First Chapter - The Structure of Metallic Materials

1. HCP Structure

(a) (b)
Figure 1.1 (a) HCP Structure (b) Pyramid J.ABC
a. First, we determine the height of HCP unit cell, 𝑐, as a function of 𝑎
From the Figure 1.1a, the height of prism J.ABC, ℎ is a half of the height of HCP unit
cell. So, we can write the height of pyramid J.ABC
𝑐
ℎ= (1.1)
2
The triangle CJJ’ make a right triangle. So, the relationship between ℎ, 𝑥, and 𝑎 is
𝑥 2 + ℎ2 = 𝑎 2 (1.2)
From the triangle ABC, we can determine the 𝑥 as a function of 𝑎. Note that ABC is
equilateral triangle, so the angle of each corner is 60°.
𝑎⁄ 𝑎
𝑐𝑜𝑠(30°) = 2 ⇔ 𝑥 = (1.3)
𝑥 √3
Substitute the Equation 1.1 and Equation 1.3 to Equation 1.2, so we get
𝑎2 𝑐 2 𝑐 2 2𝑎2
+ = 𝑎2 ⇔ = (1.4)
3 4 4 3
Now we get a formula of 𝑐 as a function of 𝑎
2√2
𝑐= 𝑎 (1.5)
√3
𝑐
The value of 𝑎 is equal to 1.633.
b. After we get the formula of 𝑐, now determine the volume of atom in a unit cell and
the volume a unit cell to find the ratio between them.
1 1
Total atom In a unit cell of HCP is 6 x 12 atom in each corner + 2 x 2 atom in bottom
and top + 3 atom in the middle, so we get 6 atom In a unit cell of HCP.
The volume of the atom is

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 4
𝑉𝑎 = (6) ( 𝜋𝑅 3 ) = 8𝜋𝑅 3 (1.6)
3
Because 𝑎 = 2𝑅, so we can rearrange the Equation 1.6 into
𝑎 3
𝑉𝑎 = 8𝜋 ( ) = 𝜋𝑎3 (1.7)
2
To determine the volume of a unit cell of HCP, look at triangle ABC in the Figure 1.1b.
Using the law of sine, the area of triangle ABC is
1 2 √3 2
𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(60°) = 𝑎 (1.8)
2 4
Important to note, the hexagonal area of a unit cell is six times of the area of triangle
ABC. So, the area of hexagonal is
3√3 2
𝐴= 𝑎 (1.9)
2
Then, the volume of a unit cell is
3√3 2 2√2
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 = ( 𝑎 )( 𝑎) = 3√2𝑎3 (1.10)
2 √3
Therefore, the atomic packing factor (APF) of HCP is
𝑉𝑎 𝜋𝑎3
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = = ≈ 0.74
𝑉𝑐 3√2𝑎3
2. The indices for the directions shown in the Figure is given in below.

Figure 1.2 Various direction in cubic unit cell

a. For direction 𝐴 = [01̅1̅]
b. For direction 𝐵 = [2̅10]
c. For direction 𝐶 = [112]
d. For direction 𝐷 = [112̅]
3. Answer no. 3
No. Answer

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a.

Figure A1.1 Plane (011)

b.

Figure A1.2 Plane (102)

c.

Figure A1.3 Plane (111)

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 d.

Figure A1.4 Plane (112)

e.

Figure A1.5 Plane (122)

4. Miller indices for area 𝐴 and 𝐵 are shown in the following table.

Figure 1.3 Plane 𝐴 and 𝐵 in cubic unit cell

Area 𝐴
x y z
1 1 1
Intercepts −
3 2 2
Reciprocals 3 2 -2
Reduction 3 2 -2
Miller indices (322̅)

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 Area 𝐵
x y z
1 1
Intercepts − ∞
2 2
Reciprocals -2 0 2
Reduction -1 0 1
Miller indices (1̅01)
5. Linear density expression is given below
𝑁𝑎
𝐿𝐷 = (1.11)
𝐿
with 𝐿𝐷 is linear density, 𝑁𝑎 is number of atoms, and 𝐿 is unit length in direction vector.
BCC [𝟏𝟏𝟎]
Figure that show the crystallographic direction [110] on BCC is shown below

(a) (b)
Figure 1.4 (a) BCC [110] (b) BCC [110] close-up
From the Figure we know that the vector is through two atomic radius in unit cell BCC, so
that the number of atom from direction [110] is one atom. Unit length in direction [110]
is represented by 𝑥. The expression of 𝑥 is
𝑥 = √𝑧 2 − 𝑦 2 (1.12)
with 𝑧 is the length of the diagonal unit cell and 𝑦 is the height of the unit cell. The value
of 𝑧 is equal to four times of atom radius. The expression of 𝑦 is given below
2
𝑧 = 4𝑅 = √𝑎2 + (𝑎√2) = 𝑎√3 (1.13)
4𝑅
𝑎=𝑦= (1.14)
√3
From the Equation 1.14 and Equation 1.15 we get

4𝑅 2 2
𝑥= √(4𝑅)2 − ( ) = 4𝑅 √ (1.15)
√3 3
So that, linear density for BCC [110] in terms of the atomic radius 𝑅 is

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 1 √3 0.306
𝐿𝐷110 = = ≈ (1.16)
2 4𝑅√2 𝑅
4𝑅 √3
BCC [𝟏𝟏𝟏]
Figure that show the crystallographic direction [111] on BCC is shown below

(a) (b)
Figure 1.5 (a) BCC [111] (b) BCC [111] close-up
From the Figure we know that the vector is a length diagonal of unit cell, so unit length
in direction [111] equals to four times atom radius. Therefore, number of atoms from
direction [111] is two atoms. So, the expression of linear density for BBC [111] in terms
of the atomic radius 𝑅 is
2 1 0.5
𝐿𝐷111 = = = (1.17)
4𝑅 2𝑅 𝑅
6. Planar density expression is given below
𝑁𝐴
𝑃𝐷 = (1.18)
𝐴
with 𝑃𝐷 is planar density, 𝑁𝐴 is number of atoms in certain plane, and 𝐴 is plane area.
FCC (𝟏𝟎𝟎)
Figure that show the crystallographic plane (100) on FCC is shown below

(a) (b)
Figure 1.6 (a) FCC (100) (b) Plane FCC (100)

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 From the Figure we know that the plane (100) on FCC passes through four quarter atoms
and one atom in the middle, so that the number of atoms in plane (100) is two atoms.
The plane is represented by square in the Figure. The side length of the plane (100) is
represented by 𝑎. The expression of 𝑎 is
𝑎√2 = 4𝑅 ⇔ 𝑎 = 2√2𝑅 (1.19)
The expression of planar density for FCC (100) in terms of the atomic radius 𝑅 is
2 1 0.25
𝑃𝐷100 = 2 = 4𝑅 2 = 𝑅 2 (1.20)
(2√2𝑅)
FCC (𝟏𝟏𝟏)
Figure that show the crystallographic plane (111) on FCC is shown below

(a) (b)
Figure 1.7 (a) FCC (111) (b) Plane FCC (111)
From the Figure we know that the plane (111) on FCC passes through six atoms. One
sixth of each atom at 𝐴, 𝐷, and 𝐹 and a half of each atom at 𝐵, 𝐶, and 𝐸. So, the number
1 1
of atoms in plane (111) is 6 x 3 + 2 x 3 = 2 atoms. The plane is represented by triangle
in the Figure. The relationship between atomic radius 𝑅 and height of the plane, ℎ is
ℎ = √(4𝑅)2 − (2𝑅)2 = 2√3𝑅 (1.21)
The area of plane FCC (111) is given below
1
𝐴111 = (4𝑅)(2√3𝑅) = 4√3𝑅 2 (1.22)
2
The expression of planar density for FCC (111) in terms of the atomic radius 𝑅 is
2 1 0.289
𝑃𝐷111 = = ≈ (1.23)
4√3𝑅 2 2√3𝑅 2 𝑅2
7. Single crystal materials are anisotropic because their physical properties are dependent
on the crystallographic direction. The fact that the linear density of atoms in a given
particular crystallographic direction is not always the same.
For polycrystalline materials are isotropic because their physical properties independent
on the crystallographic direction. We know that the crystallographic direction of the
individual grains are totally random. From these circumstances, even though each grain
may be anisotropic, specimen composed of the grain set is isotropic. Also, the magnitude

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 of a measured property represents some average of the directional values. Sometimes
the grains in polycrystalline materials have a preferential crystallographic orientation,
called by texture. So, their properties strongly dependent on “one preferential”
crystallographic direction, which is independent on the crystallographic direction from
each grain and they are considered as isotropic materials.

Second Chapter - Mechanical Properties of Materials

1. Known
Given engineering stress-strain diagram for unknown material.

Figure 2.1 Engineering stress-strain diagram

Find
a. The Young’s Modulus
b. The tensile strength
c. The yield strength (0.2% offset)
d. If the load is released at 21 MPa, what will be the elastic and plastic strain
e. The toughness of material
f. The resilience of the material
g. The ductility of the material
h. Estimate the type of the material
Analysis
To determine all the properties that we need to know, we must determine all the points
on the stress-strain curve or determine its function. To do that, I use graphreader.com to
approximate the points on the curve like in the Figure 2.2.

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 Figure 2.2 Generate the stress-strain in graphreader.com
After I get the points, I use Excel to make the scatter chart and determine the function
that approximate the curve. To determine the function, I must separate the elastic region
and plastic region, To do that, I use approximation slope to see from where the curve will
enter the plastic region. Then, use the trendline to get the function that approximates
the curve. The result will be like this.

Stress-Strain Diagram
25
y = -0.5388x6 + 5.8602x5 - 25.691x4 + 58.202x3 - 75.546x2 + 59.961x - 3.6561

20

15
Stress

10

5 y = 29.299x + 0.1149

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Strain

Figure 2.3 Stress-strain diagram from calculation in Excel

a. Young’s modulus is a slope of stress-strain curve at elastic deformation. The
expression of Young’s modulus is given below
𝜎
𝐸= (2.1)
𝜀
with 𝐸 is Young’s modulus, 𝜎 is stress, and 𝜀 is strain. From the Figure 2.3 the Young’s
modulus of this material is a slope of function 𝑦 = 29.299𝑥 + 0.1149.
∴ Therefore, Young’s modulus of this material is 29.3 MPa

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b. Tensile strength is the maximum stress that can obtained by the materials before
necking. From the points that I get from the graph reader, the highest value of stress
is 21.69 MPa.
∴ Therefore, ultimate tensile strength of this material is 21.7 MPa
c. To determine the yield strength (0.2% offset), I must rearrange the linear function
on the Figure 2.3. The function will be like this.
𝜎 = 29.299(𝜀 − 0.002) + 0.1149 (2.2)
After that, I plot this function with elastic and plastic function to graph in Excel and
desmos.com to find the intersection between them.

Elastic Region
16

14

12

10 Poly. (Plastic Function)

Stress

8
Linear (Elastic Function)
6

4 Linear (Elastic Function

0.2% offset)
2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Strain

Figure 2.4 Elastic region close-up in Excel

Figure 2.5 Intersection between linier function of elastic region (0.2% offset) to
polynomial function of plastic region
From the Figure 2.5, the intersection between 𝜎 = 29.299(𝜀 − 0.002) + 0.1149
and 𝜎 = −0.5388𝜀 6 + 5.8602𝜀 5 − 25.691𝜀 4 + 58.202𝜀 3 − 75.546𝜀 2 +
59.961𝜀 − 3.6561 is at (𝜀, 𝜎) = (0.3266, 9.625)
∴ Therefore, yield strength of this material is 9.6 MPa

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d. If the load is released at 21 MPa, the material will be the plastic strain, because the
applied load is greater than yield strength (21 > 9.6 MPa). If the stress reach 0, than
the material will experience a strain of 0.77.
e. Toughness is ability of a material to absorb energy up to fracture. To determine the
toughness, approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve. To do that, I use
Excel to determine it by summing all the trapezium area that made from two
consecutive points. The expression of toughness is given below.
𝑛
1
𝑈 = ∑ (𝜎𝑖−1 + 𝜎𝑖 )(𝜀𝑖 − 𝜀𝑖−1 ) (2.3)
2
𝑖=1
From the points that we got in graphreader.com, the value of 𝑈 is equal to 52.94
MPa.
∴ Therefore, the toughness of this material is 52.94 MPa
(Note: If I use integral to calculate the area under stress-strain curve, the result is
52.95 MPa, which is close to the original value. It means, the function is close enough
with the curve.)
f. Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed
elastically and then upon unloading to have this energy recovered. The formula of
resilience is given below.
𝜀𝑦
𝑈𝑟 = ∫ 𝜎 𝑑𝜀 (2.4)
0
From the graph, the interval of elastic region is 0 < 𝜀 < 0.3885 and 𝜀𝑦 = 0.3928, so
the resilience from the curve is
0.3035
𝑈𝑟 = ∫0 (29.299𝜀 + 0.1149) 𝑑𝜀 +
0.3266
∫0.3035 (−0.5388𝜀 6 + 5.8602𝜀 5 − 25.691𝜀 4 + 58.202𝜀 3 − 75.546𝜀 2 +
59.961𝜀 − 3.6561)𝑑𝜀
= 1.6 MPa
If we assume the elastic region is linier, so Equation 2.4 will be
𝜎𝑦 2
𝑈𝑟 = (2.5)
2𝐸
The value of resilience if assuming linier elasticity
9.62
𝑈𝑟 = = 1.57 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2(29.299)
The value of resilience from the non-linier elasticity and linier elasticity are almost
the same.
∴ Therefore, the resilience of this material is 1.6 MPa
g. Ductility is a measure of the total plastic strain that accompanies fracture. For this
stress-strain curve, we will use %elongation to determine material ductility. The
expression of %elongation is given below.
%𝐸𝐿 = 𝜀𝑓 . 100% (2.5)

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 To determine plastic strain at failure, 𝜀𝑓 we must plot the linier function that passes
through the fracture point. The graph is given below.

Stress-Strain Diagram with Plastic Strain at Failure

25
y = -0.5388x6 + 5.8602x5 - 25.691x4 + 58.202x3 - 75.546x2 + 59.961x - 3.6561

20

15
Stress

10

5 y = 29.299x + 0.1149
y = 29.299x - 69.858

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Strain

Figure 2.6 Stress-Strain Diagram with plastic strain at failure, 𝜀𝑓

From the graph, the plastic strain at failure (when the load reach the strain maximum
than release so the stress will reach 0) is 2.384. So, the percent elongation of this
material is
%𝐸𝐿 = 2.384.100% = 238.4%
∴ Therefore, this material ductility is 238.4%
h. To estimate what type of the material, we have to match the properties we calculate
with existing properties (based on experiments). So, I will use Appendix B Callister
(Table B.2 about modulus of elasticity value for various engineering materials and
Table B.4 about materials strength and ductility) to estimate the material.
From the calculation, this material has a low strength, but high ductility/percent
elongation. So, material category that has these properties is polymers. The
properties of polymers are given below (from Callister, 2007).

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 Table 2.1 Room-Temperature Modulus of Elasticity Values for Various
Engineering Materials (Callister, 2007)

Table 2.2 Typical Room-Temperature Yield Strength, Tensile Strength, and

Ductility (Percent Elongation) Values for Various Engineering Materials
(Callister, 2007)

From the Table 2.1, the material that have the closest Young’s modulus value to the
calculated Young’s modulus value (29.3 MPa) is Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
which has range 172 – 282 MPa, although both Young’s modulus value are not close

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 at all. But, from the Table 2.2, the value of calculated yield strength, tensile strength,
and percent elongation are within the range of LDPE properties. The yield strength,
9.6 MPa is in range 9.0 – 14.5; tensile strength, 21.7 MPa is in range 8.3 – 31.4 MPa;
and percent elongation, 238.4 is in range 100 – 650.
∴ Therefore, the possible type of this material is Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
2. Known
The diameter of the indentation is 4.975 mm for Alloy-1 and 5.675 mm for Alloy 2. The
amount of the load given is 1 kg.
Find
Calculate the Brinell Hardness Number and tensile strength for both aluminium alloys.
Analysis
Calculate the BHN
Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) formula is given below
2𝑃
𝐵𝐻𝑁 = (2.1)
𝜋𝐷(𝐷 − √𝐷2 − 𝑑 2 )
with 𝑃 is applied load, 𝐷 is diameter of the indenter, and 𝑑 is diameter of the indentation.
Usually the ball intender is made from hardened steel or tungsten carbide with diameter
10 mm. The amount of the load given is 1 kg. So, we will use 𝐷 = 10 mm and 𝑃 = 1 kg
for this problem. The value of BHN for both materials is given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Indentation diameter (𝑑) and Brinell Hardness Number (𝐵𝐻𝑁) for Alloy-1 and Alloy-2
𝑑 𝑘𝑔⁄
Material 𝐵𝐻𝑁 (
(mm) 𝑚𝑚2 )
2(1) 𝑘𝑔⁄
Alloy-1 4.975 𝐵𝐻𝑁1 = = 0.048 𝑚𝑚2
𝜋(10) (10 − √(10)2 − (4.975)2 )
2(1) 𝑘𝑔⁄
Alloy-2 5.675 𝐵𝐻𝑁2 = = 0.036 𝑚𝑚2
𝜋(10) (10 − √(10)2 − (5.675)2 )
From the Table we know that 𝐵𝐻𝑁1 is greater than 𝐵𝐻𝑁2 .
∴ Therefore, Aluminium alloy-1 is harder than aluminium alloy-2
Calculate the Tensile Strength
The relationship between Brinell Hardness Number with ultimate tensile strength is given
below
𝜎𝑢 = 3.45𝐵𝐻𝑁 (2.2)
Tensile strength for both materials is given in the Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 BHN (kg/mm2) and tensile strength (𝜎𝑢 ) for Alloy-1 and Alloy-2
Material 𝑘𝑔 𝜎𝑢 (𝑀𝑃𝑎)
𝐵𝐻𝑁 ( ⁄𝑚𝑚2 )

Alloy-1 𝑘𝑔⁄ 0.166 𝑀𝑃𝑎

0.048 𝑚𝑚2
Alloy-2 𝑘𝑔 0.124 𝑀𝑃𝑎
0.036 ⁄𝑚𝑚2
3. Known

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 A cylindrical rod with length 𝐿 = 450 mm and diameter 𝑑 = 14 mm is applied a 40 kN
load. The material for the cylindrical rods is given as shown in the table below.
Table 2.5 Four material candidates with their properties of 𝐸 (GPa), 𝜎𝑦 (MPa), and TS (Mpa)
Material 𝐸 (GPa) 𝜎𝑦 (Mpa) TS (MPa)
Copper 110 248 289
Aluminium Alloy 70 255 420
Steel 207 448 551
Brass Alloy 101 345 420
Find
The material of cylindrical rod which makes the rod not experience plastic deformation
of increase in length of more than 1.2 mm when 40 kN load is applied.
Analysis
First, we must determine the normal stress from the rod. The formula of normal stress is
𝑃 𝑃
𝜎= =𝜋 (2.3)
𝐴 2
4𝑑
with 𝑃 is an applied load, 𝐴 is cross sectional area, and 𝑑 is diameter of the rod. So, we
get the normal stress of the cylindrical rod is
40. 103 𝑁
𝜎=𝜋 = 259.85 𝑀𝑃𝑎
(14. 10 −3 )2 𝑚 2
4
Based on the problem, the rod MUST NOT experience plastic deformation, so the normal
stress MUST NOT exceed the yield strength (yield strength is a limit of elastic behaviour
and the first step of plastic behaviour). From the Table materials that satisfy these criteria
is steel and brass alloy.
After that, the other criteria that has been satisfy is increase in length less than 1.2 mm.
The formula of displacement is
𝐿
𝛿=𝜎 (2.4)
𝐸
From the Equation we can get the displacement of cylindrical rods made of the steel and
brass alloy.
Table 2.6 Modulus Young (𝐸) and Displacement 𝛿 for Steel and Brass Alloy
Material 𝐸 (GPa) 𝛿 (mm)
Steel 207 0.565
Brass Alloy 101 1.158
From the Table we know that both materials have increase in length less than 1.2 mm.
∴ Therefore, steel and brass alloy are possible candidate for this cylindrical rod

References

Callister, William D (2007). Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction (7th ed.).
Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-4717-3696-7

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