K+Fe

K
Na
Ca
Mg
Al
 Electrons

To gain an insight into how electricity flows through a material,

we need to understand the structure of atoms -- nature's building blocks

All matter is made up of carbon, hydrogen, and other atoms.

Each atom is comprised of protons, which are positively
charged; neutrons, which have no charge; and electrons, which
are negatively charged. The protons form the nucleus of the
atom and the electrons travel in orbits around the nucleus much
like the earth travels around the sun
 Electrons
Protons and electrons follow specific laws of attraction. Since they
have opposite charges, they attract to one another. If an atom has
the same number of protons as electrons, then the atom is
balanced, and stable. The orbiting electrons remain in their orbits
as long as nothing upsets the balance When something upsets this
balance, then some of the electrons become "knocked" out of their
orbits. The are called "free electrons". This unbalanced condition
can be caused by rubbing cat's fur on amber, passing a wire
through a magnetic field, or putting two chemicals together, as in
a dry cell battery The free electrons are attracted to atoms where
there is an electron missing and will fill the space just vacated by
the first free electron. When this conditions occurs continuously,
the movement of electrons becomes the basis for the flow of
electrical energy we call "current".
 Conductors

Conductors Materials that are made up of atoms whose electrons

are easily freed are called conductive materials or
"conductors". Platinum, gold, and silver are examples
of the very best conductors of electricity. Gold is used
extensively in small quantities for high-value products
like microelectronics, high quality audio components,
computer chips and telecommunications satellites.
Copper and aluminum are also quite excellent
conductors of electricity and much less expensive.
Almost all electrical wiring is aluminum or copper
 Aluminum Wires
Aluminum wire is used as electrical conductors on electric utility
transmission and distribution systems. The overhead wires spanning utility
poles are made of aluminum and do not have insulation around them
Aluminum has two advantages over copper as a conductor for utility lines:
It is lightweight and economical. The light weight permits larger spans
between poles.And because aluminum costs less than copper, it helps
utilities keep costs down.  Most electrical codes do not permit aluminum
wiring in residential buildings. Aluminum can be used in many commercial
and industrial buildings provided it is installed and maintained under strict
rules.
Insulators are materials that have structural properties exactly
opposite of conductors. These materials are made up of atoms whose
electrons are not easily "freed". These electrons are said to be tightly bound
to the nucleus, and are very stable. Insulators are used to prevent the flow
of electrical current. The rubberized power cord and plastic coverings on
appliances are typical examples of insulators. Glass, rubber, porcelain, and
most plastics are good insulators
 Voltage
Voltage is the electrical force that causes free electrons to move from
one atom to another. Just as water needs some pressure to force it
through a pipe, electrical current needs some force to make it flow.
"Volts" is the measure of "electrical pressure" that causes current flow.
Voltage is sometimes referred to as the measure of a potential
difference between two points along a conductor. Voltage is typically
supplied by either a generator or battery. Generators are analogous to
a water pump in a water piping system, and batteries are similar to
water towers. Both systems have a potential difference between the
source of the power and someplace downstream from the source .

The scientific symbol for voltage is an "E", dating to early days of

electricity when it was called the "Electromotive force". Scientists
and engineers use the "E" symbol for voltage, while electricians and
wiring books use "V" as the voltage symbol. This can create some
confusion, since either may be encountered. In this title, we'll use
the practical symbol "V" for voltage
 Current

Current is a measure of the rate of electron flow through a material.

Electrical current is measured in units of amperes or "amps" for short.
This flow of electrical current develops when electrons are forced
from one atom to another.
Direct Current (DC)

Direct current is produced when electrons flow constantly in one direction. It's abbreviated as "DC". Since direct current
flows in one direction only, its electrical pressure or voltage is always oriented in one direction, or "polarity".

Interestingly, the first commercial electrical systems set up by Thomas

Edison and others were direct current systems. But, for economic
reasons, these were later changed to alternating current or AC systems,
and are described in the Alternating Current section of this program.
Today, batteries, solar panels, fuel cells and special DC generators such
as wind turbines produce direct current.
 Static Electricity

Static electricity is the electrical charge associated with lightning, the shock you experience when
you touch the doorknob, or when your clothes stick together when they've just come out of the
dryer.
                                                                                                Static is caused by the buildup of electric
charges when two objects trade some of their electrons from one to the other. The object with the
greatest number of electrons has a greater negative charge. Since this occurs without the flow of
current, it is called "static".
When the negative charge becomes high enough, any contact with a less negatively, or positively,
charged body will cause an extremely rapid, high-current electrical discharge. This is what happens
when you cross the room in your socks and touch the doorknob. Your body is negatively charged
and the doorknob is positively charged. The negative charge discharges rapidly to the positive
charge, bringing the two items back in to electrical balance .

Because static discharge can be damaging to sensitive electronics, and disastrous around volatile substan

 
ces such as industrial solvents and fuels, preventive devices are commonly used. Grounding straps on vehicles
, aircraft, and computer operators'

                                                                              

             
 Heat

A small amount of electricity can be generated from heat by connecting two

dissimilar metals and heating the spot where they are joined. Metals such as copper
and constantan, a copper/nickel alloy, or iron and nickel are typical pairs.
Each metal reacts to the heat differently, causing a different movement of electrons
between the two. This device is called a thermocouple and the spot where the two
metals are connected is called the junction.

In an iron-nickel thermocouple, applying heat to the junction force the electrons to

move from the iron to the nickel, resulting in a small but measurable voltage. These
voltages are typically in the thousandths of a volt, or millivolts.
This thermoelectric process is frequently used in furnaces to sense the presence of
heat and to hold the gas valve open as long as the heat is present, and to allow it to
close if the flame goes out. It is a simple way to measure temperature but not a very
efficient way to generate any significant quantities of electricity
 Photovoltaic Cells

Photovoltaic -- PV for short -- or solar cells are made of silicon and can turn
sunlight directly into DC electricity. Each cell produces a small amount of
current. By connecting many cells together and placing them on larger
panels, the electric current produced can be significant. This can be used
directly in a DC appliance, stored in batteries, or converted to alternating
current to operate AC appliances using an inverter.

While extremely simple, photovoltaic cells are expensive compared to other

generating sources. While the cells themselves are fairly reliable, the sun's rays
are not a very predictable resource in most areas. As a result, other equipment
such as battery storage systems and an inverter to convert the DC current to
AC are often needed. Solar or PV power has consequently been used primarily
for specialized situations such as satellites and portable electronic equipment
and for power in remote locations
 Piezoelectric Principle

                                                                               

Crystalline materials produce small amounts ofelectricity when a

  

force is applied that changes their shape in some way. These are
called piezoelectric materials. Quartz is an example of a
piezoelectric substance. When small amounts of pressure are
applied to a quartz crystal, a small voltage is produced from the
changing charge created by the moving electrons. Phonographs using
a crystal cartridge utilize the piezoelectric principle to convert the
movement of the needle to an electrical signal which is later
amplified and played through speakers. Microphones and barbecue
lighters also use this principle
 Primary Cell Batteries

Common dry cell batteries work on a similar principle with a paste-like

electrolyte and a carbon electrode rather than copper. Combinations of
certain metals, such as copper and zinc, will produce electrical activity
when placed in special solutions called electrolytes. The two metals form
the electrodes. The electrolyte creates a chemical action that causes the
zinc to form positive ions and the copper to form negative ions. These
ions are freely flowing in the electrolyte. No current flow can occur until
the electrode terminals are connected to a circuit, like a light bulb. The
electrons then flow from the zinc electrode through the external circuit to
the copper electrode. The chemical reaction between the zinc and the
electrolyte continues, and the zinc is eventually used up in the process.
 Storage Cell Batteries

Storage batteries produce electricity from chemical action somewhat similar to

primary cells. However, the process can be also reversed by applying an exte
source of electricity in a charging process. This is normally done with a bat
charger, or with an alternator such as in a car or truck. During recharging, some
not all of the electrons are moved back on to their original electrode. Each time
battery is recharged, fewer electrons are moved back to their original electrode
eventually, the battery can no longer be recharged.

There are several common types of storage batteries which include:

lead-acid batteries, which are used in cars, trucks, and boats,alkaline
batteries,nickel-cadmium batteries,lithium and others. The nickel-cadmium
battery is commonly used in tools where the rechargeable feature is desired.
There is also significant ongoing storage cell research to support electric
vehicle development, since battery performance is critical to these vehicles
 Fuel Cells
A fuel cell consists of a container in which fuels
react in the presence of an electrolyte. In this
reaction, electrons are made available at the
negative electrode terminal. Energy is provided by
the continuous supply of fuels. Two fuels must be
used to provide the necessary reaction. Oxygen and
hydrogen are two of the fuels that can be used. Fuel
cells are used as a source of electricity in space
vehicles
 DC Generator

                                                                                                          A single loop

of wire in a magnetic field can be used as a DC generator. When
the loop is stationery, it is not cutting any magnetic lines of force
and the current and voltage are zero. As the loop of wire is rotated
through the magnetic field, it starts to break the magnetic lines of
force, and current and voltage are induced in the wire loop.
The magnetic lines of force induce current into the wire loop in
the same direction of flow as the loop moves in a circle, so the
electricity produced is DC since current flow is always the same
direction
 Alternating Current (AC)
Alternating current, or "AC" as it's often called, is the kind of power we
are all familiar with. We rely on this kind of power in our homes,
businesses, and industries. That's because AC power is much more
economical to produce and use than DC power.
The first commercial AC power was set up by George Westinghouse in
1886. At that time, Edison was still providing DC current to homes, but
the range of power transmission was about one mile from his plant in
New Jersey. Because AC power was found to be much cheaper to
distribute, it became the obvious preference.
The primary characteristic of AC power that makes it so economical is
the ability to change the voltage levels by using transformers. The
voltage can be stepped up or down as the need arises. This allows the
power to be distributed as widely as needed.
Unlike DC voltage and current, which remain steady, AC voltage and
current changes -- or cycles -- 60 times per second in North America. AC
power in Europe cycles 50 times per second. This cycling has many
advantages which we'll see in the next sections.
 Sine Wave Characteristics
AC power is represented graphically by a sinusoidal or sine waveform. --
called sine wave for short. As you look at this sine wave, remember that this
apparently stable picture changes 60 times every second. In doing so, we
think in terms of averages of current, voltage and any changes in frequency.
There are five characteristics of AC power; Amplitude, Cycles, Frequency,
Peak to Peak, and RMS.
Amplitude
 Cycles

A cycle is one complete repetition of the sine wave pattern. It is

produced by one complete revolution (360 degrees) of the AC
generator. Since the sine wave begins at zero, goes positive
through the positive peak, then negative through zero and
reaches the negative peak, and to zero, we say a full cycle has
been completed
 
 Frequency
The number of times the sine wave pattern cycle occurs
in a second is called the frequency. Frequency was
originally measured in cycles per second, or CPS. Today,
the unit of measurement for frequency is called Hertz, in
honor of the scientist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
 Peak to Peak
There are two values of voltage that we must be familiar with. The first is
"peak-to-peak" voltage. This is the voltage measured between the maximum
positive and negative amplitudes on the sine wave. It is twice the amplitude.
This value is the maximum voltage available, but is not all useable in practical
applications.
Human Response
Electricity can be harmful -- even fatal -- and should
always be treated with the greatest of respect and care.
But when a person does come in contact with
electricity, that person will actually feel the current
flow through his or her body. This current flow is what
causes a variety of responses, ranging from faint
tingling sensations to death
Resistance of Humans
Humans are conductors of electricity and have electrical resistance
similar to any other material. The human body's resistance to
current flow varies depending on:
•internal and external moisture;

•exposed sub-epidermal tissue;

•and skin thickness.

•Human resistance is about 10,000 ohms on the high side and as
little as 1,000 ohms if the person is wet. Remember, ohms is the unit
of measure of a material's resistance or impedance to current flow.
Current flow is obviously higher as the resistance goes down
•As an example, let's see how much current flows through a person if
he or she contacts a typical 120 volt household circuit. On the high
side, with human resistance around 10,000 ohms, we can compute
the current flow by dividing the voltage, 120, by the resistance,
10,000. This yields .012 amps, or 12 milliamps.
 Resistance of Humans

This is well above the perception level of 1 milliamp,

and slightly below the 15 milliamp "let go" threshold.
We feel it, but we can let go and have no lasting
physical damage.
If we are wet or standing in water, we become a
much better conductor, thereby offering less
resistance. The current flow is again found by
dividing the voltage, 120, by the lowered resistance of
1,000 ohms, which yields 0.12 amps, or 120
milliamps, of current flow. This is easily enough
current to send the heart into fibrillation and cause
electrocution
RMS
The second value of voltage is the actual useful
voltage that is available and is called RMS.
This stands for Root Mean Square and it is the
standard way of measuring and reporting alternating
current and voltage. It is not the peak; it is the average.

The RMS is found by multiplying the peak amplitude

by the square root of 2 (approximately 0.707).
This yields the actual, useable voltage.
It is typically represented by a dotted line drawn
across each peak near the 70 percent point
Electrocution/Fibrillation

                                                                                                 At
levels of current flow exceeding 1/10 of an amp or
100 milliamps, the heart stops. This is called
fibrillation. A person may survive an electrocution
if his or her heart can be started again. This is
why CPR is such an important skill in the electrical
industry
 AC Generator
One of the easiest ways to think about AC or electric power generation, is to think about it as the opposite
of electric power use -- kind of like a motor running backwards. Motors convert electricity into power
and
motion. Generators convert motion and power into electricity .

A typical generator has a large electromagnet spinning inside a stationary coil of wire.
As the magnetic field produced by the ends of the magnet moves across the turns of
wire in the stationary coil, an electric current is set up in the wire. Increasing the
number of turns of wire in a ring or doughnut configuration increases the additive
current in the wire
There are two types of alternating current commonly in use today : - single
phase and three phase
 Single-Phase

Single-phase alternating current is most often used in homes, small businesses and on
farms. In large commercial buildings and industrial locations where larger motors are
used, single phase power is not usually adequate.
                                  The production of single-phase alternating current is best
described by thinking of the generator as a simple bar magnet rotating inside a single
coil shaped loop of wire. When the magnet rotates, the magnetic lines of force cut
through the coiled wires. The strength of the field created depends on the number of
these lines that are cut each second. At a constant speed, more coils of wire will be cut
per second as the loop approaches the one-fourth revolution point and the generated
voltage reaches a maximum at this point. As the north pole moves from the one-fourth
revolution point to the one-half revolution point, fewer wire coils are being cut per
second. The voltage decreases and goes to zero at the one-half revolution point where
the magnetic field is parallel to the coils of wire.
                                 
 Single-Phase(CONT’D)

As the magnet continues to rotate, the South pole's magnetic field cuts the
coiled wires in the opposite direction, producing an opposing voltage which
again builds up to a maximum at the three-fourths revolution point. As the
north pole moves from the three-fourths turn to one full revolution, the
voltage then decreases to zero.
One complete revolution of the magnetic field is called a cycle. If there was
only one coil of wire in the outer portion of the generator this would be a
single phase device. By adding two additional coils of wire to the generator,
we could then generate current in three individual coils or phases, or three
phase power.
 Three Phase

Three-phase power is designed especially for large electrical loads where the
total electrical load is divided among the three separate phases. As a result,
the wire and transformers will be less expensive than if these large loads
were carried on a single phase system.
Three-phase generators usually have three separate windings,
each producing its own separate single-phase voltage. Since
these windings are staggered around the generator
circumference, each of the single-phase voltages is "out of
phase" with one another.  That is, each of the three reaches the
maximum and minimum points in the AC cycle at different
times.
Electricity is generated at power companies in these three
phases. But, if three phase power is better than single phase,
why not four, five or six phase? Theoretically, these would be
even better, but equipment manufacturers would have to
build motors to use it, and that just wouldn't be cost
effective given the installed base of three phase equipment
that must continue to be powered.
The word "phase" is often abbreviated using the Greek letter
"phi" and is written as a zero with a slash mark
 Wire Characteristics

Electrical wires must be able to carry current safely without overheating and
being damaged. Characteristics of wires include the following:

Ampacity =The current carrying capacity of a particular wire is

dictated by its "ampacity" - how many amps it can handle.
Ampacity is a function of the cross section area or diameter of
the wire and its material type. Larger diameter wires have larger
cross section areas and can safely carry more electrical current
without overheating. The maximum ampacity for different types
of wires is reported in the electrical codes used throughout the
industry. These tables are based on the size of the wire and the
particular insulation type for the particular wire.

INSULATION TYPE is important since some

insulation materials dissipate heat better than
others .
 Insulation Type

THE INSULATION AROUND A WIRE HAS TWO PURPOSES: 1) to prevent

contact with other conductors, the ground and 2) 0ther conductive objects; and to
shield the wire from physical damage.
The type of insulation determines the environment in which it can be used safely.
Wires used indoors are subjected to less exposure to the elements than those
designed for outdoor use. Outdoor wiring is exposed to water and ultraviolet light,
so the insulation is designed to withstand these elements. Insulation on wires buried
in the ground must also be able to withstand the damp, corrosive environment of
the soil.
Most of today's electrical wires have insulation coverings made of plastic or
thermoplastic which provides a long, durable life. Many older wires used cloth
insulation. Rubber was also common, but is not used as much any more since it
becomes brittle and deteriorates over time.
Wire Size
Electrical wire sizes are indicated using two different systems: the
American Wire Gauge System (AWG) and the Thousand Circular Mill
system (KCMIL), which was known until recently as (MCM). Both
systems designate wire size based on their diameter or cross sectional
area. The American Wire Gauge system is used to refer to relatively
small wires
Cables & Cords
In the early days, it was necessary to run individual
wires from a main box to every place that it was
needed. Today, we have wiring cables packaged for
every conceivable residential or commercial need.
It is now possible to wire and entire house using
what is called cabling, which is merely having two
or three individually insulated wires inside another
insulation package, usually made of inexpensive
plastic. The wires can be solid or stranded. This
permits an electrician to run one cable containing
all the wire needed for a particular circuit in one
package. The outer packaging is designed only to
keep the wires together and is not meant to be
flexed once it has been installed.
 Electrical Standards

There are several major organizations and codes that help to standardize
equipment specifications and safety regulations within the electrical
industry.
The first is NEMA, or the National Electric Manufacturers' Association.
NEMA is a major force in standardizing electrical apparatus, making it
easier for utilities to use different manufacturers' products interchangeably.
NEMA issues technical standards and specifications, which are often cited
in the manufacturers' descriptive data about its products.
Another important group is ANSI, the American National Standards
Institute. ANSI also gets involved in setting equipment and operating
standards for utilities.
And, finally, there is the National Electrical Code. This is a comprehensive
building code standards book sponsored by the National Fire Protection
Association. it's revised every three years and its primary purpose is the
protection of life and property. in fact, the original NEC was written in 1897
and was the combined effort of the insurance, electrical and architectural
industries. In addition to NEC, the National Fire Protection association
issues other standards related to the electrical field, which you'll also want
to consult if your region has adopted them as law.
 Overload Protection
Every electric circuit in a wiring system must be protected against
overloads. A circuit overload occurs when the amount of current flowing
through the circuit exceeds the rating of the protective devices.
The amount of current flowing in a circuit is determined by the load --
or the "demand" -- for current. For example, if a circuit is rated for 15
amps maximum, then a fuse or circuit breaker of that rating will be in
that circuit. If the current exceeds 15 amps, the circuit breaker will open
up, cutting off any more current flow. Without overload protection wires
can get hot, or even melt the insulation and start a fire.
There are two kinds of protection for electrical units that need to be
considered. The first is concerned with the protection of the actual
electrical wires supplying the circuits against an overload above their
carrying capacity. The second type is concerned with protecting the
individual appliances and electrical equipment connected to a supply
circuit from an overload. Both types of protection involve either fuses or
breakers, but are based on different ideas and objectives
How Overloads Occur
Overuse of extension cords and multiple plug adapters on the same
circuit are typical causes of an electrical overload -- by placing too much
current demand on the circuit. Running too many blow dryers and
curling irons at once is a typical problem when homes have a single
circuit serving two bathrooms. In each of these cases, fuses should blow
or a circuit breaker should open, which shuts the power off. Circuit
overloading is common around the holidays, when more electricity is
used around the home for electric decorations. Signs of overloaded
circuits include: ,Flickering lights, Sparks from appliances or wall
outlets , Warm switch plates or outlets , Dimming lights or television sets
.A warm extension cord or plug always indicates a potential overload
Don't make the mistake of trying to eliminate a "fuse
problem" by replacing a 20 amp fuse with a spare 30
amp fuse. This may seem to fix the problem because
the flow won't blow as frequently. But it creates a
terribly dangerous situation! Believe it or not, there
are people who have put a penny in the place of a
fuse, thinking it would help. But the penny is an
excellent conductor and will quickly overload the
circuit
 Conductor Protection

Every size of electric wire has a maximum safe current-carrying capacity

or rating. The current-carrying capacity is slightly different depending on:
whether the wire is aluminum or copper;whether the conductors are used
individually or in groups;and where the wire or cable is placed out in the
open air,direct sun or shade inside a well-ventilated, normally heated
building, or near a hot furnace or boiler rooms, etc. There is a point to all of
this specifying current ratings in wires. The breaker or fuse selected to
protect a particular wire size from overload must trip or melt before the
current flow will cause conductor heating that could be damaging to the
wire or insulation. Depending on the way the interrupting device works, the
wire or cable may carry momentary overloads, provided the overload time
is very short so that the total heat produced cannot build up to dangerous
levels. These are called "slow blow" protectors. But, be aware that a small
amount of overheating, repeated numerous times can produce
deterioration in the conductor insulation. Obviously, the idea of placing a
penny or other metal object behind a fuse, or taping a breaker down so
that it cannot trip, is absolutely foolhardy.
 

 
 Equipment Protection

Fuses and breakers are also used to protect electrical appliances and
equipment from damage or complete burn out due to overload. The fuse or
breaker at the breaker box is sized to protect the wire, but is not necessarily
sensitive enough to protect a small-use device plugged in on the circuit. In
this instance, a fuse or breaker is generally built into the appliance or
electrical equipment to protect it from overload
 Equipment Protection

For example, electric motors draw large in-rush currents when they are
starting. A typical motor will draw five times as much current while
starting compared to its normal running current. Therefore, a motor that
draws 3 amps at full-rated load while running, will draw 15 amps while it
is starting. A 12 gauge copper wire used to supply the motor with
electricity would normally be protected by a 20 amp fuse or circuit
breaker. If the motor locks up and draws 15 amps, this current flow will
burn out the motor winding very quickly but not cause a 20 amp fuse or
breaker to shut off power to the motor. A second fuse or breaker to
protect the motor from overloading is clearly necessary in a situations like
this. Note also that when individual equipment fuses or breakers are used,
they are used in addition to the regular circuit protection. The fuse or
breaker at the main service panel or sub-panel protects the circuit wire
against dangerous overloads. The equipment fuse or breaker protects the
individual piece of electrical equipment and adds safety to the system
 ONE OF THE BEST WAYS TO PROTECT AGAINST
ELECTRICAL SHOCK IN YOUR HOME IS TO INSTALL
GFCIs GROUND FAULT CIRCUIT INTERRUPTERS,
COMMONLY CALLED GFCI'S FOR SHORT. THESE
DEVICES MONITOR HOW MUCH CURRENT FLOWS TO
AN APPLIANCE ON THE HOT WIRE AND HOW MUCH
COMES BACK ON THE NEUTRAL WIRE. IF THE
DIFFERENCE IS GREATER THAN 0.005 AMPS, A FAULT
IS DETECTED, AND THE GFCI WILL INTERRUPT THE
POWER IN A FRACTION OF A SECOND. THIS LEVEL OF
CURRENT HAS BEEN SELECTED BECAUSE IT IS ABOVE
THE HUMAN LEVEL OF PERCEPTION OF ELECTRICITY
BUT WELL BELOW THE "LET-GO" LEVEL, WHERE
LOSS OF MUSCLE CONTROL OCCURS. A GFCI OUTLET
HAS TWO BUTTONS ON THE FRONT: A RESET BUTTON
AND A TEST BUTTON. WHEN THE TEST BUTTON IS
PUSHED, AN INTERNAL SHORT IS PLACED ACROSS
THE GFCI OUTLET AND SHOULD CAUSE THE GFCI TO
TRIP AND SHUT THE POWER OFF. THE RESET BUTTON
SHOULD POP OUT WHEN THIS HAPPENS, WHICH
HELPS ALERT SOMEONE THAT THE GFCI HAS
OPERATED..
 GFCIs cont’d

A GFCI OUTLET HAS TWO BUTTONS ON THE FRONT: A

RESET BUTTON AND A TEST BUTTON. WHEN THE TEST
BUTTON IS PUSHED, AN INTERNAL SHORT IS PLACED
ACROSS THE GFCI OUTLET AND SHOULD CAUSE THE GFCI
TO TRIP AND SHUT THE POWER OFF. THE RESET BUTTON
SHOULD POP OUT WHEN THIS HAPPENS, WHICH HELPS
ALERT SOMEONE THAT THE GFCI HAS OPERATED. THE
GFCI IS RE-ENERGIZED OR "RE-SET" BY PRESSING IN THE
"RESET" BUTTON. IF THE RESET BUTTON WILL NOT HOLD
AND THE GFCI CONTINUES TO SHUT THE POWER OFF
EVERY TIME THE RESET BUTTON IS PUSHED, THIS
INDICATES THERE MAY BE A SERIOUS ELECTRICAL
PROBLEM THAT NEEDS ATTENTION
 Required Locations
Most people have seen GFCI outlets before in bathrooms. or on the
outlet for the office coffee maker. In newer homes, these outlets are
commonly seen near kitchen and bar sinks, garages, basements, and
outdoors near patios and swimming pools. The one thing all these
areas have in common is a damp or wet location. Since electricity and
water are a dangerous combination, the GFCI outlets provide an added
measure of safety protection in these wet and damp places. The 1996
National Electrical Code requires GFCI's in all bathroom outlets, all
kitchen and bar outlets within 6 feet of a sink, all outdoor outlets that
serve patios or decks within 8 feet of the ground, one in the garage,
one in a basement, and any outlet within 10 feet of a swimming pool.
There are additional requirements in commercial and industrial
buildings, primarily on rooftops or other areas where maintenance
people have to perform service work in wet or damp areas.
 CIRCUIT BREAKERS

A circuit breaker is essentially a combination of a thermostat and a

switch. The circuit breaker has a bimetal strip which heats and bends
during a circuit overload. This bending action trips the breaker and
opens the switch, thus breaking the circuit. As soon as the metal strip
cools (about two minutes or so) the breaker can be manually reset
completing the circuit again. Most units reset either by flipping a
switch or by pushing on the breaker. Since there is no easily removed
part like a fuse, they are less likely to be replaced with the wrong
size if frequent tripping occurs in a circuit. Circuit breakers have
gained popularity because of their convenience. Their one drawback is
that the metallic contacts in some hostile environments can corrode
shut so that the breaker does not open the circuit when it should.
Anytime a circuit breaker opens, it is an indication of a problem. The
problem should be located and corrected before reclosing the breaker
to ensure safety.
 Fuses

Fuses are electrical safety devices

which contain a "link" that melts
at a pre-determined electrical current.
The link melts because of the heat
produced by excessive amounts of
current flowing through it. When the fuse link melts, it opens the
circuit and shuts off the current flow. There are two basic fuse
types: plug fuses, sometimes called screw-base fuses;and
cartridge fuses.Plug or screw-type fuses are typically used in
smaller sizes up to about 30 amps but are made in larger sizes,
too. Cartridge fuses are normally found in very small electrical
devices and are also used on high current-carrying circuits over
30 amps or more in electric wiring applications. Both types are
made in non-delay and time-delay -- also called "slow blow" --
designs.
 Plug Fuses

Plug fuses are round fuses which screw

into a base in the fuse holder to complete
the circuit. A plug fuse contains a strip of
soft wire or metal. The strip of metal is
designed to carry a given amount of electric current, such as 15 amps.
If anything happens causing more current to flow in the circuit than
the circuit and the fuse are designed to carry, the metal strip melts or
"burns out". This opens the circuit, stopping the flow of current and
protecting the wiring. The threads on the base of the common plug or
screw type fuse are the same as found on light bulbs. This base and
thread size is commonly referred to as an "Edison base", in honor of
Thomas Edison who invented the first light bulb. An Edison base
fuse is a plug type fuse having this size and type of base. Edison base
fuses are discouraged since they allow any size fuse to be placed in
the Edison base which makes it easy to "overfuse a circuit" or
electrical appliance
 CARTRIDGE FUSES

The cartridge type fuse gets its name

from the shape of the container protecting
the fuse link. Instead of screwing the fuse into a base, a
cartridge fuse snaps or squeezes in between two holders
on each end of the fuse. The ends of the cartridge fuse are
metal and connect to the fuse link inside the cartridge.
Larger current cartridge fuses commonly have a bayonet
end that fits snugly between the jaws of special holders.
Many older cartridge fuses were made with replaceable
fuse elements so if the fuse link "blew" it could be
replaced. The use of replaceable fuse links has largely
been eliminated to reduce the chance of installation of an
oversized
 Time-Delay Fuses

The time-delay, or "slow blow", fuses were developed for

situations where acceptable momentary overloads are
encountered, such as starting a motor. As the name implies, this
type of fuse will carry an overload several times the normal load
for a short period of time without blowing. The time-delay fuse
has two elements. In addition to the "burn out" link of the
ordinary fuse, there is a short connector with a spring attached.
The connector is held in place by low melting point solder. With
momentary overloads of 100 to 200 percent of the fuse rating,
neither element is affected. But with a continuous overload, heat
builds up in the fuse to a point where the solder melts, releasing
the spring which opens the contact. If there is a short circuit, the
"burn out link" melts just as in an ordinary fuse.
Type S/Adapter Fuses

Type S fuses are also called tamper proof fuses because each
fuse size has a different base and thread size. These fuses also
require the use of a special adapter which is screwed into the
standard Edison base of the fuse holder. The adapter has a
standard Edison base thread on the outside but a special sized
diameter and thread on the inside. It also has a spring barb on
the outside that projects into the standard Edison base shell
of the fuse holder and prevents the removal of the adapter
once it has been installed. The different sized base and thread
size is such that a larger size S base fuse cannot be screwed
into the adapter. The adapters have amperage ratings the
same as the fuses which go in them. If a 20 amp adapter is
installed in a fuse holder, it is impossible to use an S type fuse
higher than a 20 amp rating in the adapter.