CHAPTER 8

ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

We have discussed particles sizes and index properties, and used these to classify soils. You
know the water changes the soil states in fine-grained soils; the greater the water content in a
soil the weaker it is. Soils are porous materials much like sponges. Water can flow between the
interconnected voids. Particle sizes and the structural arrangement of the particles influence the
rate of flow.

Water can cause instability and many geotechnical structures (e.g., roads, bridges, dams, and
excavations) have failed because of instability from flow of water. The key physical property that
governs flow of water in soils is permeability. In this chapter, we will discuss soil permeability by
considering one-dimensional flow of water through soils.

Definition of key terms

Groundwater – is water under gravity that fills the soil pores.

Head (H) – is the mechanical energy per unit weight.

Hydraulic Conductivity (Coefficient of Permeability, k) – is a proportionality constant to

determine the flow velocity of water through soils.
HEAD

Darcy’s law governs the flow of water through soils. But before we delve into Darcy’s law, we will
discuss an important principle in fluid mechanics – Bernoullis’ Principle – which is essential in
understanding flow through soils.

If you cap one end of a tube, fill the tube with water, and then rest it on your table, the height of
water with reference to your table is called the pressure head (h p). Head refers to the
mechanical energy per unit weight. If you raise the tube above the table, the mechanical energy
of total head increases.

Illustration of elevation and pressure heads

You now have two components of total head – the pressure head (h p) and the elevation head
(hz). If water were to flow through the tube with a velocity v, under a steady state condition,
v2
then we have an additional head due to the velocity given as . The total head, H, according to
2g
Bernoulli’s principle is:

v2
H=hz+ hp+
2g

The elevation or potential head is referenced to an arbitrary datum and the total head will
change depending on the choice of the datum position. Therefore, it is essential that you identify
your datum position in solution to flow problems. Pressure are defined relative to atmospheric
pressure. The velocity of flow through soils is generally small (<1 cm/s) and we usually neglect
the velocity head. The total head in soil is then:

u
H=hz+ hp=hz+
γw

Where u=hpɣw is the porewater pressure.

Consider a cylinder containing a soil mass with water flowing through it at a constant rate as
depicted in figure. If we connect two tubes, A and B, called piezometers, at a distance l apart,
the water will rise to different heights n each of the tubes. The height of water in tube B near the
exit is lower than A. Why? As the water flows through the soil, energy is dissipated through
friction with the soil particles, resulting in a loss of head. The head loss between A and B,
assuming decrease in head is positive and our datum is arbitrarily selected at the top of the
cylinder, is ∆ H =|hpB−hpA|.

Darcy’s Law

Darcy (1856) proposed that the average flow velocity through soils is proportional the the
gradient of the total head. The flow in any direction, j, is:

dH
vj=kj
dxj

Where v is the average flow velocity, k is a coefficient of proportionality called the hydraulic
conductivity (sometimes called the coefficient of permeability), and dH is the change in total
head over a distance dx. The unit of measurement for k is length/time, that is cm/s. With
reference to figure, Darcy’s Law becomes:

∆H
vx=kx =kxi
l

∆H
Where i= is the hydraulic gradient. Darcy’s law is valid for all soils if the flow is laminar.
l

The average velocity, v, is calculated from the equation:

∆H
vx=kx =kxi
l
Is for the cross-sectional area normal to the direction of flow. Flow through soils, however,
occurs only through the interconnected voids. The velocity through the voids spaces is called
seepage velocity (vs) and is obtained by dividing the average velocity by the porosity of the soil:

kj
vs= i
n

The volume rate of flow, qz, or simply, flow rate is the product of the average velocity and the
cross-sectional area:

qz=vjA =Akji

The unit of measurement for qz is cu.m/s or cc/s. The conservation of flow (law of continuity)
stipulates that the volume rate of inflow (qz)in into a soil element must equal the volume of
outflow, (qz)out, or simply, inflow must be equal to outflow:

( qz ) ∈¿ ( qz ) out

The hydraulic conductivity depends on:

1. Soil Type : Coarse-grained soils have higher hydraulic conductivities than fine-grained
soils. The water in the double layer in fine-grained soils significantly reduces the seepage
pore space.
2. Particle Size: Hydraulic conductivity depends on D502 OR D102 for coarse-grained soils.
3. Pore Fluid Properties, particularly viscosity: k1:k2 = u2:u1 , where u is viscosity and the
subscripts 1 and 2 denote two types of pore fluids in a given soil.
4. Void Ratio: k1:k2 = e21:e22 where subscripts 1 and 2 denote two types of soil fabric for
coarse grained soils. This ratio is useful in comparing the hydraulic conductivities of
similar soils with different void ratios.
5. Pore Size: The greater the pore size, the higher the hydraulic conductivity.
6. Homogeneity, layering, and fissuring: Water tends to seep quickly through loose layers,
through fissures and along the interface of layered soils. Catastrophic failures can occur
from such seepage.
7. Entrapped gases: Entrapped gases tend to reduce the hydraulic conductivity. It is often
very difficult to get gas-free soils. Even soils that are under groundwater level are
assumed to be saturated may still have some entrapped gases.
8. Validity of Darcy’s Law: Darcy’s Law is valid only for laminar flow (Reynold’s number less
than 2000). Francher et. Al (1993) gave the following criterion for the applicability of
Darcy’s law:

vDsγw
≤1
ug

Where v is the velocity, Ds is the diameter of a sphere of equivalent volume to the soil, u
is viscosity of water, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Typical ranges of kz for various soil
types are shown in table below.
 Hydraulic Conductivity for Common Soil Types
Soil Type Kz (cm/s)
Clean Gravel >1.0
Clean Sands, Clean Sand and Gravel Mixtures 1.0 to 10-3
Fine Sands, Silts, Mixtures Comprising Sands, Silts, and Clays 10-3 to 10-7
Homogeneous Clays <10-7

Homogeneous clays are practically impervious. Two popular uses of “impervious” clays are in
dam construction to curtail the flow of water through the dam as barriers in landfills to prevent
migration of effluent to the surrounding area. Clean sands and gravels are pervious and can be
used as drainage materials or soil filters.

Emperical Relationship for K

For a homogeneous soil, the hydraulic conductivity depends predominantly on its void ratio and
pore size. You should recall that the void ratio is dependent on the soil fabric or structural
arrangement of the soil grains. Taylor (1948) proposed a relationship linking k with void ratio
as:

2 γwC 1 e 3
kz =D50
u x 1+ e

Where C1 is a constant that can be obtained from laboratory experiments. A number of empirical
relationships have been proposed linking k to void ratio and grain size for coarse-grained soils.
Hazen (1930) proposed one of the early relationships as:

kz =C D10 2 cm/s

Where C is a constant varying between 0.4 and 1.4 if the unit of measurement of D10 is mm.
Typically, C = 1.0. Hazen’s test were done on sands with D10 ranging from 0.1mm to 3mm and
Cu<5. Other relationships were proposed for coarse- and fine-grained soils by Samarasinghe et
al. (1982), Kenny et al. (1984), and others. One has to be extremely cautious in using empirical
relationships for kz because it it very sensitive to changes in void ratio, pore size, and the
homogeneity of your soil mass.

EXAMPLES:

1. A soil sample 10cm in diameter is placed in a tube 1m long. A constant supply of water is
allowed to flow into one end of the soil at A and the outflow at B is collected by a beaker. The
average amount of water collected is 1 cc for every 10 seconds. The tube is inclined as shown.
Determine:

 Hydraulic Gradient
 Flow Rate
 Average Velocity
 Seepage Velocity if e = 0.60
 Hydraulic Conductivity
SOLUTION:

Define thedatum position. Select the topof the table as the datum .

Find the total Heads at A (inflow )∧B ( outflow )

HA=hpA+hzA =1+ 1=2 m

HB=hpB+ hzB=0+0.80=0.80 m

Find thehydraulic gradient

∆ H =|HB−HA|=|0.80−2|=1.2 m

l=1 m

∆ H 1.2m
i= = =1.2
l 1m

Determine flow rate .

Volume of water collected ,Q=1 cc , t=10 seconds

Q 1
qz= = =0.1 cc /s
t 10

Determine the average velocity .

qz= Av

π d 2 π 102 2
A= = =78.5 cm
4 4

qz 0.1
v= = =0.0013 cm/ s
A 78.5

Determine seepage velocity

v
vs=
n
 e 0.6
n= = =0.38
1+ e 1+ 0.6

0.0013
vs= =0.0034 cm/s
0.38

Determine the hydraulic conductivity . ¿ Darc y ' sLaw v=kzi

v 0.0013
kz = = =10.8 x 10−4 cm/ s
i 1.2

2. A sand layer having the cross-section area as shown in figure has been determined to exist
for a 350m length of the levee. The coefficient of permeability of the sand layer is 3.5 m/day.
Determine the flow of water into the ditch in L/min?

SOLUTION:

Q=kiA

k =3.5 m/day

h 20
i= = =0.1818
L 110

A=1.5 x 350=525 sq . m

m3
Q=3.5 x 0.1818 x 525=334.1
day

Convert ¿ L/min

m 3 1000 L 1 day 1hr L

Q=334.1 x 3
x x =232
day m 24 hrs 60 min min

3. A permeable soil is underlain by impervious layer, as shown in figure. For the permeable
layer, k = 0.0048 cm/sec. H = 3m and α = 5˚.
a) Calculate the hydraulic gradient.

b) Calculate for the flow of water per meter width in cu.m/hr.

c) Calculate the total amount of water percolated per day per meter width, in cu.m.

SOLUTION:

For hydraulic gradient

i=Head Loss / Length

L tanα
i= =sinα=sin 5 ˚=0.08716
L cosα

Flow per meter width

q=kiA

A=3 cosα x 1=3 cos 5 °=2.99 sq . m

cm m
k =0.0048 =0.000048
s s

cu .m
q=0.000048 x 0.08716 x 2.99=0.00001251 per meter
s

cu . m
q=0.045 per meter
hr
Volume percolated per day

V =q x t

cu . m
V =0.045 x 24 hrs
hr

V =1.08 cu .m

4. Water flows through the permeable layer as shown in figure. Given H = 3.5ft, h = 4.6ft, L =
120ft, α =14 ° , and k = 0.0016 ft/s. Consider 1 ft width perpendicular to the figure.

a) Calculate the hydraulic gradient in percent.

b) Calculate the flow of water per ft width in ft3/hr.

c) Calculate the total amount of water percolated per day per ft width, in cubic ft.

SOLUTION:

Hydraulic gradient

h 4.6
i= = =0.03719 x 100 %=3.72 %
L 120
cosα cos 14 °

Flow per unit width

q=kiA

A=Hcosα x 1=3.5 cos 14 ° x 1=3.396 ft 2

−4 ft 3 ft 3
q=0.0016 x 0.03719 x 3.396=2.02078 x 10 =0.7275
sec hr

Volume percolated per day

cu . ft
Volume=0.7275 x 24 hr=17.46 cu . ft
hr
FLOW PARALLEL TO SOIL LAYERS

When the flow is parallel to the soil layers, the hydraulic gradient is the same at all points. The
flow through the soil mass as a whole is equal to the sum of the flow through each of the layers.
There is a parallel here with the flow of electricity through resistors in parallel. If we consider a
unit width (in the y direction) of flow and use the equation q = kiA

qx= Av=( 1 x Ho ) k x ( eq ) i=( 1 x z 1 ) k x 1 i+ ( 1 x z 2 ) k x2 i+ ..+(1 x z n) k xn i

Where Ho is the total thickness of the soil mass, k x(eq) is the equivalent permeability in the
horizontal (x) direction, z1 to zn are the thickness of the first to the nth layers, and kx1 to kxn are
the horizontal hydraulic conductivities of the first to the nth layer. Solving equation:

qx= Av=( 1 x Ho ) k x ( eq ) i=( 1 x z 1 ) k x 1 i+ ( 1 x z 2 ) k x2 i+ ..+(1 x z n) k xn i

We get:

1
k x(eq )= (z k + z k + ..+ z n k xn )
Ho 1 x 1 2 x 2

For flow normal to the soil layers, the head loss in the soil mass is the sum of the head losses in
each layer:
∆ H =∆ h 1+∆ h 2+..+ ∆ hn

Where ΔH is the total head loss, and Δh1 to Δhn are the head losses in each of the n layers. The
velocity in each layer is the same. The analogy to electricity is flow of current through resistors
in series. From Darcy’s law, we obtain:

∆H ∆h1 ∆h2 ∆ hn
k z (eq)= =k z 1 =k z 2 =..=k zn
Ho z1 z2 zn

Where kz(eq) is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the vertical (z) direction and k z1 to kzn are
the vertical hydraulic conductivities of the first to the nth layer.

Ho
k z ( eq)=
z1 z2 zn
+ +..+
k z1 k z2 k zn

The equivalent hydraulic conductivity for flow parallel and normal to soil layers is:

k eq= √k x(eq) k z (eq)

PROBLEMS:

5. From the figure shown, what is the equivalent coefficient of permeability in the horizontal
direction if each soil layer is 3m thick and has the given values of K1, K2, K3, and K4. What is
the total flow if iav = 0.70.

SOLUTION:
 1
K H (eq )= ( K 1 H 1+ K 2 H 2+ K 3 H 3+..+ KnHn)
H

1 cm x m
K H (eq )= (2 x 10−4 ( 3 ) +1 x 10−5 ( 3 ) +2 x 10−3 ( 3 ) +1 x 10−3 ( 3 ) )
12m sec

K H (eq )=8.025 x 10−4 cm/s

Q=kiA

cm m cu . m
Q=8.025 x 10−4 x 0.7 m x 12 m x =6.741 x 10−5
s 100 cm s

6. The soil under a dam has four layers of soil with different coefficients of permeability.

Layer Depth Coefficient of Permeability

1 4m 5 cm/hr
2 8m 3 cm/hr
3 12m 2 cm/hr
4 3m 1 cm/hr

a) Compute the average vertical coefficient of permeability in meters/day.

b) Compute the transmissibility of the soil when the water table is at the ground surface in
sq.m/day.

c) Compute the interstitial velocity of water moving through the soil if it has a void ratio of 0.60
and a hydraulic gradient of 0.0018. Express in cm/hr.

SOLUTION:

H
K v (eq) =
H 1 H2 H 3 Hn
+ + ..+
Kv 1 Kv 2 Kv 3 Kvn
 27 m cm
K v (eq) = =2.17
4m 8 m 12 m 3 m hr
+ + +
cm cm cm cm
5 3 2 1
hr hr hr hr

cm m 24 hr m
K v (eq) =2.17 x x =0.52
hr 100 cm day day

For transmissibility o f soil :

m sq . m
T =K v (eq) H=0.52 x 27 m=14.04
day day

For interstitial velocity :

cm cm
V =ki=2.17 x 0.0018=3.91 x 10−3
hr hr

V
Vs=
n

e 0.60
n= = =0.375
1+ e 1+ 0.60

−3 cm
3.91 x 10
hr cm
Vs= =0.0104
0.375 hr

7. A canal is cut into a soil with a stratigraphy shown in figure. Assume flow takes place laterally
and vertically through the sides of the canal and vertically below the canal. The values of k = kx
= kz in each layer are given.

a) What is the equivalent permeability in the horizontal direction through the sides of the canal,
in cm/day.

b) What is the equivalent permeability in the vertical directions through the sides of the canal, in
cm/day.

c) Determine the equivalent permeability in the vertical directions below the bottom of the canal,
in cm/day.
SOLUTION:

Equivalent permeability∈horizontal direction throughthe sides of the canal (Ho=3 m)

1
K x(eq) = ( 1 x 2.3 x 10−5 +1.5 x 5.2 x 10−6 +0.5 x 2 x 10−6 ) m x cm =10.6 x 10−6 cm
3m s s

cm
K x(eq) =0.91584
day

Equivalent permeability∈vertical direction through the sides of the canal( Ho=3 m)

Ho
K z(eq)=
H 1 H 2 H3 Hn
+ + +..+
K1 K 2 K 3 Kn

3m
K z(eq)= =5.16 x 10−6 cm/s
1m 1.5 m 0.5 m
+ +
cm cm cm
2.3 x 10−5 5.2 x 10−6 2.0 x 10−6
s s s

k z (eq)=0.445824 cm/day

Equivalent permeability∈vertical direction through the bottom of the canal

Ho=1.5 m+1.2+3 m=5.7 m

5.7 m −6
K z(eq )= =7.18 x 10 cm/ s
1.5 m 1.2m 3m
+ +
cm cm cm
2.0 x 10−6 0.3 x 10−4 0.8 x 10−3
s s s

K z(eq )=0.620352 cm/day

8. A confined aquifer underlies an unconfined aquifer as shown in the figure:

a) Compute the equivalent horizontal coefficient of permeability.

b) Compute the hydraulic gradient.

c) Compute the flow rate from one stream to another per meter width.
SOLUTION:

1 m xm m
K eq = ( 35 x 35+20 x 35 ) =27.50
( 35+35 ) m day day

h 55 m−42 m
i= = =0.0065
L 2000 m

m ( 55+ 42 ) m cu .m
Q=kiA=27.50 x 0.0065 x x 1 m=8.67 per meter
day 2 day

9. The figure shows the layer of soil in a tube that is 100mm x 100mm in cross-section. Water is
supplied to maintain a constant head difference of 450mm across the sample. The hydraulic
conductivity of the soils in the direction of flow through them are tabulated as shown:

a) Compute the equivalent hydraulic conductivity.

b) Compute the hydraulic gradient.

c) Compute the rate of water supply in cc/hr.

SOLUTION:

Equivalent hydraulic conductivity

600 mm
K ev = =0.000034 cm/ sec
200 mm 200 mm 200 mm
+ +
cm cm cm
2 x 10− 4 3.7 x 10−2 1.2 x 10−5
s s s

h 450
i= = =0.75
L 600

cm cm2 cc
Q=kiA=0.000034 x 0.75 x ( 100 mm x 100 mm ) x 2 2
=9.18
s 10 mm hr
10. The figure shows the layer of soil in a tube that is 100mm x 100mm in cross-section. Water
is supplied to maintain a constant head difference of 450mm across the sample. The hydraulic
conductivity of the soils in the direction of flow through them are tabulated as shown:

KA 2x10-4 cm/s
KB 3.7x10-2 cm/s
KC 1.2x10-5 cm/s

cm
K ev =0.000034
s

a) Compute the height hA at the piezometer attached between A and B.

b) Compute the height hb at the piezometer attached between B and C.

SOLUTION:

kvi=kv 1 x i1

cm cm
0.000034 x 450 mm 2 x 10−4 x h1
s s
=
600 mm 200 mm

h 1=25.5 mm

hA=450 mm−25.5 mm=424.50 mm

kvi=kv 2 x i2

cm cm
0.000034 x 450 mm 3.7 x 10−2 x h2
s s
=
600 mm 200 mm

h 1=0.1378mm

hA=450 mm−25.5 mm−0.1378 mm=424 .36 mm