Fire

INVESTIGATION
 INTRODUCTION
Fire can either be the cause of an aircraft accident or result from it. As a cause,
it used to be quite rare considering all causes of all aircraft accidents. Modern
aircraft design practices separate, as much as possible, flammables from sources of
ignition and provide for containment or extinguishment of fires that do occur. In
spite of that, the past ten years has seen an increase of in-flight fires some of which
resulted in accidents. In some cases, this is due to a better understanding of the
in-flight fire process. Other reasons involve aging or overloaded electrical systems
and poor choices of insulating material. The inability of the flight crew to identify
the source of the fire or (in some cases) do anything about it has also contributed.
 DEFINITIOns
A. FIRE
B. DIFFUSION FLAME OR OPEN FLAME
C. DEFLAGRATION
D. DETONATION
E. EXPLOSION
F. FLASH POINT
G. AUTO-IGNITION TEMPERATURE
H. FLAMMABILITY LIMITS
I. FLASHOVER
 FIRE
This is a collective term for an oxidation reaction producing heat and
light. There are several types of fires.
 DIFFUSION FLAME OR OPEN FLAME
A rapid oxidation reaction
with the production of heat and light. A gas flame or a candle flame is termed
an open flame. So is the burning of residual fuel following the initial “fire ball”
during an aircraft impact.
 DEFLAGRATION
Subsonic gaseous combustion resulting in intense heat
and light and (possibly) a low level shock wave. Most aircraft impact “fireballs”
are technically deflagrations.
 EXPLOSION
Detonation within a confined space resulting in rapid build-
up of pressure and rupture of the confining vessel. Explosions may be further
categorized as either mechanical or chemical. A mechanical explosion involves
the rupture of the confining vessel due to a combination of internal overpres-
sure and loss of vessel integrity. A chemical explosion involves a chemical
reaction resulting in catastrophic overpressure and subsequent vessel rupture.
 FLASH POINT
This is the lowest temperature at which a material will produce a flammable
vapor. It is a measure of the volatility of the material.
 AUTO -IGNITION TEMPERATURE
This is also called Ignition Tem-
perature or Autogenous Ignition Temperature. It is the temperature at which
the material will ignite on its own without any outside source of ignition.
 FLAMMABILITY LIMITS
These are generally listed as the upper and
lower flammability or explosive limits. These describe the highest and lowest
concentrations of a fuel in air by volume percent which will sustain combustion.
In other words, a fuel-air mixture below the lower limit is too lean to
burn while a mixture above the upper limit is too rich to burn.
 FLASHOVER
These are generally listed as the upper and
lower flammability or explosive limits. These describe the highest and lowest
concentrations of a fuel in air by volume percent which will sustain combustion.
In other words, a fuel-air mixture below the lower limit is too lean to
burn while a mixture above the upper limit is too rich to burn.This term is used
to describe the situation where an area
or its contents is heated to above its auto-ignition temperature, but does
not ignite due to a shortage of oxygen. When the area is ventilated (oxy-
gen added) the area and its contents ignite simultaneously, sometimes with
explosive force.
 FIRE CHEMISTRY
Fire is essentially an oxidation reaction. In order for fire to occur, four
conditions must exist:

1. Combustible material
2. Oxidizer
3. Ignition
4. Enough heat or energy to sustain the reaction.
 COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL
The flammable liquids (fuel, hydraulic fluid) used on aircraft do not burn as
liquids. Their vapors burn. Thus the fire
chemistry involving a liquid is essentially a gaseous reaction and the
characteristics of the liquid itself are of little consequence. Since combustion
takes place in
the vapors above the surface of the liquid (or in a mist formed of the liquid) the
key characteristic of a liquid is its tendency to form flammable vapors. (“Vapors”
refer to the gaseous form of a substance.
 OXIDIZER
Since air is 20% oxygen, ordinary air is sufficient to support
most fires. If a fire occurs in flight and the fire is exposed to the slipstream,
oxygen is added and the fire will burn faster and hotter. Although the percentage
of oxygen in air is constant at any altitude, the
partial pressure is not. This is reduced as atmospheric pressure is reduced and
may be thought of as a reduction in the quantity of oxygen available.
 IGNITION
In order for a fire to ignite, the ignition source must first raise the
temperature of the combustible vapors (or material) in its immediate vicinity to
the ignition temperature of the material. Sparks from the aluminum alloys, for
example, are generally incapable of igniting turbine fuel vapors; they are not hot
enough.
HEAT OR ENERGY TO SUSTAIN THE REACTION
If the ignition process provides this energy, the fire will be self-sustaining. If not,
the fire will go out when the source of ignition is removed. Most synthetic
hydraulic fluids (“Skydrol” and Mil–83282) exhibit this characteristic. They will
burn, but only in the presence of continuous ignition; assuming, of course, that
the fluid has not been heated to above its auto-ignition temperature. Petroleum
based hydraulic fluids will continue to burn after the ignition source is removed.
 LEVEL OF BURNING REACTION

There are several different types or levels of burning. These should be

understood as the terms tend to be used interchangeably. The term,
“explosion” for example, may mean something entirely different to a
witness than it does to a fire specialist. These terms are defined earlier in
this chapter.
DIFFUSION FLAME OR OPEN FLAME
This is the lowest level of burning reaction and is analogous to a candle flame.

DEFLAGRATION
Most “fireballs” seen immediately after an aircraft impacts are deflagrations.

DETONATION
This is the third level of burning reaction and differs from an explosion only in that
it is unconfined.

EXPLOSION
This is a form of detonation occurring in a confined space and may be either
mechanical or chemical. The extensive damage is due largely to overpressure and
a supersonic shock wave.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRCRAFT FLUIDS AND MATERIALS
FLUIDS
The flash point is the lowest temperature at which the fluid will produce a
flammable vapor.
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS
The melting points of metals and materials commonly used in aircraft.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Technically, any non-homogenous material could be called a composite material. The
principal composites currently used in aircraft construction are fiberglass or carbon fiber.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Most aircraft metal structure is about 95% pure aluminum alloyed with copper or zinc and
small amounts of other elements.
 SOURCES OF FUEL
AIRCRAFT FUEL - This is the most obvious source. Possible locations would be the fuel tanks, tank vent
system, fuel lines and engines.
OIL - Aircraft engine oil is not a common source of fuel for a fire inasmuch as it is confined to the engine
and separated from the rest of the aircraft by a firewall.
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS - All hydraulic fluids currently in use can be ignited and will sustain combustion if
the temperature is high enough.
BATTERY GASES - All aircraft batteries outgas hydrogen under certain circumstances.
CARGO - If the fire originates in the fuselage, the aircraft cargo is always suspect. Cargo can contain both
fuel and oxidizers.
WASTE MATERIAL - The waste materials generated in aircraft lavatories or galley operations must also
be considered as possible sources of fuel.
INSULATION - Many aircraft use thermal and acoustic insulation blankets covered with metallized Mylar.
 SOURCES OF IGNITION
The ignition of a fire depends on the flammability of the fuel and the temperature or energy level of
the ignition source. Possible ignition sources are listed below with comments where appropriate:
1. Engine hot section parts
2. Engine exhaust
3. Electrical arc
4. Overheated equipment
5. Bleed air system
6. Static discharge
7. Lightning
8. Hot Brakes or Wheels
9. Friction Sparks
10. Aircraft Heaters
11. Auxiliary Power Units.
12. In-flight Galleys/Ovens/Hot Cups
13. Smoking Materials
 IN-FLIGHT FIRE VS. POST IMPACT FIRE
INDIRECT VS. DIRECT EVIDENCE

Indirect evidence is evidence that strongly points to an in-flight fire because of the circumstances of the accident or
the statements of the flight crew or witnesses.

INDIRECT EVIDENCE

Consider all known statements including radio transmissions by the flight crew.

DIRECT EVIDENCE

This will be examined under four major headings: In-flight Fire Effects, Ground Fire Effects, Crash Dynamics, and Impact
Effects.
THE END