Ž2. clay liner and unsaturated fill, Ž3. unsaturated
and saturated fills, and Ž4. saturated fill and clayey till substrate are indicated by the similarly numbered dotted horizontal
lines in the right-hand plot.
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150 137

should also be geologically meaningful. It is 3.2.1. IllustratiÕe one-dimensional examples

beginning to emerge that simple empirical data
transformations Že.g. Meju, 1995b, 1998. yield
geologically meaningful approximations to sub-
surface resistivity distributions in landfill sites
ŽMeju, 1995a.. It is thus logical to expect that
optimizing the main features of the initial resis-
tivity-vs.-depth distributions furnished by such
direct data transforms, using a standard inver-
sion scheme, might lead to consistent resistivity
models Ž Meju, 1994; Meju and Meekes, 1995. .
This notion will be demonstrated here using dc
resistivity depth soundings from some landfill
sites where there is ground-truth data for com-
parison; the basic statistical formulation of the
two-stage inverse problem is given elsewhere
ŽMeju et al., 2000, Eq. Ž1.. and have been
implemented in variants of available routines
for 1-D resistivity inversion ŽMeju, 1992. and
2-D resistivity inversion Ž Uchida and Mu-
rakami, 1990. .
Fig. 7 shows a Schlumberger resistivity
sounding curve from a landfill site near Leices-
ter in England and the optimal interpretive resis-
tivity model reconstructed using the approach
mentioned above. The ground surface is flat at
the sounding point and the depths to the various
material boundaries in a nearby borehole are
shown in the figure for comparison. It can be
seen that the initial data transform Žshown in the
right-hand plot as an almost continuous struc-
ture. and the optimal inversion model are in
accord with the borehole information. The 0.7-
m-thick top layer of about 54 V m resistivity
coincides with disturbed top soil and overlies a
0.52 m thick layer of low resistivity Ž 14.7 V m.
which coincides with compacted clay liner. The
underlying 3.2 m thick layer is relatively resis-
tive Ž 30.8 V m. and coincides with unsaturated
fill. This is in turn underlain by a 6.2 m thick
conductive Ž 7 V m. horizon corresponding to

Fig. 8. A comparison of well data and the re-interpretation results for a Wenner sounding in the central part of Mallard North
landfill site. The borehole-evidenced depths to the boundaries between Ž1. cover material and unsaturated fill, Ž2.
unsaturated and saturated fills, and Ž3. saturated fill and clayey till substrate are shown in the right-hand plot. The other
symbols have the same meaning as for Fig. 7. The well data and sounding curve are from Carpenter et al. Ž1991, Fig. 3b..
138 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150

saturated fill and the upper 1.1 m of the sub-
strate Žcomprised of glacial till.. The rest of the
substrate has a resistivity of about 56.6 V m,
which may be overestimated since the last two
sounding points appear to have been distorted
by 3-D effects. Note that the subsurface resistiv-
ity distribution agrees with that suggested in the
conceptual resistivity model ŽFig. 3. .
Fig. 8 shows a Wenner resistivity sounding
curve from the Mallard North landfill near
Chicago in the USA ŽCarpenter et al., 1991,
Fig. 3b. and the reconstructed resistivity model.
The sounding was performed over an area of
uniform topography near deep venting wells and
the known positions of the boundaries between
the various landfill units — cover material
Žcomposed of top soil and compacted illitic
clay-till liner., unsaturated fill, saturated fill and
substrate Žthick clayey till. are also shown for
comparison. Note the agreement between the
initial resistivity–depth transforms, the optimal
inversion model and the venting well informa-
tion. In this interpretative geoelectric model, the
cover unit has a resistivity of 20.8 V m while
the unsaturated fill has a resistivity of 14.6 V
m; the saturated fill has a resistivity of 7.15 V
m and rests on a substrate of 10.3 V m resistiv-
ity. Fig. 9 shows the results for another Wenner
sounding curve from the same landfill site Ž see
Carpenter et al., 1991, Fig. 3c. . This sounding
was done across the northeastern border of the
site with fractured cover unit and slight topogra-
phy Žsee Carpenter et al., 1991, Fig. 1. . The
initial data transforms independently guided the
selection of likely positions of significant resis-
tivity changes, which agree with the available
well information. Moreover, the inversion result
suggests that the 0.6 m thick composite layer
classified as cover material is comprised of a
0.38 m thick resistive Ž 55 V m. top soil horizon
and about 0.2 m thick conductive Ž 9 V m. clay
liner. The unsaturated fill has a resistivity of ca.

Fig. 9. A comparison of well data and the re-interpretation results for a Wenner sounding in the northeast margin of Mallard
North landfill site. The symbols have the same meaning as for Fig. 8. The well data and sounding curve are from Carpenter
et al. Ž1991, Fig. 3c..
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150 139

17 V m and extends to a depth of about 4.5 m extends to a depth of 6.5 m. It is underlain by

in this model. The underlying saturated fill is
less resistive Ž7 V m. and extends to about 7.5
m in the model. The substrate has a resistivity
of 13.5 V m down to a depth of 17 m beyond
which, barring topographic distortion, it in-
creases to 24 V m. For both soundings, the
subsurface resistivity distributions agree with
that suggested in the conceptual resistivity
model.
Fig. 10 shows a Wenner sounding curve over
the Lucas Heights landfill in southwestern Syd-
ney in Australia ŽKnight et al., 1978. and the
interpretive results from the method adopted in
this paper. This example is selected to illustrate
the difficulty that might be encountered when
dealing with young fill and in defining the
landfill base where the substrate is a permeable
sandy formation and is invaded by leachate
seeping from the overlying fill. The cover mate-
rial is about 0.9 m thick and 3–5-year-old fill
sand down to 19 m beyond which occurs a
sandy shale formation. Water was intersected at
depths of 4, 10 and 22.8 m in the relevant
borehole Ž see Knight et al., 1978, Fig. 8; White-
ley and Jewell, 1992, Fig. 2. . The published
sounding curve is of variable quality between
electrode spacings a s 2.6 m and a s 4.2 m.
The initial data transform and resultant optimal
layered model allowed a reliable prediction of a
thickness of 0.95–1.1 m and resistivity of 401–
430 V m for the cover material. The second
layer of 7.5–8.5 V m with its bottom at a depth
of 2.3–2.6 m may be a clay-rich fill layer. It
overlies a resistive Ž40–45 V m. zone extend-
ing to a depth of about 5.3 m. It was found
necessary to posit a low-resistivity Ž 4–5.3 V m.
layer in the depth interval 5.3 to 9.8 m and a
basal half-space of 290–840 V m resistivity in
the model. The resistive zone at 2.3 to 5.3 m
depth and the resistive substrate at around 10 m

Fig. 10. A comparison of well data and the re-interpretation results for a Wenner sounding at Lucas Heights landfill site. The
borehole-evidenced depths to the boundaries between Ž1. cover material and fill, Ž2. fill and sand formation, and Ž3. sand
and sandy shale formations are indicated by the similarly numbered dotted horizontal lines in the right-hand plot. The water
intersections in the borehole are denoted by the symbols ‘‘GW’’. The other symbols have the same meaning as for Fig. 7.
The well data and sounding curve are from Knight et al. Ž1978, Figs. 8 and 13..
140 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150

Fig. 11. Site location map for the Sonning Way landfill site in Leicester. The distribution of boreholes and post-drilling
geoelectrical measurement stations is shown.
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150 141

depth are not distinguished in the generalised
geological log ŽKnight et al., 1978, Fig. 8. but
are clearly anomalous in the downhole gamma
ray log of Knight et al., Ž 1978, Fig. 16. which
these authors interpreted as possibly containing
heavy mineral sands with radioactive elements
Že.g. monazite. . The base of the fill Ž 6.5 m.
cannot be deciphered using the VES data but
the conductive zone at 5.3 to 9.8 m depth may
represent the basal saturated fill and leachate-in-
vaded sandy substrate.
3.2.2. IllustratiÕe two-dimensional example
Dc resistivity soundings over an old covered
landfill site in Leicester in England Ž Meju
1995a. have been inverted using a regularized
2-D inversion scheme, adapted from the original
code of Uchida and Murakami Ž 1990. . The
Schlumberger soundings were made with
north-south electrode expansion axis at 25-m
intervals along a 200-m long, north–south pro-
file at this site Ž Fig. 11.. Soundings were also
made at several other positions at the site, mostly
with east–west electrode expansion axis. Meju
Ž1995a. employed the 1-D inversion strategy
described above and obtained models that are in
accord with borehole logs of the fill distribu-
tion. An extension of the approach in 2-D has
been attempted here. The nine north–south
Schlumberger soundings ŽG1 to G9. have been
selected for this 2D inversion exercise and their
effective depths of probe are about 0.3 to 25 m
as judged from a simple data transformation
ŽMeju, 1995b.. This depth interval was there-
fore densely discretized in the 2-D numerical
grid used to parameterise the subsurface resis-
tivity structure. There are three borehole posi-
tions ŽBH5, BH3, and BH8. along the profile
and the available logs ŽTable 8. would be used
to appraise the result of 2-D inversion.

Table 8
A summary of drillers’ logs for three boreholes ŽBH 5, BH3 and BH8. along the VES profile at the Sonning Way landfill
site in Leicester Žsee Fig. 11.. The closest VES stations are indicated in brackets in the 1st column, alongside the borehole
numbers Žcf. Fig. 11.
Borehole ŽBH. number Description of refuse and lithology Depth to base Žm.
5 ŽG1. Fill — top soil and concrete fragments 1.0
Fill — silty very sandy, very gravelly clay with 2.4
occasional wood and brick fragments Žodorous.
Very stiff silty, very gravelly clay 3.6 q
3 ŽG4. Fill — topsoil with concrete and occasional 1.1
brick fragments
Fill — slightly gravelly clay with occasional 2.0
topsoil and brick fragments
Fill — very soft clay, sand and gravel with rotting 8.4
vegetation and occasional car tyres Žodorous..
ŽGroundwater seepage encountered at 6.5 m.
Orange brown and black silty sand 9.8
Stiff silty gravelly clay 11 q
8 ŽG6. Fill — topsoil and concrete fragments 0.4
Fill — silty slightly gravelly clay with occasional 4.8
wood, brick fragments, paper, glass, leather, cloth
and concrete fragments
Fill — firm to stiff silty clay and tyres 5.2
Groundwater seepage encountered at 5.2 m 9.8
Fill — soft clay with some gravel and occasional
plastic, wood and much rotting vegetation.
Brown silty sand 10.3
Very stiff silty, very gravelly, clay 11.0 q
142 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150
For consistency check, the 2-D inversion pro-
cess was initiated with three half-space models
of different resistivities Ž 20, 50, and 100 V m..
The resulting optimal least-squares Ž1 rms mis-
fit. models were found to be practically identi-
cal and are thus acceptable as consistent solu-
tions for the site. For these models, there is a
good match between the model response and the
field data at all the stations as in the examples
shown in Fig. 12 for the inversion with a 20 V
m initial half-space model. The relevant part of
the optimal model derived from the 20 V m
initial half-space model is presented in Table 9.
Also indicated in this table are the known
boundaries between the cover materials, fill and
substrate, and the positions where groundwater
seepages were encountered in the boreholes. It
can be gleaned from Table 9 that the 2-D
Fig. 12. Comparison of some VES Schlumberger field data and 2-D model response for the Sonning Way landfill site in
Leicester.
inversion successfully recovered the target fea-
tures Ž landfill cover, intra-fill boundaries and
possible leachate-impacted substrate. at this
landfill site. The unsaturated and saturated fill
sections are differentiated in this model by com-
parison with the known groundwater intersec-
tions in BH3 and BH8; there is a noticeable
resistivity change at this boundary.
3.3. Predicting hydrochemical parameters of
saturated fill
Although full-domain 3-D inversion would
be more desirable at landfill sites, the simple
models generated here would appear to be use-
ful for illustrating various aspects of the consis-
tent diagnosis approach suggested in this paper.
It now remains to effect a possible geoenviron-
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150 143

Table 9
Resistivity distribution from 2-D inversion of VES data from Sonning Way landfill site. Columns 2 to 10 give the
resistivities Žin V m. of the respective blocks at various depths. Only the top 29 m of the 2-D model is shown. The dashed
horizontal lines indicate the approximate intra-fill boundaries, the solid lines show the approximate base of fill, and the
symbol W indicates the resistivity block at depth where groundwater seepage was encountered in boreholes close to the VES
stations. The upper zone Žca. 1–2 m depth. shown by italicised bold-faced numbers is the interpreted clay seal of the cover
sequence. The interpreted saturated zones Žallowing for water-level fluctuations. are also highlighted using bold-face
numbers Ž) 4 m depth.. The topography at the respective stations was incorporated in the inversion process Žthe quantity in
brackets underneath each station name is the height in metres relative to station G1.
Block bottom Žm. G1 Ž0.0. G2 Ž0.3. G3 Ž0.7. G4 Ž1.45. G5 Ž1.45. G6 Ž1.5. G7 Ž1.5. G8 Ž1.5. G9 Ž1.5.
0.13 146.6 96.5 105 104 160 83 41 33.8 32.5
0.29 146.6 96.5 105 104 160 83 41 33.8 32.5
0.49 109.6 61.4 83.6 63.1 141.5 53.6 31.9 31.2 36.6
0.75 73.8 36 54.8 33.3 77.8 31 24.7 31.6 45.2
1.1 57.7 25.7 36.4 19.7 39.5 21.6 23.5 36.1 56.2
1.5 56.1 25.2 28.9 16.1 27.6 20.9 27.7 41.8 61.1
2.1 56.2 29.3 26.5 17.9 27.3 23.8 32.6 40.8 53.1
2.8 46.2 31.3 24.4 21.4 30.5 24.4 30 30.6 38.6
3.7 30.2 27.8 20.9 22.9 31.5 20.9 20.7 19.2 27.3
4.8 18.8 22.7 17.4 21.3 28.4 16.5 12.8 12.2 22
6.3 14.2 20.4 16 18.4 23 13.7 W 9.2 10 22.4
8.2 15.2 22.4 17.2 16.2 W 17.7 12.7 8.9 11.7 29.2
10.6 21.6 28.9 21.1 15.2 13.9 12.7 11.3 18 44
13.7 32.9 37.7 26.1 15.3 12 13.3 15.4 27.7 61.4
17.6 43.6 43.7 29.9 16.7 12.3 14.6 19.6 34.1 64.4
22.7 45.8 43.3 31.2 20.4 15.5 17.3 22.6 32.3 48.8
29.2 39.1 29 22.3 25.4 30.5 34.6 30.1 24.7 25.7

mental interpretation of these resistivity models. information contained in the resistivity models
An attempt is made here to suggest how the may be maximized or given ‘‘added value’’ by

Table 10
An illustration of a conceptual predictive scheme for approximate environmental interpretation of saturated fill Žor invaded
substrate. resistivity. The reconstructed resistivity of saturated fill or invaded substrate Ž r b . is used to predict the TDS via
Eq. Ž4. as in Ža. or via Eq. Ž3. as in Žb.; these may be regarded as the lower and upper bounds on the parameter estimates.
The fluid conductivity is then predicted using Eq. Ž1. and the chloride content may be obtained from Eq. Ž2.. Water content
is approximated from Eq. Ž6., and age Žin years. is inferred from data given in Table 4 using TDS and Cl as the determinants
Landfill site s b ŽmSrm. Predicted TDS Predicted sw Predicted Cl Estimated W Estimated age
Ž r b in V m. Žmgrl. ŽmSrm. Žmgrl. Žvol.%. of fill Žyears.
(a)
Leicester suburb 142.86 Ž7. 3099.79 448.29 843.08 54.78 10–20
Mallard North 139.9 Ž7.15. 3008.5 435.28 813.81 55.02 10–20
Lucas Heights 222.2 Ž4.5. 5779.1 828.11 1760.79 50.04 5–10

(b)
Leicester suburb 142.86 Ž7. 7168.35 1023.92 2271.53 35.47 5–10
Mallard North 139.9 Ž7.15. 6936.65 991.30 2184.97 35.67 5–10
Lucas Heights 222.2 Ž4.5. 14216.0 2010.15 5103.57 31.14 0–5
144 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150

Table 11
Sample illustration of the conceptual estimation of hydrochemical parameters for saturated fill using 2-D inversion result for
the Sonning Way site. The inferred bulk conductivity Ž s b . of fill and fluid conductivity Ž sw . are in mSrm. TDS and
chloride ŽCl. concentrations are in mgrl. Water content ŽW. is in volume percent. The average age Žin years. is estimated
only for G3 to G8 where saturated fill is inferred to be present. For each parameter, the top set of values was obtained using
Eq. Ž4. while the bottom set was obtained using Eq. Ž3.
Parameter G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9
sb 70.4 49.0 62.5 65.8 83.3 78.7 112.4 85.5 45.5
TDS 1143.5 686.2 966.4 1038.9 1449.8 1338.4 2209.5 1502.5 616.9
2395.4 1366.3 1990.9 2155.6 3109.3 2847.8 4940.9 3233.8 1215.4
sw 167.8 101.5 142.2 152.7 212.0 196.0 321.1 219.6 104.3
347.7 200.0 298.9 313.4 449.7 412.4 709.6 467.4 206.1
Cl 259.3 141.8 212.6 231.5 343.3 312.4 565.0 358.1 125
621.6 320.1 499.5 548.7 846.2 762.7 1463.0 886.3 278.7
W 58.1 63.4 59.8 59.1 61.2 56.6 51.9 55.5 64.6
36.9 41.5 38.3 37.7 41.2 35.5 31.6 37.0 42.6
Estimated age ) 20 20 20 20 10–20 20
10–20 10–20 10–20 10–20 10–20 10–20

predicting some hydrochemical parameters us-
ing empirical relations such as those described
in a previous section. Table 10 illustrates the
favoured approach to interpreting resistivity
models of saturated fill. While such results are
approximate, the approach described here may
be useful for drawing qualitative geoenviron-
mental inferences. For example, note the simi-
larity in the computed parameters for Mallard
North landfill and the landfill site near Leices-
ter. Coincidentally, the Mallard North landfill
accepted refuse from 1970 to 1974 and the
resistivity soundings were made in the summers
of 1988 and 1989 Ž Carpenter et al., 1991. while
the landfill near Leicester was backfilled be-
tween 1970 and 1976 and the resistivity sound-
ing was carried out in August 1992. It is appar-
ent from this table that the fill at Lucas Heights
is younger Žrelative to the date of the relevant
electrical sounding. than those at the other two
sites. Note that two sets of hydrochemical pa-
rameters were computed Ž see Table 10. ; the
values determined using Eq. Ž3. are about twice
those determined via Eq. Ž 4. and both schemes
may thus be considered as yielding the maxi-
mum and minimum predictions in this study.
In the 2-D case, the minimum resistivities in
the inferred saturated zone of the model Ž Table
9. have been used for the prediction of TDS,
fluid conductivity, chloride content and water
content Žsee Table 11.. The estimated values of
TDS from the preferred Eq. Ž 4. range from 960
to 2200 mgrl in the 2-D model for stations G3
to G8. The predicted fluid conductivity range
from 160 to 320 mrS Žwith chloride content of
140–565 mgrl. for these stations. An average
pre-survey age of about 20 years is estimated
for the fill on the basis of the predicted TDS
and chloride content and the age-compositional
classification of Farquhar Ž1989.. This is in
accord with the known age of fill Ž 17–22 years. ,
relative to the date of the VES measurements. It
is stressed that while the conceptual scheme
proposed here may be a feasible predictive tool,
caution should be exercised when using such
qualitative results especially as the age-related
characteristics detailed in Table 4 may not be
valid for all landfill sites.
4. Discussion
A major limitation faced in this study is the
lack of published bulk conductivity and hydro-
chemical borehole logs for landfill sites Ž this
being due in great measure to the fact that
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150 145

drilling through landfill and substrate is not
allowed in many countries because of the high
potential for exacerbating the pollution problem
by providing further pathways for contaminant
migration.. However, there appears to be some
possible support for the conceptual resistivity
model proposed in this paper from the studies at
the Beverly landfill site and elsewhere. Birks
and Eyles Ž1997. examined the hydrochemical
data from long-term Ž1984–1994. monitoring of
the Beverly site. The sampling points in each
monitoring well were placed at two levels Ž1–4
m and 10–12 m. below the water table Ž see
Birks and Eyles, 1997, Fig. 2. . These workers
found that the shallower monitors showed higher
conductivities Ž and chloride concentrations. than
deep monitors but interpreted this as indicative
of leachate dilution with downward migration or
preferential flow in the shallower parts of the
aquifer. Analysis of the composition of leachate
from a 3–5-year-old fill at Lucas Heights in
Sydney showed that heavy metals, iron and
manganese attain maximum values just below a
water intersection in a borehole Žsee Knight et
al., 1978, Fig. 8. .
A more detailed vertical sampling above and
below the water table Že.g. Sauck, 1999. will be
required to clarify the vertical conductivity
structure at such sites. It was recently shown
that the process of microbial degradation and
mineral leaching at hydrocarbon spill sites can
lead to a vertical resistivity structure in which
the most conductive section is within the zone
of fluctuation of the water table ŽAtekwana et
al., 2000; Sauck, 1999.. While these observa-
tions were for unexcavated, unconfined aquifer-
ous sediments, it can be expected that a some-
what comparable fate might be encountered by
organic liquids dumped in a landfill site so that
there might be similarities in the resistivity sig-
natures across the water table in the substrate.
There would also appear to be further indirect
support for the conceptual resistivity model from
some paradoxically related Ž weathering-in-

Fig. 13. Smoothness-constrained inversion model for the VES data shown in Fig. 7. The upper 20 m of the subsurface was
divided into 20 layers of equal thickness on a logarithmic scale and assigned a constant initial resistivity of 25 V m. The
resulting optimal model Žsolid line. after six iterations is presented in the right-hand plot. The other symbols have the same
meaning as for Fig. 7.
146 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150

duced. electrical anomalies. For instance, in derived from a half-space of 25 V m is shown

supergene sulphide enrichment, the enriched ox-
ide zone immediately above the water table and
the enriched sulphide zone below the water
table have the highest copper content ŽLevinson,
1980. and are electrically conductive targets in
mineral exploration surveys. In rock weathering,
the saprolite Žor chloritised. zone below the
water table is the most electrically conductive
ŽPeric, 1981; Palacky, 1987. .
It is important to stress that the reliability of
any hydrochemical predictions from surface
geoelectrical data will depend on the uniqueness
of the reconstructed resistivity distribution. One
may obtain a unique solution with ideal obser-
vations ŽLanger, 1933. but practical data are
typically associated with observational uncer-
tainties. A popular conservative strategy when
inverting a scanty set of noisy field data is to
seek the smoothest model that can reproduce the
main features of the data Že.g. Constable et al.,
1987; Meju and Hutton, 1992. . A smooth model
in Fig. 13 for the Schlumberger VES data pre-
sented previously in Fig. 7. Note that the main
features of this smooth model are in accord with
those of the simple resistivity-vs.-depth trans-
formation that served for generating the starting
models for all the 1-D biased estimation exam-
ples discussed previously. The minimum resis-
tivity of the target zone is about 8 V m in the
smooth model, which is in agreement with the
biased estimation model Žsee Fig. 7. . For this
particular data set, the range of acceptable mod-
els for a prescribed threshold misfit Ž Meju and
Hutton, 1992. is shown in Fig. 14. Note that
while the target zone may assume a range of
values for the prescribed threshold misfit, the
most frequent value of resistivity for this zone is
about 7 V m in these most-squares models.
However, model selection should be made with
caution. In the cases presented here, the models
closest in structural form to the simple data
transformation are preferred. The use of joint

Fig. 14. Most-squares inversion models for the least-squares model shown in Fig. 7. For the nine-parameter model of Fig. 7,
18 models are generated which satisfy the threshold misfit set at 120% of the least-squares misfit ŽMeju and Hutton, 1992..
The symbols have the same meaning as for Fig. 7.
 M.A. Meju r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 115–150
electrical and EM data for landfill resistivity
characterisation Že.g. Buselli et al., 1990. or
integrated surface and borehole resistivity imag-
ing is highly recommended for improved model
identification.
5. Conclusion
A feasible model has been developed for
geoelectrical investigation of old, covered land-
fill sites in urban areas. The model integrates
consistent concepts in geotechnics, geomicrobi-
ology, geochemistry and rock weathering in an
effort to develop a unifying framework for
geotechnical and geoenvironmental studies em-
ploying electrical and EM methods. The resis-
tivity sounding curves over landfill sites in dif-
ferent geographical regions have been shown to
be consistent with the proposed conceptual re-
sistivity model. The elements of this model can
be explored in a practical setting using low-cost
electrical and EM exploration tools. A naive
attempt is made to develop a plausible scheme
for predicting the approximate age and some
hydrochemical parameters of saturatedd fill from
estimates of fill resistivity as determined by
constrained 1-D and 2-D inversions of surface
measurements.
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