PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 2 – PHYSICS

Category - B2 Sub Module 2.4 – Optics

MODULE 2
Sub Module 2.4

OPTICS

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Contents

NATURE OF LIGHT ................................................................................. 1

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION ............................................................. 4
MIRRORS AND LENSES ........................................................................ 10
FIBRE OPTICS ....................................................................................... 14

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2.4.1 – NATURE OF LIGHT Speed of Light in Various Substances

When we burn any fuel, the flames give out both heat and light. The speed of light wave is a maximum in a vacuum and is less
When we use electrical energy to light a lamp, heat and light are
produced together. It is natural to conclude that both heat and in various transparent substances. We define the "index of
light are forms of energy. The sun, the greatest source of refraction" (n) as the ratio of the speed of light (c) in vacuum to
energy for earth, obtains heat and light form the nuclear energy the speed of light in the substance (v).
of hydrogen.

ℎ
Light is a transverse wave. It is a form of energy - = =
Speed of light in substance v
electromagnetic radiation. The source of natural light is the sun
– so light energy does not require a medium to travel, it travels
in a vacuum.

Problem
Speed of Light
If index of refraction of water is 1.33 then find the speed of light
in water?
In free space, or air, the speed of light is approximately 3 x 108
m/s or 186000 miles/second. Light travels in straight lines,
called rectilinear propagation.

A direct effect of light travelling in straight lines is the casting of

dark shadows by opaque objects. From the wave speed
equation as the speed of light is a constant, then different
frequencies of light have different wavelengths. Different
frequencies of light also have different colours.

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

White light consists of a range of wavelengths. At one end of

the spectrum is red light, which has a wavelength of about 700
nanometres (7 x 10-7 m), while at the other is violet light which
has a wavelength of about 400 nanometres (4 x 10-7 m).

Electromagnetic radiation comes in many forms that we can’t

see. Radio and TV signals, microwaves and infra-red radiation
all have longer wavelengths than visible light. Ultra-violet
radiation, X-rays and gamma rays all have shorter wavelengths.
The figure 2.72 shows the electromagnetic spectrum.

Real and Virtual Images

An image is said to be real if the rays entering the eye come

from the image itself; an image is said to be virtual if the rays
entering the eye only appear to come from the image.

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Fig. 2.72

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2.4.2 – REFLECTION AND REFRACTION Refraction

When light rays fall on the surface of an object, one or a Refraction is the bending of a light ray as it crosses the
combination of the following may happen: (a) the rays may be boundary between one medium to another, thus causing a
reflected, (b) the rays may pass through the object that is change in its direction.
refracted, and (c) the rays may be absorbed by the object.

An object at the bottom of a clear pond appears to be nearer the

Reflection surface than it really is (figure 2.74). A rod appears bent or
broken when it is partially immersed in water (figure 2.75).
These effects are due to change of direction which always
We can see luminous objects like the sun or a candle flame occurs when light travels from one medium (air here) to another
because they emit light. But most of the objects we see are not medium (water here). This phenomenon is called refraction of
luminous objects – they become visible when they reflect, or light.
throw back into our eyes the light that fall on them. Light is
reflected from a mirror; sound “bounces” off a wall to make an
echo; an aircraft reflects a radar signal. We can’t see any object The Snell’s Law of Refraction
in the dark as there is no light to reflect.

When a ray of light passes form one particular medium to

Reflection by a Plane Surface another, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the
sine of the angle of refraction is a constant. If ‘i’ denotes the
angle of incidence and ‘r’ be the angle of refraction, as shown in
The law of reflection tells us that the angle of incidence equals the figure 2.76, then
the angle of reflection. When a ray of light strikes a plane (flat)
mirror, the angles of incidence and reflection are measured from sin i = constant
a line perpendicular to the mirror called the ‘normal’. The sin r
reflection of a light ray by a plane surface is shown in the figure
2.73.

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Fig. 2.75
Fig. 2.73

Fig. 2.74 Fig. 2.76

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These green photons reach our eyes and give us a sensation
Dispersion of Light that the leaf is green in colour.

The splitting of light into its different component (VIBGOUR) is

called dispersion of light. A prism is used to disperse light into Total Internal Reflection
its different components, as shown in the figure 2.77.

Total internal reflection is an optical phenomenon that occurs

White light consists of photons of various wavelengths (or when a ray of light strikes a medium boundary at an angle
colours). The wavelength of red photon is the longest and the larger than a particular critical angle with respect to the normal
wavelength of the violet photon is the shortest. Thus when a to the surface. If the refractive index is lower on the other side of
white light passes through a glass medium like a prism, different the boundary, no light can pass through and all of the light is
photons cross the medium at different speeds. The red colour reflected. The critical angle is the angle of incidence above
appears at the top of the spectrum because it is deviated the which the total internal reflection occurs.
least or it is refracted the least (less bending). On the other
hand, the violet end of the spectrum is bent the most or
refracted most, as it takes longer to traverse the glass medium. When light crosses a boundary between materials with different
refractive indices, the light beam will be partially refracted at the
boundary surface, and partially reflected. However, if the angle
A rainbow is seen when the sun appears in the sky after the of incidence is greater (i.e. the ray is closer to being parallel to
rains. The moisture in the atmosphere behaves like tiny prisms, the boundary) than the critical angle – the angle of incidence at
dispersing the sun’s rays into seven colours (VIBGYOR). The which light is refracted such that it travels along the boundary –
red colour appears on the top of the rainbow and the violet then the light will stop crossing the boundary altogether and
colour appears at the bottom. instead be totally reflected back internally. This can only occur
where light travels from a medium with a higher refractive index
to one with a lower refractive index. For example, it will occur
Visually we see colours because of the reflection of that when passing from glass to air, but not when passing from air to
particular colour only. For example a leaf will look green in the glass. The figure 2.78 shows the total internal reflection.
sun, because it absorbs all the other six colours from the sun’s
rays and will not absorb the green photons of the spectrum.

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Fig. 2.77
Fig. 2.78

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Diffraction Interference

Waves bend when they pass through narrow gap, as shown in Interference occurs when waves from two coherent sources act
the figure 2.78. This is called diffraction. together. (Coherent sources have the same frequency and are
in phase).

It works best if the width of the gap is about the same as the
wavelength. Wide gaps don’t cause much diffraction. Thus, At some points, the waves may be in phase, producing
waves of long wavelength diffract more than waves of short constructive interference. At other points, the waves may be
wavelength. exactly out of phase, producing destructive interference.

The effects of diffraction can be regularly seen in everyday life. Figure 2.79 shows the constructive and destructive
The most colourful examples of diffraction are those involving interferences.
light; for example, the closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD
act as a diffraction grating to form the familiar rainbow pattern
we see when looking at a disk.

Diffraction can occur with any kind of wave. Ocean waves

diffract around jetties and other obstacles. Sound waves can
diffract around objects, which is why one can still hear someone
calling even when hiding behind a tree. Diffraction can also be a
concern in some technical applications; it sets a fundamental
limit to the resolution of a camera, telescope, or microscope.

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Fig. 2.78

Fig. 2.79

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2.4.3 – MIRRORS AND LENSES

Most curved mirrors have surfaces that are shaped like part of a
sphere, but other shapes are sometimes used in optical
Flat Mirrors devices. The most common non-spherical type are parabolic
reflectors, found in optical devices such as reflecting telescopes
that need to image distant objects, since spherical mirror
Flat mirrors are smooth, highly polished, flat surfaces, for systems suffer from spherical aberration.
reflecting light. The actual reflecting surface is usually a thin
coating of silver, aluminium, or other material. Most flat mirrors
are coated, and then over-coated a second time to add a level A convex mirror, or diverging mirror (figure 2.81), is a curved
of scratch resistance. Flat mirrors are found in a wide range of mirror in which the reflective surface bulges toward the light
optical systems including laser light and diode applications, source. Convex mirrors reflect light outwards, therefore they are
holography, imaging systems, and auto-collimating applications. not used to focus light. Such mirrors always form a virtual
image, since the focus F and the centre of curvature 2F (or C)
are both imaginary points "inside" the mirror, which cannot be
When we look in a mirror we see an image of our face. This reached. Therefore images formed by these mirrors cannot be
image is virtual. To our eyes (with the help of our brain), the taken on screen.
image appears to be behind the mirror. No rays of light actually
come from the image so it couldn’t be formed on a screen. (The
image in a camera is real. Rays of light pass there and it is A concave mirror, or converging mirror (figure 2.82), has a
formed on the film.) reflecting surface that bulges inward (away from the incident
light). Concave mirrors reflect light inward to one focal point,
therefore they are used to focus light. Unlike convex mirrors,
Consider the figure 2.80. The real hand appears to be a left concave mirrors show different image types depending on the
hand and its image in the mirror appears to be a right hand. distance between the object and the mirror. These mirrors are
called "converging" because they tend to collect light that falls
Curved Mirrors on them, refocusing parallel incoming rays toward a focus. This
is because the light is reflected at different angles, since the
A curved mirror is a mirror with a curved reflective surface,
normal to the surface differs with each spot on the mirror.
which may be either convex (bulging outward) or concave
(bulging inward).

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Fig. 2.81

Fig. 2.80

Fig. 2.82

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Lenses symmetrical, the lens will have the same focal length on both
sides.

A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate axial

symmetry which transmits and refracts light, converging or A concave lens diverges light rays. It spreads out light rays from
diverging the beam. a distant object. To someone looking through the lens, the rays
appear to be coming from point F, the virtual focus, as shown in
the figure 2.84.
A simple lens is a lens consisting of a single optical element. A
compound lens is an array of simple lenses (elements) with a
common axis; the use of multiple elements allows more optical
aberrations to be corrected than is possible with a single
element. Manufactured lenses are typically made of glass or
transparent plastic. Elements which refract electromagnetic
radiation outside the visual spectrum are also called lenses: for
instance, a microwave lens can be made from paraffin wax.

Lenses refract light to produce images. Most optical instruments

use at least one lens to form an image.

There are two basic types of lens: convex (or converging) lens
and concave (or diverging) lens.

A convex lens converges light rays. It brings light rays from a

distant object to a focus (“focal point”), F (See figure 2.83). The
distance from the lens to the focus is called the focal length, f.
There is a focal point on either side of the lens. If the lens is

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Fig. 2.83 Fig. 2.84

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2.4.4 – FIBRE OPTICS

For several years now optical fibres have been replacing copper Some fibres are single-mode (figure 2.87). They have a very
wires in telecommunications systems. Nowadays the only narrow core (about 0.01 mm) and provide only one path for a
copper wires left in telephone networks are those from homes light signal. Signals have very low attenuation in single-mode
and businesses to local telephone exchanges. Fibre optics is fibres, making them suitable for long distance communications.
also becoming quite common in modern aircraft.

Fibre-optics use light pulses to transmit information down fibre

lines instead of using electronic pulses to transmit information
down copper lines. Looking at the components in a fibre-optic
chain, shown in the figures 2.85 and 2.86, will give a better
understanding of how the system works in conjunction with wire
based systems. At one end of the system is a transmitter. This
is the place of origin for information coming on to fibre-optic
lines. The transmitter accepts coded electronic pulse
information coming from copper wire. It then processes and
translates that information into equivalently coded light pulses.
A light-emitting diode (LED) or an injection-laser diode (ILD) can
be used for generating the light pulses. Using a lens, the light Figure 2.85
pulses are funnelled into the fibre-optic medium where they
transmit themselves down the line.

Light pulses move easily down the fibre-optic line because of a

principle known as total internal reflection. "This principle of total
internal reflection states that when the angle of incidence
exceeds a critical value, light cannot get out of the glass;
instead, the light bounces back in. When this principle is applied
to the construction of the fibre-optic strand, it is possible to
transmit information down fibre lines in the form of light pulses.

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 Large data-carrying capacity (thousands of times greater,
reaching speeds of up to 1.6 Tb/s in field deployed
systems and up to 10 Tb/s in lab systems respectively)
 Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as
radios, motors or other nearby cables.
 No electromagnetic radiation; difficult to eavesdrop
 High electrical resistance, so safe to use near high-voltage
equipment or between areas with different earth potentials
 Low weight
 No crosstalk between cables
Figure 2.86

Other fibres are multimode (figure 2.88). They are relatively

wide (about 0.060 mm in diameter) and provide a number a
number of different paths for a light signal to travel. Signal
attenuation is much greater than in single-mode fibres and they
are used over relatively short distances.

Optical fibres have several advantages over copper wires.

Among the most important from aircraft installation points of
view are:
 Low loss of signal (typically less than 0.3 dB/km), so
repeater-less transmission over long distances is possible Figure 2.87

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The difference in refractive index between core and cladding
need not be large.in practice it is only about 1%. This allows
light guiding in fibers. Thus, the light is confined in the core if it
strikes the interface the with the cladding at an angle of 80 or
less to the surface. As shown
Figure.2.89

Another way to look at light guiding in a fiber is to measure the

fiber acceptance angle. The acceptance angle normally
measured in Numerical Aperture(NA). (because the
acceptance angle is measured in air outside the fiber, it differs
from the confinement angle in the glass)

Figure 2.88

LIGHT GUIDING

The two key elements of an optical fiber are:

1: Core
2: Cladding.

The Core is the inner part of the fiber optics, through which the
light is guided. Whereas, the cladding surrounded it completely.
The refractive index of core is higher than that of cladding. So
light in the core that strikes the boundary with the cladding at
glancing angle is confined in the core by total internal reflection
Figure 2.89
as shown in figure 2.86.

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TRANSMISSION AND ATTENUATION

Transmission of light by optical fiber is not 100% efficient. Some

light is lost, causing attenuation of the signal. Several
mechanisms are involved including absorption by materials with
in the fiber, scattering of light out of the fiber core, and leakage
of light out of the core caused by environmental factors. The
degree of attenuation depends upon the wavelength of the light
transmitted. This makes the operating wavelength an important
feature of the fiber system.

The attenuation measured the reduction in signal strength by

comparing output power with input power. Measurements are
made in decibels(dB). Loss in decibels is defined as.

dB LOSS= - 10 x log10 (POWER OUT/ POWER IN)

The minus sign is added to avoid negative number in

attenuation measurement. Thus, if the output power is 0.001 of
input power, the signal has experienced a 30 dB loss.
Figure 2.90

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CONNECTOR ATTENUATION

Connector attenuation is the sum of losses caused by several

factors. Which are easier to isolate in theory than in practice.
These factors stem from the way light is guided in fibers. The
major are as follow:

1. Overlap of fiber cores

2. Alignment of fiber axes
3. Fiber numerical aperture
4. Fiber spacing.

OVERLAP OF FIBER CORES: Figure 2.91

To see how core overlap affected loss look at figure 2.91 ALIGNMENT OF FIBER AXES
where the end of one fiber is offset from the end of the other.
For simplicity assume that light is distributed uniformly in the The importance of alignment fiber axes is shown in
cores of identical fibers and that the two fiber ends are next to figure 2.92. As the fiber tilt out of alignment and the
each other and are otherwise well aligned. The loss then equals angle increases, the light enters the second fiber at
the friction of the input fiber core area that do not overlap with increasingly steeper angles, so some rays are not
that of the output fiber. If the off set is 10% of the core diameter confined. The severity of this loss decreases as
the excess loss is about 0.6 dB. numerical aperture increases because the larger the
NA., the larger the collecting angle

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Figure 2.92
Figure 2.93
FIBER NUMERICAL APERTURE
SPACING BETWEEN FIBER
The difference in NA between fiber can also contribute to
connector losses. If the fiber receiving the light smaller NA than Numerical Aperture also influence the loss caused by the
the one delivering the light, some light will enter it in modes that separation of fiber ends in a connector. Light exist a fiber in a
are not confined in the core. The light will quickly leak out of the cone, with the spreading angle like the acceptance angle.
fiber. As shown in figure 2.93 . the loss can be defined as Dependent on numerical aperture. The more the cone of light
spread out the less light the other fiber can collect as shown in
LOSS (dB) = 10log10 (NA2/NA1)2 figure 2.94

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normally done with a fusion splicer which mechanically aligns
the two fiber ends, and then apply a spark across the tips to
fuse them together. Typical splicers also include instrument to
test splice quality and optics to help technician align the fiber for
splicing. Typical splice losses are 0.05 dB to 0.2 dB, with more
than half below 0.1 dB The basic arrangement of a fiber splicer
is shown in figure 2.95

Figure 2.94
;
TYPES OF SPLICING

There are two basic approaches to fiber splicing

1: Fusion Splicing
2: Mechanical Splicing

Fusion splicing melts the ends of two fibers together so they

fuse, like welding metal. Whereas Mechanical splicing holds two
fiber ends without welding them, using a mechanical clamp and
/ or glue. Each approach has its advantages. Fusion splicers
are expensive, but they require almost no consumable cost, and
fusion splices have slightly better characteristics. Mechanical Figure 2.95
splicing require less equipment (no costly fusion splicer)but
consumable cost per splice are much higher. MECHANICAL SPLICING

Mechanical splicing requires less costly capital equipment but

FUSION SPLICING has higher consumable cost than fusion splicing. This can tilt
Fusion splicing is performed by butting the tips of two fibers the balance towards mechanical splicing for organization that
together and heating them, so they melt together. This is don’t perform much splicing , or for emergency on-site kits for
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temporary repairs. Mechanical splices tend to have slightly
higher loss than fusion splices, but the difference is not
dramatic. Back reflection can occur in mechanical splicing but
they can be reduced by using epoxy to connect the fibers, or by
inserting into the splice a fluid or gel with a refractive index
close to that of glass. This index matching gel suppresses the
reflections that can occur at a glass air interface.

Some types of mechanical splicing are 1) Capillary Splice

2) Rotary or Polished Ferrule Splice 3) V-Groove Splicing

Rotary or Polished Ferrule Splicing

Capillary Splicing

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USE OF OPTICAL FIBER IN AIRCRAFT

The small size, light weight and immunity to electromagnetic

interference of optical fiber has attracted designer of aircraft.
The electronic content of aircraft has increased steadily, and
with it the need for communication. Such systems are quite
different from those intended for long distance communication.

Electromagnetic interference is an even more serious problem

in aircraft. The complex avionics of modern aircraft requires
much greater information carrying capacity. Also, the light
weight of fibers is also important because of the performance
advantages that can come from saving weight from aircraft.

V-Groove Splicing

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