5.Discuss electric current semi-conduction in amorphous materials.

Amorphous materials have disordered atomic-scale structure. The disorder in

these materials creates localized states that allow for the movement of electrons,
leading to electrical conductivity By controlling the deposition conditions and
the composition of the material, the electrical properties of amorphous materials
can be tailored for specific applications. Amorphous materials lack the long-
range order of a crystal lattice, which makes it difficult for electrons to move
through the material. However, they do have some degree of short-range order
that allows for some electrical conductivity.
The mechanism behind semi-conduction in amorphous materials, is that the
energy bandgap [which is in the range of two to three eV] is typically created by
disorder in the material itself. This disorder can create localized states in the
energy bandgap that allow for the movement of electrons, leading to electrical
conductivity.
Amorphous materials are commonly used in electronic devices such as solar
cells and memory devices. These materials are suitable for these applications
because they can be easily deposited in thin films using techniques such as
evaporation or sputtering. Additionally, amorphous materials can be made to
have specific electrical properties by controlling the deposition conditions and
the composition of the material.

6.A] Explain why a semi-conductor exhibits a negative temperature

coefficient of resistivity.
1.Increase in carrier mobility: As the temperature of a semiconductor increases,
the thermal energy of the atoms in the material increases, causing more atomic
vibrations and making it easier for the charge carriers to move through the
crystal lattice. This increased mobility of carriers leads to a decrease in
resistivity.
2.Reduction of the scattering of carriers: At lower temperatures, charge carriers
in a semiconductor are scattered by impurities, lattice vibrations, and other
defects in the crystal lattice, which increases resistivity. As the temperature
increases, the thermal energy can overcome some of these scattering
mechanisms, leading to a decrease in resistivity.

B] Discuss why silver is the best metallic conductor of electricity.

- Silver has the highest electrical conductivity of all metals, with a conductivity
of approximately 62.1 × 10^6 S/m at room temperature. This means that it can
conduct electricity more efficiently than any other metal, making it the ideal
choice for electrical applications where high conductivity is critical.
- silver's combination of high electrical conductivity, low resistivity, high
thermal conductivity, and resistance to corrosion make it the best metallic
conductor of electricity.

C]Explain how conductivity modulation in semiconductors is used in

thermistors and photoconductors.
Conductivity modulation is a process of changing the electrical conductivity of
a semiconductor material by introducing impurities or defects into its crystal
structure. In a thermistor this effect is achieved through the use of a
semiconductor material, typically doped with impurities to produce the desired
temperature sensitivity. When the temperature of the thermistor changes, the
conductivity of the semiconductor material also changes, resulting in a change
in resistance. In a photoconductor, the conductivity modulation is achieved
through the use of light. When light is absorbed by a semiconductor material, it
creates electron-hole pairs, which can increase the conductivity of the material.
The amount of light absorbed by the material is directly proportional to the
change in conductivity, which can be measured and used to infer the intensity of
the incident light.

7.List four main causes of resistivity in metals.

-Temperature: As the temperature of a metal increases, the thermal energy
causes more atomic vibrations, which can slow the flow of electric current
through the metal, leading to an increase in resistivity.
-Elastic scattering: Elastic scattering can impede the flow of electric current
through the metal, leading to an increase in resistivity.
-Grain boundaries: Discontinuous or misaligned boundaries can impede the
flow of electric current through the metal, leading to an increase in resistivity.
-Impurities: Impurities can disrupt the regular crystal lattice structure of a metal,
making it more difficult for electric current to flow through the metal, leading to
an increase in resistivity.
8. The resistivity of pure silicon is 2.3x10^3Ω - m at 27 °C. Find its
conductivity at 200°C.
Formula [ σ = 1/ρ]
σ = σoe-Eg/2kT
1/2.3x10-3 = σoe-1.1/2x8.65x10-5x300
σo = 696581.9
conductivity at 200 degrees
= 696581.9x6.242x10-10
= 1.08 Ω-1m-1