Advanced Materials

These materials drive technological innovation and improvise the efficiency and price for
existing products. Such specifically engineered materials are made through improvements
made in traditional materials. New products being made are always dependent on the discovery
of advanced materials as they help make them better.

The concept of engineering better materials is nothing new. Since the bronze age, people have
been experimenting with alloys to create better metals. Similarly in today's age different
materials are manipulated at an atomic level to create ones with different and enhanced
electrical, physical and magnetic properties.

Smart Materials
Smart materials are also called responsive or intelligent materials. As the name suggests, these
are designed so that they give a response to external stimuli in a controlled manner. An external
stimuli, to which these materials react could be a change in temperature, light, stress, electrical
or magnetic fields. Cups that change color when heated are one of the products of such
materials. Smart materials can be categorized as;

1. Shape Memory Alloys

These alloys are metals which become deformed below a given temperature but would
obtain their original shape once heated. This ability of “remembering” different shapes at
different temperatures is what gave them its name. Temperature and stress causes
change in these materials' crystalline structure between these two phases which leads to
shape memory effect being observed. The high temperature phase is called the
austenite phase whereas the low temperature phase is called the martensite phase. One
of the most common shape memory alloys is Nitinol, which is made from nickel and
titanium. Some applications of shape memory alloys are seen in coffee makers, thermal
triggers and dental implants.

2. Magnetostrictive Materials
These materials are used to convert mechanical energy into electromagnetic and vice
versa. Because of this these materials and the devices made from them are usually
referred to as transducers. Since these materials can be activated through both a
mechanical force and a magnetic field these can be used for actuation and sensing. This
multi purpose alloy is made from combinations of iron, chromium, cobalt and aluminum
and has several applications in robotics, medicine, etc.

3. Ferromagnetic Shape Memory Alloys

These materials produce forces and deformations in response to a magnetic field.
Thermal shape memory effect is also observed in these materials. Ni-Mn-Ga and Ni-Mn-
X are some examples of such materials.

4. Piezoelectric
These are smart materials which when under a mechanical stress give off a small
electrical charge. This happens due to accumulation of electric charge due to movement
of electrons upon application of stress. The development of a voltage upon the
application of stress is known as the direct or motor piezoelectric effect. This effect is a
 reversible process. Similarly, when a voltage is applied piezoelectric material shows the
development of strain. This is known as the converse or generator piezoelectric effect.
Some materials where piezoelectric effect is observed are bone, crystals, ceramics etc.

5. Electrostrictive Materials
Electrostrictive materials are those that show the electrostrictive effect which is when a
certain material responds to an electric field with a mechanical displacement. Lead
magnesium niobate (PMN) is one example of such materials and these are used in the
production of submarines etc.

Magnetic materials
All materials are magnetic to a certain extent, there is no such thing as non-magnetic materials
as everything has atoms and consequently electrons spinning around it. This spinning of
electrons can be related to current carrying wires that produce magnetic fields, thus all materials
have a certain amount of magnetism, how strong or weak this phenomena would be depends
upon the amount of electrons present in the outer shells.

Magnetic anisotropies
This explains how an object's magnetic properties can be different depending on direction. It is
the required energy to deflect the magnetic moment in a single crystal from the easy to the hard
direction of magnetisation. In one direction, it is easier to magnetize a material, it is called the
easy axis while in the other direction it is harder to magnetize the same material and it is called
the hard axis. The easy axis is the energetically preferred direction for spontaneous
magnetization as it requires a lot less energy than the hard axis. Magnetic anisotropy greatly
affects the shape of the hysteresis loop. Some types of magnetic anisotropies are;
1. Magnetocrystalline anisotropy
2. Surface anisotropy
3. Exchange anisotropy

Magnetic domains and magnetization processes

Magnetic domain refers to a region within a magnetic material where magnetization is uniform.
In these groups all the electrons have the same magnetic orientation. To magnetize a material
these domains are made to align in one unified direction through different magnetization
processes.

Magnetic materials can be magnetized with methods as simple as rubbing a permanent magnet
from one end to the other or placing your magnetic material in an external, stronger magnetic
field. Materials are also magnetized by placing them in a direct current carrying coil, magnets
made in this way are called electromagnets

Soft magnetic materials

Soft magnetic materials are those that can be easily magnetized and demagnetized. These
magnets make temporary magnets and produce a thinner hysteresis loop. Some examples of
soft magnetic materials are iron, iron silicon and iron nickel alloys.

Hard magnetic materials

Hard magnetic materials are ones which retain their magnetism. These are permanent magnets
and produce a tall and wide hysteresis loop. Cobalt and nickel are some examples of hard
magnetic materials.

Electronic materials and their properties

At a basic level all materials that have free moving electrons are electronic materials. The
difference between conductors, semi conductors and insulators arises from the ability of a
material to be able to bring its electrons to the surface. Band structures are used to define the
ability and extent of conduction of a material. Band structures are energy levels that are
available or forbidden for electrons to occupy. A certain amount of energy is needed for an
electron to jump an energy level, the amount of this energy determines whether a material
would behave as a conductor, semiconductor or an insulator. Good conductors approximately
have a conductivity of 10 to the power six. Copper and aluminum are some examples of good
electrical conductors.

Electronic components
Any device in an electronic system used to affect electrons is an electronic component. Some
examples of such devices are resistors, switches, diodes and capacitors.

Superconductors
Superconductivity is a state of matter that has no electrical resistance and does not allow
electrical fields to penetrate. These are materials with the highest electrical conductivity
possible. Since all materials are observed to have some resistance at normal temperatures, this
phenomena is particularly observed at cold temperatures. Mercury acts as a superconductor at
approximately 2.4 K. Superconductors are used in generators, electrical motors and
transportation etc.

Transparent and flexible conductors

These conductors are made from thin films of optically transparent and electrically conductive
materials. These materials combine the use of electricity and transparency.. Metals behave in
such a manner when they are extremely thin and properly arranged on the nanoscale. Indium
tin oxide is an example of transparent and flexible conductor. These conductors are used in the
manufacturing of solar cells, touch screens and electronic skins to name a few.

Semiconductor materials
Semiconductor materials are those which partially conduct and partially insulate. Such materials
can be elements like silicon or these materials can also be compounds like gallium arsenide etc.
Semiconductors as pure elements belong to group 4, as they have four valence electrons which
act as holes in these materials.

Basic of Band theory

Band theory is a concept to understand why certain materials conduct whereas some are
semiconductors or insulators. In this theory, the energy difference between highest and lowest
energy levels is used to describe conductivity. Electrons in an atom exist in different energy
levels, the difference between these levels where no electron is present is called the band gap.
The Valence band is the highest occupied energy band, the band gap for semiconductors for
this band is smaller, which is why a semiconductor conducts and insulates partially, as some
electrons when energized are able to reach the conductivity band and produce a current. The
conduction band in semiconductors accepts electrons from the valence band, resulting in a flow
of current. The energy difference between valence and conduction band is called fermi energy.
Applications
Semiconductors are used in production of almost all electronics. Laptops, mobile phones and
microwaves are all examples of electronic products that use semiconductor components like
integrated chips, transistors, etc.