Module 24: The wave equation-II

Lecture 24: The wave equation-II

24.1 Transverse waves in stretched strings

In this section we discuss the transverse vibrations in stretched strings. We
consider a uniform stretched string having a tension T . We take a particular
section of this string which is disturbed from its mean position as shown in
the figure 24.1 below. The displacement of the point x on the string at time
t is denoted with ξ(x, t). Further we assume that the disturbances are small
and strictly orthogonal to the undisturbed string.
T2
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T1 ξ ( x + ∆ x ,t)
ξ (x,t)

∆x
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T x x +∆ x T

Figure 24.1: A particular section of the string

The horizontal component of the force is,

Fx = T2 cos θ2 − T1 cos θ1 = 0, (24.1)

where T1 and T2 are the new tensions at points x and x + ∆x respectively.

Hence,
T2 cos θ2 = T1 cos θ1 = T. (24.2)
Now coming to the vertical component of the force, we have,

Fy = T2 sin θ2 − T1 sin θ1 , (24.3)

151
152 CHAPTER 24. THE WAVE EQUATION-II

Fy = T2 cos θ2 tan θ2 − T1 cos θ1 tan θ1 . (24.4)

Using the equation (24.2), we obtain,

Fy = T tan θ2 − T tan θ1 . (24.5)

Now tan θ at a particular point is nothing but the slope at that point of the
disturbed string, so we can write,
à ! à !
∂ξ(x + ∆x, t) ∂ξ(x, t)
Fy = T − T , (24.6)
∂x ∂x
∂
Fy = T (ξ(x + ∆x, t) − ξ(x, t)) , (24.7)
∂x
à !
∂2ξ
Fy = T ∆x. (24.8)
∂x2
The above force would produce the vertical acceleration in that particular
section of the string. Hence,
à !
∂ 2ξ
Fy = µ∆x , (24.9)
∂t2
where µ is the mass per unit length of the string. Now from equations (24.8)
and (24.9) we have, Ã ! Ã !
∂2ξ µ ∂2ξ
= , (24.10)
∂x2 T ∂t2
which can be again written as equation (23.13), that is,
∂2ξ 1 ∂2ξ
− = 0, (24.11)
∂x2 c2s ∂t2
q
where now the phase velocity, cs , of the wave is equal to T /µ.

24.2 Solving the wave equation

24.2.1 Plane waves
We consider a disturbance which depends on only one position variable x. For
example x could be along the length of the beam. We have the wave equation
∂2ξ 1 ∂2ξ
− = 0. (24.12)
∂x2 c2 ∂t2
In solving the wave equation it is convenient to introduce two new variables

w1 = x + ct and w2 = x − ct ,
w1 + w2 w1 − w2
x = and t = .
2 2c
24.2. SOLVING THE WAVE EQUATION 153

We can represent ξ(x, t) as a function of w1 and w2 i.e. ξ(w1 , w2 )

Also
∂ξ ∂w1 ∂ξ ∂w2 ∂ξ
= + ,
∂x ∂x ∂w1 ∂x ∂w2
∂ξ ∂ξ
= + .
∂w1 ∂w2
Similarly
1 ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ
= − . (24.13)
c ∂t ∂w1 ∂w2
Using these the wave equation becomes
à !2 à !2
∂2ξ 1 ∂ξ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
− = + ξ− − ξ = 0, (24.14)
∂x2 c2 ∂t2 ∂w1 ∂w2 ∂w1 ∂w2

which gives us the condition

∂2
ξ(w1 , w2 ) = 0 . (24.15)
∂w1 ∂w2
Possible solutions:-

1. ξ(w1 , w2 ) = Constant ( not of interest )

2. ξ(w1 , w2 ) = f1 (w1 ) (function of w1 alone.)

3. ξ(w1 , w2 ) = f2 (w2 ) (function of w2 alone.)

Any linear superposition of 2 and 3 above is also a solution.

ξ(w1 , w2 ) = c1 f1 (w1 ) + c2 f2 (w2 ) , (24.16)

To physically interpret these solutions we revert back to (x, t).

Let us first consider solution 2 i.e. any arbitrary function of w1 = x + ct.

ξ(x, t) = f1 (x + ct) . (24.17)

At t = 0 we have
ξ(x, 0) = f1 (x) , (24.18)
at t = 1 we have ξ(x, 1) = f1 (x + c) i.e the origin x =0 has now shifted
to x = −c. and at t = τ, the origin shift to x = −τ /c. The form of the
disturbance remains unchanged and the disturbance propagates to the left i.e.
along the −x direction with speed c as shown in the left panel of Figure 24.2.
Similarly, the solution 3 corresponds to a right travelling wave

ξ(x, t) = f2 (x − ct) , (24.19)

154 CHAPTER 24. THE WAVE EQUATION-II

f(x,t)
f(x,t)

t=0
t=2 t=1 t=0 t=1 t=2

x x

Figure 24.2: A left moving wave and a right moving wave

which propagates along +x with speed c as shown in the right panel of Fig-
ure 24.2

ξ(x, t) = a1 f1 (x + ct) + a2 f2 (x − ct) . (24.20)

Any arbitrary combination of a left travelling solution and a right travelling
solution is also a solution to the wave equation
The value of ξ is constant on planes perpendicular to the x axis and these
solutions are plane wave solutions. The sinusoidal plane wave

ξ(x, t) = a cos[k(x − ct)] , (24.21)

that we have studied earlier is a special case of the more general plane wave
solution.

24.2.2 Spherical waves

We now consider spherically symmetric solutions to the wave equation

1 ∂2ξ
∇2 ξ − = 0. (24.22)
c2s ∂t2
where ξ(~r, t) = ξ(r, t) depends only on the distance r from the origin. It is now
convenient to use the spherical polar coordinates (r, θ, φ) instead of (x, y, z),
and the wave equation becomes
à !
1 ∂ ∂ξ 1 ∂ 2ξ
2
r2 − = 0. (24.23)
r ∂r ∂r c2s ∂t2

Substituting ξ(r, t) = u(r, t)/r we have

à !
1 ∂ ∂u 1 ∂ 2u
r − u − = 0. (24.24)
r2 ∂r ∂r rc2s ∂t2

which gives us the wave equation in a single variable r,

∂ 2u 1 ∂2u
− = 0. (24.25)
∂r2 c2s ∂t2
24.2. SOLVING THE WAVE EQUATION 155

whose solutions are already known. Using these we have

f1 (r + ct) f1 (r − ct)
ξ(r, t) = + , (24.26)
r r
which is the most general spherical wave solution. The first part of the solution
f1 (r + ct) represents a spherical wave travelling towards the origin and the
second part f1 (r − ct) represents a wave travelling out from the origin as
shown in the left and right panels of Figure 24.3 respectively. In both cases
the amplitude varies as 1/r and the solution is singular at r = 0.

Figure 24.3: Spherical waves

Problems

1. Consider the longitudinal disturbance

4
ξ(x) =
4 + x2
inside an elastic rod where cs = 2m/s.

a. Plot the disturbance as a function of x.

b. What is ξ(x, t) if the disturbance is a travelling wave moving along
+x?
c. Plot the disturbance as a function of x at t = 3 s.

2. Which of the following are travelling waves? If yes, what is the speed?

a. ξ(x, t) = sin2 [π(ax + bt)] b. ξ(x, t) = sin[π(ax + bt)2 ]

√
2 +bt2 +2
c. ξ(x, t) = sin2 [π(ax2 + bt)] d. ξ(x, t) = e−[ax abxt]

2 /L2
e. ξ(~r, t) = e−[ax+by−t]

3. Consider a spherical wave ξ(r, t) = a sin[k(r − cs t)]/r with k = 3, m−1

and cs = 330 ms−1 .
156 CHAPTER 24. THE WAVE EQUATION-II

a. What is the frequency of this wave ?

b. How much does the amplitude of this wave change over ∆r = 2π/k?
c. In which direction does this wave propagate?

4. A longitudinal travelling wave

2
/L2
ξ(x, t) = Ae−[x−cs t] [A = 10−4 m, L = 1 m]

passes through a long steel rod for which ρ = 8000 kg/m3 and Y =
200 × 109 N/m2 .

a. At which point is the displacement maximum at t = 10−3 s?

b. Plot the displacement at x = 5 m as a function of time.
c. Plot the velocity of the steel at x = 5 m as a function of time.
d. When is the velocity of the steel zero at x = 5 m?

5. Write the three dimensional Laplacian operator of equation (24.22) in

spherical polar co-ordinates, and hence obtain the equation (24.23).