FUNDAMENTALS OF

ELECTRICITY AND
ELECTRONICS
VICTOR C REALUYO
Instructor
WHAT IS ELECTRICITY?
ATOMS: ELECTRONS, PROTONS AND NEUTRONS

 An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all

of the chemical properties of an element. Atoms
combine to form molecules, which then interact to
form solids, gases, or liquids.

Atoms consist of three basic particles: protons,

electrons, and neutrons. The nucleus (center) of the
atom contains the protons (positively charged) and the
neutrons (no charge). The outermost regions of the
atom are called electron shells and contain the
electrons (negatively charged). Atoms have different
properties based on the arrangement and number of
their basic particles.
Conductors
 Elements such as gold, copper and silver possess
many free electrons and make good conductors.
The atoms in these materials have a few loosely
bound electrons in their outer orbits. Energy in the
form of heat can cause these electrons in the outer
orbit to break loose and drift throughout the
material. Copper and silver have one electron in
their outer orbits. At room temperature, a piece of
silver wire will have billions of free electrons.
Insulators
 These are materials that do not conduct electrical
current very well or not at all. Good examples of these
are: glass, ceramic, and plastic. Under normal
conditions, atoms in these materials do not produce
free electrons. The absence of the free electrons
means that electrical current cannot be conducted
through the material. Only when the material is in an
extremely strong electrical field will the outer electrons
be dislodged. This action is called breakdown and
usually causes physical damage to the insulator
Semiconductors
 This material falls in
between the
characteristics of
conductors and insulators,
in that they are not good
at conducting or
insulating. Silicon and
germanium are the most
widely used semiconductor
materials.
HOW TO PRODUCE ELECTRICITY?
 To produce electricity, a turbine generator set converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy. In the cases of natural gas, coal, nuclear fission, biomass,
petroleum, geothermal and solar thermal, the heat that is produced is used to
create steam, which moves the blades of the turbine.
TURBINE GENERATORS
 HOW ELECTRICITY GENERATORS WORKS?
 A basic electromagnetic generator has a series of insulated coils of wire that form a stationary
cylinder—called a stator—surrounding an electromagnetic shaft—called a rotor. Turning the rotor
makes an electric current flow in each section of the wire coil, which becomes a separate electric
conductor.

Alternator
 The alternator, also known as the ‘genhead’, is the part of the generator that produces the
electrical output from the mechanical input supplied by the engine. It contains an assembly of
stationary and moving parts encased in a housing. The components work together to cause
relative movement between the magnetic and electric fields, which in turn generates electricity.

(a) Stator – This is the stationary component. It contains a set of electrical conductors wound in
coils over an iron core.

(b) Rotor / Armature – This is the moving component that produces a rotating magnetic field in
any one of the following three ways:
 stator

rotor
 What is a Stator?
 The major difference between stator and rotor
is in that the stator is considered as the motors’
static part. The stator contains a frame,
winding, and static core. The housing or the
frame of the stator is made from aluminum,
although this is only for motors up to 22 kW.
This material changes for the motors that have
higher outputs. In these cases, the housing
should be made from cast iron. The housing
keeps all the parts inside. The stator contains
thin and stacked laminations. These
laminations are wound with insulated wire and
the stator’s core contains many (almost
hundreds) of these laminations.
 What is a Rotor?
 So, to know the difference between
stator and rotor, we should also
learn about rotors. Rotors are the
rotating section of a motor. It
contains a core and winding. A DC
supply triggers the rotor’s winding.
The rotor is the heart of the stator.
Stator uses the three-phase supply
to generate the rotating magnetic
field. Rotors have different types
including the squirrel cage and the
phase wound.
 Generators work by converting mechanical
energy into electrical energy using an engine,
alternator, and an outside fuel source. Modern
generators work on the principle of
electromagnetic induction, a term coined by
Michael Faraday when he discovered that a
conductor moving in a magnetic field can
create and direct electrical charges.
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY

Pressure Source
Chemical
Thermal
Light
PRESSURE

 This form of electrical generation is commonly known as piezoelectric

(piezo or piez taken from Greek: to press; pressure; to squeeze) is a
result of the application of mechanical pressure on a dielectric or
nonconducting crystal. The most common piezoelectric materials
used today are crystalline quartz and Rochelle salt. However,
Rochelle salt is being superseded by other materials, such as barium
titanate.

 Piezoelectric materials are used extensively in transducers for

converting a mechanical strain into an electrical signal. Such devices
include microphones, phonograph pickups and vibration-sensing
elements. The opposite effect, in which a mechanical output is
derived from an electrical signal input, is also widely used in
headphones and loudspeakers.
Chemical Source

 Chemical energy can be converted into electricity; the most

common form of this is the battery. A primary battery
produces electricity using two different metals in a chemical
solution like alkaline electrolyte, where a chemical reaction
between the metals and the chemicals frees more electrons
in one metal than in the other. One terminal of the battery
is attached to one of the metals such as zinc; the other
terminal is attached to the other metal such as manganese
oxide. The end that frees more electrons develops a positive
charge and the other end develops a negative charge. If a
wire is attached from one end of the battery to the other,
electrons flow through the wire to balance the electrical
charge.
Thermal Sources

 The most common source of thermal electricity found in the aviation

industry comes from thermocouples. Thermocouples are widely used
as temperature sensors. They are cheap and interchangeable, have
standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures.
Thermocouples are pairs of dissimilar metal wires joined at least at
one end, which generate a voltage between the two wires that is
proportional to the temperature at the junction. This is called the
Seebeck effect, in honor of Thomas Seebeck who first noticed the
phenomena in 1821. It was also noticed that different metal
combinations have a different voltage difference. Thermocouples are
usually pressed into service as ways to measure cylinder head
temperatures and interturbine temperature
Light Sources

 A solar cell or a photovoltaic cell is a device that converts

light energy into electricity. Fundamentally, the device
contains certain chemical elements that when exposed to
light energy, they release electrons. Photons in sunlight are
taken in by the solar panel or cell, where they are then
absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon.
Electrons in the cell are broken loose from their atoms,
allowing them to flow through the material to produce
electricity. The complementary positive charges that are
also created are called holes (absence of electron) and flow
in the direction opposite of the electrons in a silicon solar
panel.
RENEWABLE RESOURCES

Renewable resources are those resources

that continue to exist despite being
consumed or can replenish themselves
over a period of time even as they are
used. They include the sun, wind, water,
geothermal, and biomass.
Static Electricity
 Electricity is often described as being either static or
dynamic. The difference between the two is based simply on
whether the electrons are at rest (static) or in motion
(dynamic). Static electricity is a build-up of an electrical
charge on the surface of an object. It is considered “static”
due to the fact that there is no current flowing as in AC or DC
electricity. Static electricity is usually caused when non-
conductive materials such as rubber, plastic or glass are
rubbed together, causing a transfer of electrons, which then
results in an imbalance of charges between the two
materials.
Attractive and Repulsive Forces
 One of the most fundamental laws of static
electricity, as well as magnetics, deals with
attraction and repulsion. Like charges repel each
other and unlike charges attract each other. All
electrons possess a negative charge and as such will
repel each other. Similarly, all protons possess a
positive charge and as such will repel each other.
Electrons (negative) and protons (positive) are
opposite in their charge and will attract each other.
Electrostatic Field
 A field of force exists
around a charged body.
This field is an electrostatic
field (sometimes called a
dielectric field) and is
represented by lines
extending in all directions
from the charged body and
terminating where there is
an equal and opposite
charge.
Magnetism
 Magnetism is defined as the property of an object to attract
certain metallic substances. In general, these substances are
ferrous materials; that is, materials composed of iron or iron
alloys, such as soft iron, steel, and alnico. These materials,
sometimes called magnetic materials, today include at least
three nonferrous materials: nickel, cobalt, and gadolinium,
which are magnetic to a limited degree. All other substances
are considered nonmagnetic, and a few of these nonmagnetic
substances can be classified as diamagnetic since they are
repelled by both poles of a magnet.
The magnetic flux characteristics
The characteristics of the magnetic flux
can be demonstrated by tracing the flux
patterns of two bar magnets
with like poles together. The two like poles
repel one another because the lines of
force will not cross each other. As the
arrows on the individual lines indicate, the
lines turn aside as the two like poles are
brought near each other and travel in a
path parallel to each other. Lines moving
in this manner repel each other, causing
the magnets as a whole to repel each
other
 By reversing the position of
one of the magnets, the
attraction of unlike poles can
be demonstrated, as shown in
Figure 10-18. As the unlike
poles are brought near each
other, the lines of force
rearrange their paths and most
of the flux leaving the north
pole of one magnet enters the
south pole of the other.
Electromagnetism
 Electromagnetism In 1820, the Danish
physicist, Hans Christian Oersted, discovered
that the needle of a compass brought near a
current carrying conductor would be
deflected. When the current flow stopped, the
compass needle returned to its original
position. This important discovery
demonstrated a relationship between
electricity and magnetism that led to the
electromagnet and to many of the inventions
 Oersted discovered that the magnetic field had no
connection with the conductor in which the electrons were
flowing, because the conductor was made of nonmagnetic
copper. The electrons moving through the wire created the
magnetic field around the conductor. Since a magnetic field
accompanies a charged particle, the greater the current
flow, and the greater the magnetic field. Figure 10-25
illustrates the magnetic field around a current carrying wire.
A series of concentric circles around the conductor
represent the field, which if all the lines were shown would
appear more as a continuous cylinder of such circles
around the conductor.
Conventional Flow and Electron Flow
 Today’s technician will find that there are two competing
schools of thought and analytical practices regarding the
flow of electricity. The two are called the conventional
current theory and the electron theory.
Conventional Flow

 The theory was initially advanced by Benjamin

Franklin who reasoned that current flowed out of a
positive source into a negative source or an area
that lacked an abundance of charge. The notation
assigned to the electric charges was positive (+) for
the abundance of charge and negative (−) for a lack
of charge. It then seemed natural to visualize the
flow of current as being from the positive (+) to the
negative (−).
Electron Flow
 Later discoveries were made that proved that
just the opposite is true. Electron flow is what
actually happens where an abundance of
electrons flow out of the negative (−) source to
an area that lacks electrons or the positive (+)
source.
Electromotive Force (Voltage)
 Unlike current, which is easy to visualize as a flow, voltage is a variable that is
determined between two points. Often we refer to voltage as a value across two
points. It is the electromotive force (emf) or the push or pressure felt in a conductor
that ultimately moves the electrons in a flow. The symbol for emf is the capital letter
“E.”
VOLTAGE ( VOLTS )

 Figure 10-36 illustrates the flow of electrons of

electric current. Two interconnected water tanks
demonstrate that when a difference of pressure
exists between the two tanks, water will flow until the
two tanks are equalized. The illustration shows the
level of water in tank A to be at a higher level,
reading 10 psi (higher potential energy) than the
water level in tank B, reading 2 psi (lower potential
energy). Between the two tanks, there is 8-psi
potential difference. If the valve in the
interconnecting line between the tanks is opened,
water will flow from tank A into tank B until the level
of water (potential energy) of both tanks is
equalized. It is important to note that it was not the
pressure in tank A that caused the water to flow;
rather, it was the difference in pressure between tank
A and tank B that caused the flow
VOLTAGE

 This comparison illustrates the

principle that electrons move,
when a path is available, from a
point of excess electrons (higher
potential energy) to a point
deficient in electrons (lower
potential energy). The force that
causes this movement is the
potential difference in electrical
energy between the two points.
This force is called the electrical
pressure or the potential
difference or the electromotive
force (electron moving force).
Current
 Electrons in motion make up
an electric current. This
electric current is usually
referred to as “current” or
“current flow,” no matter how
many electrons are moving.
Current is a measurement of a
rate at which a charge flows
through some region of space
or a conductor
CURRENT ( I= AMPERE )

 . To understand the nearly

instantaneous speed of the effect of the
current, it is helpful to visualize a long
tube filled with steel balls as shown in
Figure 10-37. It can be seen that a ball
introduced in one end of the tube,
which represents the conductor, will
immediately cause a ball to be emitted
at the opposite end of the tube. Thus,
electric current can be viewed as
instantaneous, even though it is the
result of a relatively slow drift of
electrons.
Ohm’s Law (Resistance)

 The two fundamental properties of current and

voltage are related by a third property known as
resistance. In any electrical circuit, when voltage is
applied to it, a current will result. The resistance of
the conductor will determine the amount of current
that flows under the given voltage. In most cases,
the greater the circuit resistance, the less the
current. If the resistance is reduced, then the current
will increase. This relation is linear in nature and is
known as Ohm’s law.
 Example 1: If the resistance of an electric iron is 50 Ω and a current of 3.2 A flows through the
resistance. Find the voltage between two points.

 Solution:
 If we are asked to calculate the value of voltage with the value of current and resistance, then
cover V in the triangle. Now, we are left with I and R or more precisely I × R.
 Therefore, we use the following formula to calculate the value of V:
 V=I× R
 Substituting the values in the equation, we get
 V = 3.2 A × 50 Ω = 160 V
 Example 2: An EMF source of 8.0 V is connected to a purely resistive electrical
appliance (a light bulb). An electric current of 2.0 A flows through it. Consider the
conducting wires to be resistance-free. Calculate the resistance offered by the
electrical appliance.

 Solution:
 When we are asked to determine the value of resistance when the values of voltage
and current are given, we cover R in the triangle. This leaves us with only V and I,
more precisely V ÷ I.
 Substituting the values in the equation, we get
 R=V÷ I
 R=8V÷ 2A=4Ω
Power and Energy
 Power in an Electrical Circuit
This section covers power in the
DC circuit and energy
consumption. Whether referring
to mechanical or electrical
systems, power is defined as the
rate of energy consumption or
conversion within that system—
that is, the amount of energy
used or converted in a given
amount of time.
 Ohm’s Law Pie Chart
 To better understand
the relationship
between various
parameters, we can
take all the equations
used to find the
voltage, current,
resistance and power,
and condense them
into a simple Ohm’s
Law pie chart as shown
below.
 Problem 1: If the current and voltage of an electric
circuit are given as 2.5A and 10V respectively.
Calculate the electrical power?
Answer:
 Given measures are,
I = 2.5A and V = 10V
The formula for electric power is,
P = VI
P = 10 × 2.5 = 25watts
 Problem 2: Calculate the power of an electrical circuit
consisting of resistance 3Ω and a current 4A flowing
through this circuit?
Answer:
 Given parameters are,
I = 4A and R = 3Ω
Electric power formula is,
P = I2R
 P = 42×3
P = 16×3 = 48 watts
CIRCUITS ( SERIES / PARALLEL /
COMBINATION )

all components are

 In a series circuit,

connected end-to-end to form a

single path for current flow. The total
resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the
individual resistors, and the total voltage drop is equal to
the sum of the individual voltage drops across those
resistors.
SERIES CKT

 Current: The current is the same through each

component in a series circuit
 Resistance: The total resistance of a series
circuit is equal to the sum of the individual
resistances.
 Voltage: The total voltage drop in a series
circuit equals the sum of the individual voltage
drops.
Since points 1 and 2 are connected together with the wire of
negligible resistance, as are points 3 and 4, we can say that
point 1 is electrically common to point 2 and that point 3 is
electrically common to point 4.

Since the circuit has 9 V of electromotive force between

points 1 and 4 (directly across the battery), it must also drop
9 V between points 2 and 3 (directly across the resistor). This
is because Kirchhoff’s Voltage law states that the sum of all
voltages in a loop must equal zero.

Therefore, we can apply Ohm’s Law (I = V/R) to the current

through the resistor because we know the voltage (V) across
the resistor and the resistance (R) of that resistor. All terms
(V, I, R) apply to the same two points in the circuit and to
that resistor, so we can use Ohm’s law formula with no
reservation:
 How to Calculate Total Resistance in a
Series Circuit
 This brings us to the second principle of
series circuits: the total resistance of a
series circuit is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances.
 This should intuitively make sense, basically,
the more resistors in series that the current
must flow through, the more difficult it will be
for the current to flow.
 In the example problem, we had a 3 kΩ, 10
kΩ, and 5 kΩ resistors in series, giving us a
total resistance of 18 kΩ:
Using Ohm’s Law to Calculate Circuit Current in a Series Circuit

 With all those calculations completed, we now have all the necessary information to
calculate the circuit current for Figure 4 since we have the voltage between points 1
and 4 (9 V) and the resistance between points 1 and 4 (18 kΩ).
How to Calculate Voltage Drop in a Series Circuit

Now that we know the amount of current

through each resistor, we can use Ohm’s law to
determine the voltage drop across each one
(applying Ohm’s law in its proper context):
Notice that sum of the voltage
drops (1.5 + 5.0 + 2.5 = 9.0 V)
is equal to the battery (supply)
voltage of 9 V.

This is the third principle of

series circuits—the total
voltage drop in a series circuit
equals the sum of the
individual voltage drops.
 Series Circuit Fundamentals

 All components in a series circuit conduct the same current:

Itotal = I1 = I2 = . . . In
 The total equivalent resistance of a series circuit is equal to
the sum of the individual resistances: Rtotal = R1 + R2 + . . .
Rn
 The total voltage drop in a series circuit is equal to the sum
of the individual voltage drops Vtotal = V1 + V2 + . . . Vn