LAB EXPERIMENT -5

SOLID STATE PHYSICS LAB

SUBMITTED BY-TUSHAR GAUTAM
ROLL NO.-816
IIIrd Y EAR
UNIVERSITY ROLL NO.-19026567101
COURSE-B.Sc(H) PHYSICS
SUBMITTED TO- DR. SANJAY KUMAR & DR. MANJU BALA
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,HINDU COLLEGE,DELHI UNIVERSITY

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EXPERIMENT NO.-5
5.1.Energy Bands in Solids:
In a particular element, the magnitude of the neighboring atoms’ influence depends
on the spacing and the electron’s location within the group of atoms. Accordingly,
when other atoms are close, the single atoms’ discrete electron energy levels change
into energy bands. An energy band is an energy range with many allowed adjacent
energy levels, very closely spaced.

Figure 1 shows the energy bands as a function of the spacing between atoms for
tetravalent crystals (Group 4A of the Periodic Table: nonmetal diamond, the semi-
conductors silicon and germanium, and the metals tin and lead). Diamond, silicon,
and germanium are technologically important.

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The valence band comprises the highest energy electrons in the solid, and the con-
duction band is the lowest empty belt where electrons can remain. These bands are
the permissible bands. The energy band between the permissible bands is the band
gap or forbidden band, where the electrons cannot exist. Energies within the band
gap are not accessible for electron occupancy. The energy of the band gap is the
difference between the valence and the conduction bands.

The energy bands below the valence band (not shown) are all filled and do not
contribute to the material’s electrical characteristics. The electrical properties of a
solid strongly depend on the number of electrons in the valence band.

In figure 1, the circles with a negative sign are the actual valence electrons of one
atom in a filled energy state. The empty circles represent the available energy states
for the electrons. The filled valence band and empty conduction band assume a per-
fect crystal lattice and a temperature of 0 K (-273°C) – the ground or lowest-energy
state.

When the lattice spacing decreases from its initial value, a single band appears
as a combination of the valence and conduction bands. Reducing the spacing, the
band divides into different valence and conduction bands with a bandgap in between.

Since no more than two interacting atoms can have the same energy level, new
levels take shape with infinitesimally different magnitudes. This group of energy
levels in a polyatomic material – the energy band – represents an energy level in a
single atom. Each band contains as many discrete levels of energy as there are atoms
in the crystal.

Pauli’s exclusion principle limits the number of electrons in a certain NL atomic

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energy level in a single atom. Likewise, the principle limits the maximum number of
electrons contained in a lattice’s energy band.

5.2.CONDUCTORS,SEMICONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS::

5.2.1 CONDUCTOR.
A conductor is a type of material that allows the flow of charge otherwise known as
electrical current. Most common electrical conductors are made from metals. Such
materials allow the current flow due to the presence of free electron or ions which
starts moving when voltage is applied.The conductors have very low electrical resis-
tance i.e. the opposition to the current flow depend on the length & width of the
conductor. It increases with increase in temperature.
A conductor facilitates the easy flow of an electron from one atom to another atom
when the proper application of voltage. This is because there are no band gaps
between the valence and conduction bands.In some materials, there is an overlap-
ping of the conductor and valence bands, which means electrons can move between
the two overlapping bands. As there is space for elections to move into in the con-
duction band, valence band electron moves into the other band and conduction is
allowed. Silver is probably the best electrical conductor we encounter in everyday
life. Other metals, such as gold, copper, steel, aluminium and brass also represent
good conductors. You’ll find these materials in everyday electrical equipment, either
in the form of wires or etched onto circuit boards.Solids are normally the best types
of conductors, however, some liquids including liquid metals such as mercury are
also good at permitting the transmission of energy through them. Some materials
are classed as superconductors. At extremely low temperatures these materials will
conduct without resistance.
5.2.2 SEMICONDUCTORS.
Semiconductors are materials that have conductivity in-between conductors and in-
sulators. They can block or allow the current flow providing total control over it.

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They are mostly modified by adding impurities called doping. It modifies its prop-
erties like unidirectional current flow or amplification or energy conversion etc.The
electrical conduction inside semiconductors is due to the movement of electrons holes.
A semiconductor is a material whose conductivity lies between conductor insulator
The resistance of a semiconductor decrease with increases in temperature. Thus
it acts as an insulator at absolute zero.They have intermediate conductivity ((10−7
mho /m to 10−13 mho/m), thus they can acts as insulator & conductor at different
conditions.The band gap of semiconductor is greater than the conductor but smaller
than an insulator i.e. 1 eV. Their electrons need a little energy for conduction stateIt
has negative coefficient of resistivity.The semiconductors turn into insulator at ab-
solute zero.Silicon, Germanium, Selenium, Antimony, Gallium Arsenide (known as
semi insulator),Boron etc.are the examples of semiconductors.Semiconductors are
used every day electronic devices such as cellphone, computer, solar panel etc as
switches, energy converter, amplifiers, etc.

5.2.3 INSULATORS.

An insulator prevents the flow of energy between two objects. For example, in-
sulators may prevent the flow of electric, heat or sound.Thermal insulators, reduce
the transfer of heat between two objects of differing temperatures. Thermal insu-
lators do this by reflecting thermal energy. The insulative capacity of a material
is the inverse of thermal conductivity (k) and therefore those materials with low
thermal conductivity will have high insulating capability or resistance value. Other
important properties to consider are product density (ρ) and specific heat capacity
.A substance that does not conduct electricity is called a dielectric material. These
substances can be polarised by an applied electric field so electric charges do not flow
through them as they would through a conductor. Therefore, the internal electrical
field reduces the overall field within the dielectric. In insulators, there are larger

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gaps between the conduction and valence bands. The electrons cannot move into
the conduction band and this means the material cannot conduct.
5.3 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS.
An Intrinsic semiconductor is formed from a highly pure semiconductor material
thus also known as pure semiconductors. These are basically undoped semiconduc-
tors that do not have doped impurity in it.At room temperature, intrinsic semicon-
ductors exhibit almost negligible conductivity. As no any other type of element is
present in its crystalline structure.The group IV elements of the periodic table form
an intrinsic semiconductor. However, mainly silicon and germanium are widely used.
This is so because in their case only small energy is needed in order to break the
covalent bond.
Extrinsic Semiconductors are those that are the result of adding an impurity to a
pure semiconductor. These are basically termed as an impure form of semiconduc-
tors.The process by which certain amount of impurity is provided to a pure semicon-
ductor is known as doping. So, we can say a pure semiconductor is doped to generate
an extrinsic semiconductor. These are highly conductive in nature. However, un-
like intrinsic semiconductor, extrinsic semiconductors are of two types p-type and
an n-type semiconductor.It is noteworthy here that the classification of the extrinsic
semiconductor depends on the type of element doped to the pure semiconductor.The
p-type semiconductors are formed by introducing group III elements or trivalent im-
purity into the pure semiconductor. These are also known as an acceptor impurity,
as a trivalent impurity has only 3 electrons in the valence shell.The n-type semicon-
ductors are formed by the addition of group V elements or pentavalent impurity to a
pure semiconductor. These are termed as donor impurity, as a pentavalent impurity
holds 5 electrons in its valence shell.

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AIM:
To Study the Variation of Resistivity of a Ge Crystal with temperature by Four
Probe Method and Hence to determine the band gap Eg for it.
Apparatus::
A Thin Ge Crystal with smooth surface, a Four -Probe arrangement ,a Digital Elec-
tronic milli voltmeter, a Constant current(0-10 mA), an oven with its power supply
and a thermometer.

Fig.1 Apparatus of Four Probe

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Fig.2 Schematic of Four Probe

Theory::
A Four -point collinear probe and the appropriate test Equipment can be used to de-
termine both the resistivity of a semiconductor specimen and its conductivity Type.
The Four-Point Probe Method.

The Four point Probe or Kelvin Probe method is the most common method to
measure a semiconductor material’s Resistivity. The Four point probe is preferable
over a two point probe because the contact and spreading resistances associated
with the two point probe are large and true resistivity cannot be accurately sepa-
rated from the measured resistivity.In a Four point Probe, very little contact and
spreading resistance is associated with the voltage probes and hence one can obtain
fairly accurately readings of Resistivity. Using Four Probes eliminates measurements
errors due to the probe resistance, spreading resistance under each probe, and the
contact resistance between each metal and semiconductor material.
.The Four Probes are Equally spaced and collinear and coated with a hard con-
ducting material(Zinc, Tungsten carbide, osmium) at the tip. The probes makes
spring contact with the sample and are mounted in a teflon bush for good electrical
insulation from each other.Since no soldering is required for the contacts , any error
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in resistivity measurements due to contamination of the surface ,rectification and

change of properties is avoided. The sample is in form of a thin wafer with non con-
ducting bottom surface. A heater is used to change the temperature of the sample
from the room temperature to approximately 200 degC
RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS FOR A LARGE SAMPLE
Current I from a constant source is passed through the outer two probes and the
voltage V is measured between the inner two probes. The resistivity ρ of the sample
is then obtained in the following way:
The floating potential Vf at a distance r from an electrode carrying a current I in a
material of resistivity ρ0 is given by

ρI 0
Vf = 2πr
In the model shown in above figure , there are two current carrying electrodes
numbered 1 and numbered 4 and the floating potential Vf at any point in the semi-
conductor is the difference between the potential induced by each of the electrodes
(As they carry current of equal magnitude but in opposite direction). Thus

0
Vf = ρ2πI rr41−r
r4
1

where r1 is the distance of the point from probe 1 and r4 is the distance from
probe 4.
The Floating potentials at probe 2 , Vf 2 and at probe 3 , Vf 3 can be calculated from
above equation by substituting proper distances. Thus we have

0
Vf 2= ρ2πI ( 1s − 2s
1
)
0
Vf 3= ρ2πI ( 2s
1
− 1s )

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The Potential difference V between probes 2 and 3 is then given by

0
= ρ2πI ( 1s − 2s1
− 2s 1
+ 1s )
0
Vf 2= ρ2πI
and so the resistivity ρ0 is given as

ρ0 = Vl 2πs
Correction due to Finite Size
This Method applies to the sample whose bottom surface is non conducting. The
Corrected resistivity is given by

ρ0
ρ= F (t/s)
where the correction divisor F(t/s) is a function of the ratio of thickness t of the
sample to the probe spacing s and for infinitely thin sample , F(t/s) approaches to
a value 2ss ln 2
using Fraction thing expression for resistivity is

V 2πs
ρ= IF (t/s)
Since t and s are known for the sample and V and I are measured in the experiments
, ρ can be evaluated.
The Formula for the variation of resistivity with temperature is given by

ρ = ρ0eEg /2KT
Taking log on both sides
Eg
lnρ = lnρ0 + 2Kt
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E
g
log10ρ = log10ρ0 + 2×2.303×KT
now plot the graph
PROCEDURE ::
1. First Take out the Four Probe arrangement from the oven and put it on a plane
surface. Now put the sample on the base plate of the Four Probe arrangement such
that the non conducting surface of the crystal is on the plate side and the four probes
are in the middle of the crystal. Apply pressure slightly so that probes clearly makes
contact with the sample and then tighten the screws . Now check the continuity be-
tween the sample and four probes by a multi-meter. If the contacts are loose tighten
the screws provided on top of the base stand till the Four probes touch the Crystal.
2. Put The Four Probe arrangement in the Oven and again check the continuity
between each pair of leads provided for current and voltage.
3. Put the thermometer in the Hole Provided for it to measure the oven temperature.
4. Connect the Probes 1 and 4 to the constant current source.
5. Connect the digital milli-voltmeter and between probes 2 and 3
6. Switch on the Current Source and set the current to say 4 mA
7. Note the Voltage V in the Voltmeter.
8. Switch on the Oven and note down V for different temperatures whiles heating
the sample . Take Observations till temperature is about 180-200 deg C
9. Switch off the oven and repeat the observation while cooling the sample . Find
mean voltage for each sample.
10. Repeat the experiment for another value of current say 6 mA.
11. From the Values of t and s supplied by the manufacturer , find the correction
divisor F(t/s) . Calculate ρ for each reading and plot a graph between ρ and T to
see the variation of resistivity of resistivity with temperature.
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12. Plot a Graph between 10T and log10ρ

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S.No. w/s F(w/s)

1 0.100 13.863
2 0.141 9.704
3 0.200 6.931
4 0.500 2.780
5 1.0 1.504
6 1.414 1.223
7 2.0 1.094
8 3.33 1.0223
9 5.0 1.0070
10 10.00 1.0045

EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS
TABLE FOR CORRECTION FACTOR

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S.No. Temp.(’C) Temp.(K) Volt.(mV) Voltage(mV) Mean Vol.(mV) (ρ) (1/T)103 log10 ρ
(Heating) (Cooling)

1 50 323 259 227 243 0.36 3.09 -0.44

2 55 328 233 200 216.5 0.32 3.09 -0.49
3 60 333 213 171 192 0.28 3.00 -0.51
4 65 338 187 147 167 0.25 2.95 -0.60
5 70 343 168 124 148 0.22 2.91 -0.65
6 75 348 141 106 123.5 0.18 2.87 -0.74
7 80 353 122 91 106.5 0.15 2.83 -0.82
8 85 358 107 78 92.5 0.13 2.79 -0.88
9 88 361 99 71 85 0.12 2.77 -0.92
10 91 364 92 64 78 0.11 2.74 -0.95
11 94 367 84 60 72 0.10 2.72 -1
12 97 370 77 51 64 0.09 2.70 -1.09
13 100 373 71 48 59.5 0.08 2.68 -1.09
14 103 376 66 46 59.5 0.08 2.68 -1.09
15 106 379 64 41 52.5 0.07 2.63 -1.15
16 109 382 57 38 52.5 0.07 2.61 -1.15
17 112 385 51 34 47.5 0.07 2.61 -1.15
18 115 388 47 32 42.5 0.06 2.59 -1.30
19 118 391 44 30 39.5 0.05 2.57 -1.30
20 121 394 41 28 37 0.05 2.57 -1.30
21 124 397 37 26 34.5 0.05 2.53 -1.30
22 130 403 32 23 31.5 0.04 2.51 -1.39
23 140 413 24 18 27.5 0.04 2.48 -1.39
24 150 423 19 15 17 0.02 2.42 -1.69

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR VARIATION OF RESISTIVITY

WITH TEMPERATURE

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EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS ::
Least Count of Thermometer = 2 ’C.
Distance between the Probes =0.20 cm
Thickness of the Crystal,t =0.05 cm
Correction Factor, F(t/s)= 5.89
2πs
F (t/s) = D=0.213 cm Current = 3mA.

GRAPHS::

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1
Plot between log10ρ and 103
T

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Conclusion.
It has been Found that Resistivity of semiconductor decrease with increase in tem-
perature. At low temperature resistvitiy is more and at high temperature resistivity
decrease.
RESULT.
1. Resistivity for a given semiconductor material decreases with increasing temper-
ature.
2. Band Gap energy at room temperature=0.67 eV
Actual Value =0.73 eV
Percantage Error= 0.72−0.67
0.72 ×100=5.97%

PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR

1. Current Should be constant while performing the experiment
2. Readings should be taken not only while Heating the sample but also while cooling
it. Better Results are expected while cooling since more stable conditions prevail.
3. The Top of the sample should be cleaned very carefully with the Finest Quality
sand paper to remove any Coating formed on it.
4. The Pressure on the Probes should be Just appropriate to make a contact. Too
much pressure can break the Crystal.
5. The sample should be heated to a temperature near aboout 180-200 deg C
6. the tip of the Thermometer should be well inside the hole and temperature should
be carefully.
7. The Surface on which the probes rest should be flat with no surface leakage
8. The Four Probes should lie in straight line.

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