THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

OUTLINE ● The organs of the respiratory system include the

I. Introduction nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and their
II. Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System smaller branches, and the lungs, which contain the
A. The Nose alveoli, or terminal air sacs.
i. Homeostatic Imbalance
B. The Pharynx Upper respiratory tract
i. Homeostatic Imbalance ❖ The passageways from the nose to the larynx.
C. The Larynx
D. The Trachea Lower respiratory tract
i. Homeostatic Imbalance ❖ The passageways from the trachea to the alveoli.
E. The Main Bronchi
F. The Lungs ● These conducting passageways also purify, humidify,
i. Homeostatic Imbalance and warm incoming air.
III. The Respiratory Physiology
A. Mechanics of Breathing A. THE NOSE
B. Respiratory Volume and Capacities ● Whether “button” or “hooked” in shape, is the only
C. Respiratory and Nonrespiratory Air externally visible part of the respiratory system.
Movements During breathing, air enters the nose by passing through the
D. Respiratory Sounds nostrils or nares.
IV. External Respiration Nasal cavity
V. Gas Transport ❖ Chambers within the nose
VI. Internal Respiration ❖ Separated from the oral cavity by a palate
VII. Control of Respiration ❖ Lined with mucosa
VIII. Respiratory Disorders ❖ This is divided by the nasal septum
IX. Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory System Respiratory mucosa
❖ Warms, filters, and moistens incoming air
I. INTRODUCTION ❖ The mucus produced by this gland moistens the air. It
Respiratory System also traps all the incoming harmful bacteria and all
● The respiratory system organs oversee the gas these bacteria will be destroyed chemically by the
exchanges that occur between the blood and the lysozyme enzyme.
external environment. ● Ciliated cells of nasal mucosa create a gentle current
● Using blood as the transporting fluid, the that moves a sheet of contaminated mucus posteriorly
cardiovascular system organs transport respiratory toward the throat.
gases between the lungs and the cells in the rest of Conchae
the body.
❖ Three mucosa-covered lobes in the lateral walls of the
● If either system fails, cells begin to die from oxygen
nasal cavity
starvation and accumulation of carbon dioxide.
❖ Greatly increase the surface area of the mucosa
exposed to the air
II. FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE ❖ Increase air turbulence
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
● The nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity
below by a partition, the palate.
○ Hard palate - is supported by bone
anteriorly.
○ Soft palate - unsupported posterior part.

● The nasal cavity is surrounded by a ring of paranasal

sinuses.
Paranasal sinuses
❖ Lighten the skull and act as resonance chambers for
speech
❖ Produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavities
❖ Located in the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and
maxillary bones.
Nasolacrimal ducts
Figure 13.1 The major respiratory organs shown in relation
❖ Drain tears from the eyes
to surrounding structures.
❖ Empty into the nasal cavities

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● The single pharyngeal tonsil, often called the

i. Homeostatic Imbalance adenoid, is located high in the nasopharynx.
● The two palatine tonsils are in the oropharynx at the
Cleft Palate end of the soft palate, as are two lingual tonsils,
❖ Genetic defect which lie at the base of the tongue.
❖ Failure of the bones forming the palate to fuse ● The tonsils also play a role in protecting the body from
medially infection.
❖ Results in breathing difficulty
❖ Problems with oral cavity functions such as nursing i. Homeostatic Imbalance
and speaking
Rhinitis Tonsillitis
❖ Caused by cold viruses and various allergens ❖ Pharyngeal tonsil becomes inflamed and swollen
❖ Inflammation of the nasal mucosa during a bacterial infection
❖ Excessive mucus produced results in nasal ❖ Obstruction in the nasopharynx forces the person to
congestion and postnasal drip breathe through the mouth
❖ Nasal cavity infection often spread ❖ Mouth breathing makes the air not properly
moistened, warmed, or filtered.
Sinusitis
❖ Sinus inflammation C. THE LARYNX
❖ Difficult to treat and can cause marked changes in ● Or the voice box routes air and food into the proper
voice quality channels and plays a role in speech.
❖ If the passageways are blocked with mucus, the air in ● Located inferior to the pharynx
the sinus cavities is absorbed. The result is a partial ● The most prominent hyaline cartilage is the thyroid
vacuum and a sinus headache localized over the cartilage (adam’s apple)
inflamed area ● Connects the pharynx with the trachea
● Formed by the eight rigid hyaline cartilage and the
B. THE PHARYNX epiglottis
Epiglottis
❖ Protects the superior opening of the larynx
❖ A spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage
❖ Forms a lid over larynx’s opening when swallowing
❖ The larynx is pulled upward and the epiglottis tips
when swallowing

● The cough reflex is triggered to prevent substances

from continuing into the lungs, but it doesn’t work
when we are unconscious, that's why we never try to
give fluids to an unconscious person, when
attempting to revive them.
Vocal cords/ Vocal folds
Figure 13.2 Regions of the Pharynx
● Is a muscular passageway about 13 cm (5 inches). ❖ Vibrate with expelled air
● Commonly called throat ❖ Vibration allows speaking
● Serves as a common passageway for food and air. Glottis
● It is continuous with the nasal cavity anteriorly via the ❖ Between the vocal folds and the slit-like passageway
posterior nasal aperture
● The pharynx has three regions:
○ Nasopharynx D. THE TRACHEA
Oropharynx
○ Laryngopharynx

● Air enters the nasopharynx then descends through

the oropharynx and laryngopharynx
● Food enters the mouth, travels along with air through
the oropharynx and laryngopharynx
Pharyngotympanic tubes
❖ Drain the middle ears and open into the nasopharynx
❖ The mucosae of these two regions are continuous, so Figure 13.3 Anatomy of the trachea and esophagus
ear infections may follow a sore throat as otitis ● Air entering the trachea, or windpipe from the larynx
media. travels down to the main bronchi.
Tonsils ● Smooth-muscle tube line with ciliated mucosa and
reinforced with C-shaped cartilaginous rings
● Clusters of lymphatic tissue

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● Open parts of rings about the esophagus and allow it
to expand anteriorly when swallowing food
● Solid portions support the trachea walls and keep it
patient
● Trachealis muscle lies next to the esophagus and
completes the wall of trachea posteriorly.
i. Homeostatic Imbalance
Heimlich maneuver
❖ Many people have suffocated after choking on a piece
of food that suddenly closed off the trachea.
❖ Air in a person’s lungs is used to expel an obstructing
piece of food.
❖ Cracked ribs are a distinct possibility when it is done
incorrectly
Trachea
❖ Lined with ciliated mucosa
❖ Cilia propel this mucus away from the lungs to the
throat
❖ Smoking inhibits and ultimately destroys the cilia
E. THE MAIN BRONCHI
● The right and left main (primary) bronchi are formed
by the division of the trachea.
● The result from the division of the trachea
● Each plunges in the hilum of the lung on its side
● Smaller subdivisions of the main bronchi within the
lungs are direct routes to the air sacs
F. THE LUNGS
Parietal Pleura
● Lines the walls of the thoracic cavity
● Pleural fluid - the pleural membranes produce this
slippery serous fluid, which allows the lungs to glide
easily over the thorax.
i. Homeostatic Imbalance
Pleurisy
● Inflammation of the pleurae
● Caused by insufficient secretion of pleural fluid
● Pleural surfaces become dry and rough, resulting in
friction and stabbing pain with each breath
● The pleasure may produce excessive amounts of fluid
which exert pressure on the lungs.
The Bronchial Tree
● Main bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller
branches ending in bronchioles (smallest)
● All but the smallest branches have reinforcing
cartilage in their walls.
Respiratory Zone Structure
● Terminal bronchioles lead into the respiratory zone
● Includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts,
alveolar sacs, and alveoli, is the only site of gas
exchange
● All other respiratory passages are conducting zone
structures that serve as conduits to and from the
respiratory zone.
Alveoli
● Millions clustered inside the lungs that resemble
bunches of grapes
● Composed largely of a single, thin layer of simple
squamous epithelial cells
● Walls are very thin(thinner than tissue paper)
● Alveolar pores
○ Connect neighboring air sacs and provide
alternative routes for air
● External surfaces are covered with pulmonary
capillaries
● Alveolar and capillary walls construct respiratory
membrane (air-blood barrier)
● The respiratory membrane has gas (air) flowing past
on one side and blood flowing past on the other
● Gas exchange occurs by simple diffusion through the
respiratory membrane
● Alveolar Macrophages
○ Also known as dust cells
○ Wander in and out of the alveoli picking up
bacteria, carbon particles, and other debris
● Surfactant-secreting Cells
○ Produce a lipid molecule (surfactant) that
coats the gas-exposed alveolar surfaces

III. RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY

Figure 13.4 The Lungs
Function of Respiratory System
Apex ● Supply the body with oxygen
● The narrow superior portion of each lung ● Dispose of carbon dioxide
Base Respiration
● Broad lung area resting on the diaphragm ● Pulmonary Ventilation
Pulmonary (Visceral) Pleura
● Covers the surface of each lung

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○ Air moves into and out of the lungs so that

the gases in the alveoli of the lungs are
continuously refreshed.
○ This process of pulmonary ventilation is
commonly called breathing.
● External Respiration
○ Gas exchange between pulmonary blood
and alveoli
■ Oxygen is loaded into the blood
■ Carbon dioxide is unloaded from
the blood
○ Remember that in external respiration, gas
exchanges are being made between the
blood and the body exterior.
● Respiratory Gas Transport
○ Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide via
the bloodstream
● Internal (tissue) Respiration
Figure 13.6 Changes in (a) intrapulmonary pressure
○ Gas exchange between blood and tissue
cells in systemic capillaries
Expiration
A. MECHANICS OF BREATHING ● Exhalation
Breathing (Pulmonary ventilation) ● Air leaving lungs
● The mechanical process depends on volume changes ● Largely a passive process that depends on natural
occurring in the thoracic cavity. lung elasticity
● Rule ● Intrapulmonary volume decreases
○ Volume changes lead to pressure changes, ● Gas pressure increases
which lead to the flow of gases to equalize ● Gases passively flow out to equalize the pressure
the pressure. ● Forced expiration can occur mostly by contraction of
○ Assuming the amount of gas remains internal intercostal muscles to depress the rib cage
constant if the volume is reduced, the gas
molecules will be closer together, and the
pressure will rise
Two Phases of Breathing
Inspiration
● Inhalation
● The flow of air into the lungs
● Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract
● Intrapulmonary volume increases
● Gas pressure decreases
● Air flows into the lungs until intrapulmonary pressure
equals atmospheric pressure

Figure 13.7 Rib cage and diaphragm positions during

breathing

Figure 13. 5 Rib cage and diaphragm positions during

breathing

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○ Usually about 350 ml

● Respiratory capacities are measured with a
spirometer

Figure 13.9 Graph of the various respiratory volumes in a

Figure 13.8 Changes in (b) airflow during inspiration and healthy young adult male.
expiration.
C. RESPIRATORY AND NONRESPIRATORY AIR
Intrapleural Pressure MOVEMENTS
● The pressure within the pleural space is always
negative
Respiratory Movements
● Major factor preventing lung collapse ● Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary actions
● If intrapleural pressure equals atmospheric pressure, ● Examples
the lungs recoil and collapse ○ Cough and sneeze — clear lungs of debris
○ Crying — emotionally induced mechanism
○ Laughing — similar to crying
B. RESPIRATORY VOLUME AND CAPACITIES
○ Hiccup — sudden inspirations
● Factors affecting respiratory capacity
○ Yawn — very deep inspiration
○ Size
○ Sex NonRespiratory Movements
○ Age ● Many situations other than breathing move air into or
○ Physical condition out of the lungs and may modify the normal
● Tidal volume (TV) respiratory rhythm.
○ Normal quiet breathing ● Coughs and sneezes clear the air passages of debris
○ 500 ml of air is moved in/out of the lungs with or collected mucus.
each breath ● Laughing and crying reflect our emotions.
● Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) ● For the most part, these nonrespiratory air
○ Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over movements are a result of reflex activity, but some
the tidal volume may be produced voluntarily.
○ Usually around 3,100 ml
● Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
○ Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a
tidal expiration
○ Approximately 1,200 ml
Residual Volume
● Air remaining in lung after expiration
● Cannot be voluntarily exhaled
● Allows gas exchange to go on continuously, even
between breaths, and helps keep alveoli open Table 13.1 Nonrespiratory Air (Gas) Movements.
(inflated)
● About 1,200 ml
D. RESPIRATORY SOUNDS
Vital Capacity ● Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
● The total amount of exchangeable air ● Two recognizable sounds can be heard with a
● Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV stethoscope:
● 4,800 ml in men; 3,100 ml in women 1. Bronchial sounds — produced by air rushing
● Dead Space Volume through large passageways such as the
○ Air that remains in conducting zone and never trachea and bronchi.
reaches alveoli 2. Vesicular breathing sounds — soft sounds of
○ About 150 ml air filling alveoli. Occur as air fills the alveoli.
● Functional Volume
○ Air that reaches the respiratory zone

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IV. EXTERNAL RESPIRATION ● Most of the conversion of carbon dioxide to

● During external respiration, dark red blood flowing bicarbonate ions occurs inside the RBCs, where a
through the pulmonary circuit is transformed into the special enzyme (carbonic anhydrase) speeds up this
scarlet river that is returned to the heart for reaction.
distribution to the systemic circuit. ● Then the bicarbonate ions diffuse out into plasma,
○ Although this color change is due to oxygen where they are transported.
pickup by hemoglobin in the lungs, carbon ● At the same time, oxygen is released from
dioxide is being unloaded from the blood hemoglobin, and the oxygen diffuses quickly out of
equally fast. the blood to enter the cells.
○ Because body cells continually remove ● As a result of these exchanges, venous blood in the
oxygen from blood, there is always more systemic circulation is much poorer in oxygen and
oxygen in the alveoli than in the blood. richer in carbon dioxide than blood leaving the lungs.
○ Thus, oxygen tends to diffuse from the air of
the alveoli through the respiratory membrane VII. CONTROL OF RESPIRATION
into the more oxygen-poor blood of the ● Neural regulation: setting the basic rhythm
pulmonary capillaries. ○ Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted
● In contrast, as tissue cells remove oxygen from the to and from the brain by phrenic and
blood in the systemic circulation, they release carbon intercostal nerves.
dioxide into the blood. ○ Neural centers that control rate and depth
○ Because the concentration of carbon dioxide are located in the medulla and pons.
is much higher in the pulmonary capillaries ■ Medulla - sets basics rhythm of
than it is in the alveolar air, it will diffuse from breathing and contains a
the blood into the alveoli and be flushed out pacemaker (self exciting inspiratory
of the lungs during expiration. center) called the ventral respiratory
○ Relatively speaking, blood draining from the group (VRG)
lungs into the pulmonary veins is rich in ■ Pons - smoothes out respiratory
oxygen and poor in carbon dioxide. rate.
● Normal respiratory rate (eupnea)
V. GAS TRANSPORT ○ 12-15 respirations per minute
Gas Transport in the Blood ● Hyperpnea
● Oxygen transport in the blood ○ Increased respiratory rate, often due to extra
○ Most oxygen travels attached to hemoglobin oxygen needs.
and forms oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) ● Non-neural factors influencing respiratory rate
○ A small dissolved amount is carried in the and depth
plasma ○ Physical factors
■ Increased body temperature
● Carbon dioxide transport in the blood ■ Exercise
○ Most carbon dioxide is transported in the ■ Talking
plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3–) ■ Coughing
○ A small amount is carried inside red blood ○ Volition (conscious control)
cells on hemoglobin, but at different binding ○ Emotional factors such as fear ,anger, and
sites from those of oxygen excitement.
○ Chemical factors: Co2 levels
● For carbon dioxide to diffuse out of the blood into ■ The body needs to rid itself of CO2,
the alveoli, it must be released from its which is the most important
bicarbonate form: stimulus for breathing.
○ Bicarbonate ions enter RBC ■ Increased levels of carbon dioxide
○ Combine with hydrogen ions (and thus, a decreased or acidic
○ Form carbonic acid (H2CO3) pH) in the blood increase the rate
○ Carbonic acid splits to form water + CO2 and depth of breathing.
○ Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into ■ Changes in carbon dioxide act
alveoli directly on the medulla oblongata.
○ Chemical factors: oxygen levels
■ Changes in oxygen concentration in
the blood are detected by
VI. INTERNAL RESPIRATION
chemoreceptors in the aorta and
● The exchange of gases between the blood and the common carotid artery.
tissue cells is the opposite of what occurs in the ■ Information is sent to the medulla
lungs. ■ Oxygen is the stimulus for those
● In this process, oxygen leaves and carbon dioxide whose systems have become
enters the blood accustomed to high levels of carbon
● In the blood, carbon dioxide combines with water to dioxide as a result of disease.
form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which quickly releases ○ Hyperventilation
bicarbonate ions.

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■ Rising levels of Co2 in the blood
(acidosis) result in faster ,deeper
breathing.
■ Exhale more Co3, to elevate blood
pH
■ May result in apnea and dizziness
and lead to alkalosis.
○ Hypoventilation
■ Results when becomes alkaline
(alkalosis)
■ Extremely slow or shallow breathing
■ Allows Co2 to accumulate in the
blood.
Figure 13.10 Gas exchanges in external and
internal respiration
VIII. RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
Pneumothorax
● During atelectasis, or lung collapse, the lung is
useless for ventilation.
● This phenomenon occurs when air enters the pleural
space through a chest wound, but it may also result
from a rupture of the visceral pleura, which allows air
to enter the pleural space from the respiratory tract.
● The presence of air in the intrapleural space, which
disrupts the fluid bond between the pleurae, is
referred to as pneumothorax
Rales
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● Are abnormal bronchial sounds produced by the
presence of mucus or exudate in the lung passages
or by thickening of the bronchial walls.
Hypoxia
● Impaired oxygen transport: Whatever the cause,
inadequate oxygen delivery to body tissues is called
hypoxia.
● May be the result of anemia, pulmonary disease, or
impaired or blocked blood circulation.
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
● Represents a unique type of hypoxia.
● Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odorless, colorless gas
that competes vigorously with oxygen for the same
binding sites on hemoglobin.
● Moreover, because hemoglobin binds to CO more
readily than to oxygen, carbon monoxide is a very
successful competitor so much so that it crowds out
or displaces oxygen.
● The leading cause of death from fire. It is particularly
dangerous because it kills its victims softly and
quietly.
● It does not produce the characteristic signs of
hypoxia, cyanosis and respiratory distress.
● Instead, the victim becomes confused and has a
throbbing headache.
● In rare cases, the skin becomes cherry red (the color
of the hemoglobin CO complex), which is often
interpreted as a healthy “blush.”
● People with CO poisoning are given 100 percent
oxygen until the carbon monoxide has been cleared
from the body.
Hyperventilation
● Increase in the rate and depth of breathing that
exceeds the body’s need to remove carbon dioxide.
● In other words, during hyperventilation, we exhale
more CO2 than we should, resulting in elevated blood
pH (there is less carbonic acid).
Hypoventilation
● Can dramatically change the amount of carbonic acid
in the blood.
● Carbonic acid increases dramatically during
hypoventilation and decreases substantially during
hyperventilation.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
● Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and emphysema,
are a major cause of death and disability in the United
States.
● These diseases have certain features in common:
○ Patients almost always have a history of
smoking;
○ Dyspnea , difficult or labored breathing, often
referred to as “air hunger,” occurs and
becomes progressively worse;
○ Coughing and frequent pulmonary infections
are common;
○ Most COPD victims are hypoxic, retain
carbon dioxide and have respiratory
acidosis, and ultimately develop respiratory
failure
Chronic Bronchitis
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● The mucosa of the lower respiratory passages
becomes severely inflamed and produces excessive
mucus.
● The pooled mucus impairs ventilation and gas
exchange and dramatically increases the risk of lung
infections, including pneumonias.
● Chronic bronchitis patients are sometimes called
“blue bloaters” because hypoxia and carbon dioxide
retention occur early in the disease and cyanosis is
common.
Emphysema
● The walls of some alveoli are destroyed, causing the
remaining alveoli to be enlarged.
● In addition, chronic inflammation promotes fibrosis of
the lungs.
● As the lungs become less elastic, the airways
collapse during expiration and obstruct outflow of air.
As a result, these patients use an incredible amount
of energy to exhale, and they are always exhausted.
● Because air is retained in the lungs, oxygen exchange
is surprisingly efficient, and cyanosis does not usually
appear until late in the disease.
● Consequently, emphysema sufferers are sometimes
referred to as “pink puffers.”
● However, overinflation of the lungs leads to a
permanently expanded barrel chest.
Lung Cancer
● Ordinarily, nasal hairs, sticky mucus, and the action of
cilia do a fine job of protecting the lungs from irritants,
but smoking overwhelms these cleansing devices,
and they eventually stop functioning.
● Continuous irritation prompts the production of more
mucus, but smoking slows the movements of cilia that
clear this mucus and depresses lung macrophages.
● One result is a pooling of mucus in the lower
respiratory tract and an increased frequency of
pulmonary infections, including pneumonia and
COPD.
● However, it is the irritating effects of the “cocktail” of
toxic chemicals in tobacco smoke that ultimately lead
to lung cancer.
Three Most Common Type:
Adenocarcinoma
● Originates as solitary nodules in peripheral lung areas
and develops from bronchial glands and alveolar cells
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
● Arises in the epithelium of the larger bronchi and
tends to form masses that hollow out and bleed;
Small Cell Carcinoma
● Contains lymphocyte like cells that originate in the
main bronchi and grow aggressively in small grapelike
clusters within the mediastinum, a site from which
metastasis is especially rapid.
IX. DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
In the Fetus
● The lungs are filled with fluid, and all respiratory
exchanges are made by the placenta.
At Birth
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● The fluid-filled pathway is drained, and the respiratory
passageways fill with air.
● The alveoli inflate and begin to function in gas
exchange, but the lungs are not fully inflated for 2
weeks.
● The success of this change that is, from nonfunctional
to functional respiration depends on the presence of
surfactant, a fatty molecule made by the cuboidal
alveolar cells
● Surfactant lowers the surface tension of the film of
water lining each alveolar sac so that the alveoli do
not collapse between each breath.
● Surfactant is not usually present in large enough
amounts to accomplish this function until late in
pregnancy (between 28 and 30 weeks).
●
i. Homeostatic Imbalance
Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome (IRDS)
● Infants who are born prematurely (before week 28) or
in whom surfactant production is inadequate (as in
many infants born to diabetic mothers)
● These infants have dyspnea within a few hours after
birth and use tremendous amounts of energy just to
reinflate their alveoli, which collapse after each
breath.
● Although IRDS still accounts for over 20,000 newborn
deaths a year, many babies with IRDS survive now
because of the use of equipment that supplies a
positive pressure continuously and keeps the alveoli
open until the maturing lungs produce enough
surfactant.
Cystic Fibrosis (CF)
● Birth defects of the respiratory system include cleft
palate and cystic fibrosis.
● The most common lethal genetic disease in the
United States strikes in 1 out of every 2,400 births,
and every day two children die of it.
● CF causes oversecretion of thick mucus that clogs the
respiratory passages and puts the child at risk for fatal
respiratory infections.
● It affects other secretory processes as well.
● Most importantly, it impairs food digestion by clogging
ducts that deliver pancreatic enzymes and bile to the
small intestine.
● Also, sweat glands produce extremely salty
perspiration.
● At the heart of CF is a faulty gene that codes for the
CFTR protein.
● CFTR works as a chloride ion (Cl−) channel to control
the flow of Cl into and out of cells.
● In people with the mutated gene, CFTR gets “stuck” in
the endoplasmic reticulum and is unable to reach the
plasma membrane to perform its normal role.
● Consequently, less CL is secreted from the cells and
less water follows, resulting in the thick mucus typical
of CF.
● The goal of CF research is to restore normal salt and
water movement.
● Conventional therapy for CF is mucus-dissolving
drugs, “clapping” the chest to loosen the thick mucus,
and antibiotics to prevent infection.
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● A surprisingly simple approach is to inhale hypertonic

saline droplets.

REFERENCES
➢ Gerard J. Tortora, (2014), Principles of Anatomy and
Physiology, 14th Edition
➢ Marieb, E., (12th Edition).Essentials of Human Anatomy
and Physiology
➢ Notes from the discussion by Ms. Annie M. Ramos RMT,
RN. MD

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