Module-II Pe 402 Automation in Anufacturing

07‐Oct‐21
PE 402 AUTOMATION IN ANUFACTURING
Module-II
Dr. Binay Kumar, Department of Production and Industrial Engineering, BIT
Mesra, Ranchi
Module 2: CNC Tools [8]
BASIC PRINCIPLES, CLASSIFICATION AND

STRUCTURE OF NC SYSTEMS, NC-COORDINATE
SYSTEM, CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES AND
FEEDBACK DEVICES FOR CNC MACHINE TOOLS,
PART PROGRAMMING (FANUC), DNC AND
ADAPTIVE CONTROL.
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Dr. Binay Kumar, Deptt. of Production and
Industrial Engineering, BIT Mesra, Ranchi 1
07‐Oct‐21
Introduction to Numerical control (NC) :
Numerical control (NC) is a form of programmable automation in

which the mechanical actions of a machine tool or other equipment are
controlled by a program containing coded alphanumeric data. The
alphanumerical data represent relative positions between a work head
and work part as well as other instructions needed to operate the
machine, The work head is a cutting tool or other processing apparatus,
and the work part is the object being processed, When the current job is
completed. The program of instructions can be changed to process a
new job. The capability to change the program makes NC suitable for
low and medium production. It is much easier to write new programs
than to make major alterations of the processing equipment.
Dr. Binay Kumar, Deptt. of Production and Industrial Engineering, BIT Mesra, Ranchi
Numerical control can be applied to a wide variety of processes.

The applications divide into two categories;
(1 ) machine tool applications, such as drilling, milling, turning, and other metal
working;
and (2) non machine tool applications. such as assembly. drafting, and inspection.
The common operating feature of NC in all of these applications is control of the

work head movement relative to the work part.
07‐Oct‐21
Numerical control (NC) refers to the automation of machine tools that are operated by
abstractly programmed commands encoded on a storage medium, as opposed to controlled
manually via handwheels or levers, or mechanically automated via cams alone. The first NC
machines were built in the 1940s and 1950s, based on existing tools that were modified with
motors that moved the controls to follow points fed into the system on punched tape. These
early servomechanisms were rapidly augmented with analog and digital computers, creating
the modern computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools that have revolutionized the
machining processes.
In modern CNC systems, end-to-end component design is highly automated using computer-
aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) programs. The programs
produce a computer file that is interpreted to extract the commands needed to operate a
machine via a postprocessor, and then loaded into the CNC machines for production.
Since any component might require the use of a number of different tools-drills, saws, etc.,
modern machines often combine multiple tools into a single "cell". In other cases, several
different machines are used with an external controller and human or robotic operators that
move the component from machine to machine. In either case, the complex series of steps
needed to produce any part is highly automated and produces a part that closely matches the
original CAD design.
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History of Numeric Control
 The main credit of NC development can be attributed to US Air Force, MIT and
Parsons Corporation (John Parson and Frank Stulen).
 Parson and Stulen developed a machine which they named Cardmatic milling machine.
This machine axis position was controlled by punched cards.
 1949: US Air Force asks Parsons Corporation to develop a "numerically controlled"
machine. Parsons Corporation subcontracted the project to servomechanism lab, MIT
 1952: Prototype NC machine demonstrated (punched tape input)
 1953: Agreement with MIT and Giddings and Lewis machine tool company to develop
the technology
 1958: APT programming language was developed under patronage of US Air Force.
 1980: CNC machines (computer used to link directly to controller)
 1990: DNC: external computer “drip feeds” control programmer to machine tool
controller.
Motivation & Objectives

• To manufacture complex curved geometries in 2D or 3D was extremely expensive by mechanical means
(which usually would require complex jigs to control the cutter motions)
• Increased production
• Reduced labor costs
• Make production more economical
• Machining components with repeatable accuracy
• Unmanned machining operations

• The parts that are subjected to frequent design change can be manufactured by NC machine tools
• Parts that that require a long series of operation can be made with minimal accumulated error.
• NC M/T can operate in hostile and hazardous environments.
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Difference of Numerically Controlled Machine Tools

Functionally the same as a conventional machine tool. The difference is in the way in which
the various machine functions and slide movements are controlled.
The functions and motions such as;
 turning the spindle on and off
 setting cutting speeds
 setting feed rate
 turning coolant on and off
 moving tool with respect to work part
 are performed by Machine Control Unit (MCU) in NC machine tools.
PROGRAM OF
INSTRUCTION
(NC CODE)
MACHINE CONTROL
UNIT (MCU)
MANUFACTURING
OPERATOR
Drive Control
PROCESSED
PART
PROCESSING EQUIPMENT
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Basic Elements of a NC System
• An NC system consists of three basic components: (1) a program of instruction,

(2) a machine control unit, and (3) processing equipment.
• The programme of instructions is the detailed step-by-step commands that direct

the action of the processing equipment. In machine tool application the program
of instructions is called a part program. In these application the individual
commands refer to position of a cutting tool relative to the work table on which
the work part is fixtured. Additional instructions are usually included such as
spindle speed, feed rate, cutting tool selection and other functions. The
programme is coded on a suitable medium to the machine control unit. For many
years the common medium was 1 inch wide punch tape.
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Basic Components of NC System (1. Program of Instructions)

• This is detailed step by step set of directions which will tell the m/c tool what to do.
• The most common input medium used is 1 inch wide punched tape. Other input mediums are
punched cards, magnetic tape
Punched tape
Punched card
Magnetic tape: plastic film

Dr. Binay Kumar, Deptt. of Production and Industrial Engineering, BIT Mesra, Ranchi with magnetic coating
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• In modern NC technology the machine control unit consists of a microcomputer and related
control hardware that stores the program of instruction and executes it by converting each
command into mechanical actions of the processing equipments, one command at a time.
The related hardware of the MCU includes components to interface with the processing
equipments and feedback control elements. The MCU also included one or more reading
devices for entering part programs into memory. The type of readers depends on the storage
media used for part programs. The MCU also includes control system software, calculation
algorithms, and translation software to convert the NC part programs into a useable format
for MCU.
• The Processing equipment accomplishes the processing steps to transform the workpiece
into a completed part. Its operation is directed by MCU, which in driven by instruction
contained in the part program.
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NC Coordinate Systems
For flat and prismatic (block-like) parts:
• Milling and drilling operations
• Conventional Cartesian coordinate system
• Rotational axes about each linear axis
For rotational parts:

• Turning operations
• Only x- and z-axes
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NC Coordinate Systems
The programmer must determine position of tool relative to origin (zero point)
of coordinate system. NC machines have two methods for specifying zero point:
Fixed Zero: In this case the origin is always located at the same position on m/c
table. Usually this is the southwest corner of table and all tool locations will
be defined by positive x & y coordinates.
Floating Zero: The second and more common feature on modern NC machines
allows the m/c operator to set zero point at any position on m/c table.
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COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• Designating the Axes: First axis to be identified is the Z-axis. This is followed by the X and Y axes
respectively.
• Z-Axis and Motion
• Location: The Z-axis motion is either along the spindle axis or parallel to the spindle axis.
• Direction: The tool moving away from the work holding surface towards the cutting tool is designated as the
positive Z direction.
Right hand co-ordinate systems

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COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• X-Axis: Location: It is perpendicular to the Z-axis and should be horizontal and parallel to
the work- holding surface wherever possible.
• Direction: When looking from the principal spindle to the column, the positive (+) X is to
the RIGHT.
• Y-Axis: It is perpendicular to both X- and Z- axes and the direction is identified by the
right hand Cartesian co-ordinate system.
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Rotary Motions
• A, B and C define the primary
rotary motions.
• Location: These motions are located
about the axis parallel to X, Y and Z respectively.
• Direction: Positive A,B and C are
in the directions which advance right hand
screws in the positive X, Y, and
Z directions respectively.
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• Using a vertical mill machining center as an example, there are typically three
linear axes of motion. Each is given an alphabetic designation or address. The
machine table motion side to side is called the “X” axis. Table movement in and
out is the “Y” axis, while head movement up and down the column is the “Z”
axis.
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NC machines
Motion control is done by: servo-controlled motors
Table
Leadscrew
Encoder A/C Motor
~
Servo Controller
Counter Comparator
Input (converted from analog to digital value)
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CNC terminology
BLU: basic length unit  smallest programmable move of each axis.
Controller: (Machine Control Unit, MCU) 

Electronic and computerized interface between operator and m/c
Controller components:
1. Data Processing Unit (DPU)
2. Control-Loops Unit (CLU)
Data Processing Unit:
 Input device [RS-232 port/ Tape Reader/ Punched Tape Reader]
 Data Reading Circuits and Parity Checking Circuits
 Decoders to distribute data to the axes controllers.
Control Loops Unit:
 Interpolator to supply machine-motion commands between data points
 Position control loop hardware for each axis of motion
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NC MACHINE CLASSIFICATIONS
• Based on Motion Type:

– Point-to-Point or Continuous path
• Based on Control Loops:

– Open loop or Closed loop
• Based on Power Supply:

– Electric or Hydraulic or Pneumatic
• Based on Positioning System

• Incremental or Absolute
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Motion control systems

•Motion control systems for NC can be divided into two types: (i) point-to-point, and (ii)
continuous path.
•Point-to-point systems , also called positioning systems, move the work table to a programmed
location without regard for the path taken to get to that location. The machine moves initially at
maximum velocity in order to reduce non productive time, but decelerates as the tool
approaches its numerically defined position. Once the move has been completed some
processing action is accomplished by the work head at the location, such as drilling or punching
a hole. Thus the program consists of a series of point locations at which operations are
performed.
•Continuous path systems generally refer to systems that are capable of continuous simultaneous
control of two or more axes. This provided control of the tool trajectory relative to the work
part. In this case, the tool performs the process while the work table is moving, thus enabling
the system to generate angular surfaces, 2D curves, or an turning operations. When continuous
path control is utilized to move the tool parallel to only one of the major axes of the machine
tool work table, this is straight-cut NC. When continuous path control is used for simultaneous
control o
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Figure: Movement of tools in numerical-control machining. (a) Point-to-point, in which the drill bit drills
a hole at position 1, is retracted and moved to position 2, and so on. (b) Continuous path by a milling
cutter. Note that the cutter path is compensated for by the cutter radius. This path can also be
compensated for cutter wear.
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• Another aspect of motion control is concerned with whether positions are defined
relative to origin of the coordinate system or relative to previous location of the tool. The
two cases are called absolute positioning and incremental positioning. In absolute
positioning the workhead locations are always defined with respect to the origin of the
axis system. In incremental positioning, the next workhead position is defined relative to
present location.
Figure: Positions of drilled holes in a workpiece. Three methods of measurements are shown: (a) absolute
dimensioning, referenced from one point at the lower left of the part; (b) incremental dimensioning, made
sequentially form one hole to another; and (c) mixed dimensioning, a combination of both methods.
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Absolute vs. Incremental Positioning

• Absolute positioning
– Move is: x = 40, y = 50
• Incremental positioning
– Move is: x = 20, y = 30.
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Types of control circuits

In the open‐loop system, the signals are sent to the servomotor by the controller, but the movements
and final positions of the worktable are not checked for accuracy. In contrast, the closed‐loop system is
equipped with various transducers, sensors, and counters that accurately measures the position of the
worktable. Through feedback control, the position of the worktable is compared with signal; table
movement terminate when proper coordinates are reached. The closed‐loop system is more
complicated than open‐loop system.
Figure: Schematic illustration of the components of (a) an open-loop and (b) a closed-loop control system
for a numerical-control machine.
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Direct and Indirect Measurements for control circuits

Precision measurements in NC can be accomplished through direct and indirect methods.
In direct measuring systems, a sensing device reads a graduated scale on the machine
table or slide for linear movement. This system is more accurate than those used in
indirect methods. In indirect measuring systems, rotary encoders or resolvers convert
rotary movements to translation movement.
Figure (a) Direct measurement of the linear displacement of a machine-tool work table. (b) and (c) Indirect
measurement methods.
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Advantages of NC
• Parts can be produced in less time and therefore are likely to be less expensive.
• Parts can be produced more accurately even for smaller batches.
• The operator involvement in part manufacture is reduced to a minimum and as a result less scrap is
generated due to operator errors.
• Since the part program takes care of the geometry generated, the need for expensive jigs and fixtures is
reduced or eliminated, depending upon the part geometry.
• Inspection time is reduced, since all the parts in a batch would be identical provided proper care is taken
about the tool compensations and tool wear in part program preparation and operation.
• The need for certain types of form tools is completely eliminated in NC machines.
• Lead times needed before the job can be put on the machine tool can be reduced to a great extent
depending upon the complexity of the job.
• CNC machining centers can perform a variety of machining operations that have to be carried out on
several conventional machine tools, thus reducing the number of machine tools on the shop floor.
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• Many a times the setup times are reduced, since the setup involves simple location of the
datum surface and position.
• Machining times and costs are predictable to a greater accuracy, since all the elements
involved in manufacturing would have to be thoroughly analyzed before a part program is
prepared.
• Operator fatigue does not come into picture in the manufacturing of a part. The NC machine
tool can be utilized continuously since these are more rigid than the conventional machine
tool.
• Tools can be utilized at optimum feeds and speeds that can be programmed.
• The modification to part design can be very easily translated into manufacture by the simple
changes in part programs without expensive and time consuming changes in jigs, fixtures and
tooling.
• The capability (metal removal) of NC machines is generally high because of the very rigid
construction employed in machine tool design compared to the conventional machine tools.
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Limitations of NC
• The cost of NC machine tool is much high compared to an equivalent
conventional machine tool.
• Cost and skill of the people required to operate a NC machine is generally
high in view of the complex and sophisticated technology involved.
• Special training needed to the personnel manning the NC machine tools.
• As NC is a complex and sophisticated technology, it also requires higher
investments for maintenance in terms of wages of highly skilled personnel
and expensive spares.
• The automatic operation of NC machines implies relatively higher running
costs.
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Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

• CNC was first introduced in 1970 by replacing the hardwired MCU of a conventional NC system
by a microcomputer which accomplishes all the functions of an MCU with its software.
• Advantages over NC
– Feed rate control, buffering, position loop control
– Ability to edit and store programs
– Ability to produce punched (or magnetic) tapes diskettes etc.
– Expanded tool offsets
– Expanded control of machine sequence operations
– Digitizing
– Circular and more advanced (NURBS etc.) interpolation
– Parametric programming
– Do loops
– Roughening to a defined shape
– Subroutines
– Diagnostic capability
– On-screen geometric programming
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Historical Perspective
The word NC which stands for numerical control refer to control of a machine or a process
using symbolic codes consisting of characters and numerals. The word CNC came into
existence in seventies when microprocessors and microcomputers replaced integrated circuit
IC based controls used for NC machines. The development of numerical control owes much to
the United States air force. The concept of NC was proposed in the late 1940s by John
Parsons who recommended a method of automatic machine control that would guide a milling
cutter to produce a curvilinear motion in order to generate smooth profiles on the work-pieces.
In 1949, the U.S Air Force awarded Parsons a contract to develop new type of machine tool
that would be able to speed up production methods.
Parsons sub-contracted the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to develop a practical
implementation of his concept. Scientists and engineers at M.I.T built a control system for a two
axis milling machine that used a perforated paper tape as the input media. This prototype was
produced by retrofitting a conventional tracer mill with numerical control servomechanisms for
the three axes of the machine. By 1955, these machines were available to industries with some
small modifications.
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The machine tool builders gradually began developing their own projects to
introduce commercial NC units. Also, certain industry users, especially airframe
builders, worked to devise numerical control machines to satisfy their own
particular production needs. The Air force continued its encouragement of NC
development by sponsoring additional research at MIT to design a part
programming language that could be used in controlling N.C. machines.
In a short period of time, all the major machine tool manufacturers were
producing some machines with NC, but it was not until late 1970s that computer-
based NC became widely used. NC matured as an automation technology when
electronics industry developed new products. At first, miniature electronic tubes
were developed, but the controls were big, bulky, and not very reliable. Then
solid-state circuitry and eventually modular or integrated circuits were developed.
The control unit became smaller, more reliable, and less expensive.
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Computer Numerical Control

Computer numerical control (CNC) is the numerical control system in which a dedicated computer is
built into the control to perform basic and advanced NC functions. CNC controls are also referred to
as soft-wired NC systems because most of their control functions are implemented by the control
software programs. CNC is a computer assisted process to control general purpose machines from
instructions generated by a processor and stored in a memory system. It is a specific form of control
system where position is the principal controlled variable. All numerical control machines
manufactured since the seventies are of CNC type. The computer allows for the following: storage
of additional programs, program editing, running of program from memory, machine and control
diagnostics, special routines, inch/metric, incremental/absolute switchability.
CNC machines can be used as stand alone units or in a network of machines such as flexible
machine centres. The controller uses a permanent resident program called an executive program to
process the codes into the electrical pulses that control the machine. In any CNC machine,
executive program resides in ROM and all the NC codes in RAM. The information in ROM is written
into the electronic chips and cannot be erased and they become active whenever the machine is on.
The contents in RAM are lost when the controller is turned off. Some use special type of RAM called
CMOS memory, which retains its contents even when the power is turned off.
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Basic Elements of a CNC System
DEFINE GEOMETRY
COMPUTER
CREATE TOOL PATH
POST PROCESS TO CREATE CODE

MACHINE
CONTROL UNIT
READ CODE TO CONTROLLER
INTERPOLATE CODE INTO DRIVE

MACHINE
FINISHED PART TOOL
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Features of a CNC System

• Computer NC systems include additional features beyond what is feasible with
conventional hard-wired NC. These features are described below:
• Storage of more than one part program: With improvements in computer
storage technology, newer CNC controllers have sufficient capacity to store
multiple programs.
• Various forms of program input: Whereas conventional MCUs are limited to
punched tape as the input medium for entering part programs, CNC controllers
generally possess multiple data entry capabilities, such as punched tape,
magnetic tape, floppy diskette, RS-232 communications with external computers,
and manual data input.
• Program editing at the machine tool: CNC permits a part program to be edited
while it resides in MCU computer memory. The process of testing and correcting
a program can be done entirely at the machine site.
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• Fixed cycles and programming subroutines: The increased capacity and the
ability to program the control computer provide the opportunity to store frequently
stored machining cycles as micros that can be called by the part program. Instead
of writing the full instructions for the particular cycle into every program, a call
statement is included in the part program to indicate that the micro cycle should be
executed. These cycles often require that certain parameters be defined; for
example, a bolt hole circle, in which the diameter of the bolt circle, the spacing of
the bolt holes and other parameters must be specified.
• Interpolation: Some of the interpolation schemes are normally executed only on a
CNC system because of the computational requirements. Linear and circular
interpolation are some times hardwired into the control unit, but helical, parabolic,
and cubic interpolations are usually executed in a stored program algorithm.
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• Positioning features for setup: Setting up the machine tool for a given work part
involves installing and aligning a fixture on the machine tool table. This must be
accomplished so that the machine axes are established with respect to the work part.
The alignment task can be facilitated using certain features made possible by
software options in a CNC system. Position set is one of these features. With
position set, the operator is not required to locate the fixture on the machine table
with extreme accuracy. Instead, the machine tool axes are referenced to the location
of the fixture by using a target point or set of target points on the work or fixture.
• Diagnostics: Many modern CNC systems possess an online diagnostics capability
that monitors certain aspects of the machine tool to detect malfunctions or signs of
impending malfunctions or to diagnose system break downs.
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• Cutter length and size compensation: In older style controls, cutter dimension
had to be set very precisely to agree with the tool path defined in the part program.
Alternative methods for ensuring accurate tool path definition have been
incorporated into CNC controls. One method involves manually entering the
actual tool dimensions into the MCU. These actual dimension may differ from
those originally programmed. Compensations are then automatically made in the
computed tool path. Another method involves use of a tool length sensor built into
the machine. In these technique the cutter is mounted in the spindle and the sensor
measures its length. This measured value is then used to correct the programmed
tool path.
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• Acceleration and deceleration calculations: These feature is applicable when the

cutter moves at high feed rates. It is designed to avoid tool marks on the work
surface that would be generated due to machine tool dynamics when the cutter path
changes abruptly. Instead, the feed rate is smoothly decelerated in anticipation of a
tool path change and then accelerated back up to the programmed feed rate after the
direction change.
• Communication interface: With the trend toward interfacing and networking in
plants today, most modern CNC controllers are equipped with a standard RS-232 or
other communication interface to allow the machine to be linked to other computers
and computer-driven devices. This is useful for various applications such as ; (1)
downloading part program from a central data file as in distributed NC; (2)
collecting operational data such as workpiece counts, cycle times, and machine
utilization; and (3) interfacing with peripheral equipments, such as robots.
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The MCU for CNC

• The MCU is the hardware that distinguishes CNC from conventional NC. The
MCU consists of the following components and sub-systems: (1) central
processing unit, (2) memory, (3)I/O interface, (4) controls for machine tool axes
and spindle speed, and (5) sequence controls for other machine tool functions.
• These subsystems are interconnected by means of a system bus.
Memory: I/O interface :

Central Processing Unit
•ROM- operating system •Operator panel
(CPU)
•Ram – part programs •Tape reader
System bus
Machine tool Controls: Sequence controls:

•Position control •Coolant
•Spindle speed control •Fixture clamping
•Tool changer
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The MCU for CNC

• Central processing unit: the Central processing unit (CPU) manages the other
components in MCU based on software content in the main memory. The CPU
can be divided into three sections: (1) control section, (2) arithmetic-logic unit
and (3) immediate access memory. The control section, retrieves command and
data from the memory and generates signals to activate other components in the
MCU. The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) consists of the circuitry to perform
various calculation, counting, and logical functions required by software residing
in memory. The immediate access memory provides a temporary storage for data
being processed by the CPU. It is connected to main memory by means of system
data bus.
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• Memory: CNC memory can be divided into two categories: (1) main memory
and (2) secondary memory. Main memory also known as primary storage
consists of ROM and RAM devices. Operating system software and machine
interface programmes are generally stored in ROM. NC part programmes are
stored in RAM devices. Secondary memory (also called auxiliary storage)
devices are used to store large programme and data file, which are transferred to
main memory as needed. Common among the secondary devices are floppy
diskettes and hard disks.
• The I/O interface: The I/O interface provides communication between the
various components of the CNC systems, other computer systems and the
machine operator. The I/O interface transmits and receives data and signals to
and from external devices. The operator control panel is basic interface by which
the machine operator communicates to the CNC system. The I/O interface also
includes a display (CRT or LED) for communication of data and information
from the MCU to the machine operator.
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• Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed: These are hard-ware
components that controls the position and velocity of each machine axes as well as
the rotational speed of the machine tool spindle. The control system generated by
MCU must be converted to a form and power level suited to the particular position
control system used to drive machine axes.
• Sequence control for other machine tool function: These ordinary functions are
generally on/off actuations, interlocks, and discrete numerical data. Some of the
auxiliary functions are given below:
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CNC Software
• The Computer in CNC operates by means of software. There are three types of
software programs used in CNC systems: (i) operating system software, (ii)
machine interface software, and (iii) application software.
• The principle function of the operating system software is to interpret the NC part
programs and generate the corresponding control signals to drive the machine tool axes.
It is installed by the computer manufacturer and stored in ROM in the MCU. The
operating system software consists of the following: (i) an editor, which permits the
machine operator to input and edit NC part programs and perform other file management
functions; (ii) a control program which decoded the part program instructions, performs
interpolation and acceleration/deceleration calculations, and accomplishes other related
functions to produce the coordinate control signals for each axis; (iii) an executive
program, which manages the execution of the CNC software as well as the I/O operation
of the MCU. The operating system software also includes the diagnostics routines that
are available in the CNC system.
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• The machine interface software is used to operate the communication link

between the CPU and the machine tool to accomplish the CNC auxiliary
functions. As previously indicated I/O signals associated with the auxiliary
functions are sometimes implemented by means of a programmable logic
controller interfaced to the MCU, and so the machine interface software is
often written in the form of ladder logic diagrams.
• Finally the application software consists of the NC part programs that are
written for machining applications in the user’s plant.
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Machine axes designation
Machine axes are designated according to the "right-hand rule", When the thumb of
right hand points in the direction of the positive X axis, the index finger points
toward the positive Y axis, and the middle finger toward the positive Z axis.
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Figure Right hand rule for vertical and horizontal machine
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CNC SYSTEMS - ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

(1) Power units
In machine tools, power is generally required for For driving the main spindle
For driving the saddles and carriages.
For providing power for some ancillary units.
The motors used for CNC system are of two kinds
Electrical - AC , DC or Stepper motors
Fluid - Hydraulic or Pneumatic
Electric motors are by far the most common component to supply mechanical input to a linear
motion system. Stepper motors and servo motors are the popular choices in linear motion machinery
due to their accuracy and controllability. They exhibit favourable torque-speed characteristics and
are relatively inexpensive.
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Stepper motors
Stepper motors convert digital pulse and direction signals into rotary motion and are easily controlled.
Although stepper motors can be used in combination with analog or digital feedback signals, they are
usually used without feedback (open loop). Stepper motors require motor driving voltage and control
electronics. The rotor of a typical hybrid stepper motor has two soft iron cups that surround a
permanent magnet which is axially magnetized. The rotor cups have 50 teeth on their surfaces and
guide the flux through the rotor- stator air gap. In most cases, the teeth of one set are offset from the
teeth of the other by one-half tooth pitch for a two phase stepper motor.
Servo Motors
Servo motors are more robust than stepper motors, but pose a more difficult control problem. They are
primarily used in applications where speed, power, noise level as well as velocity and positional
accuracy are important. Servo motors are not functional without sensor feedback. They are designed
and intended to be applied in combination with resolvers, tachometers, or encoders (closed loop).
There are several types of servo motors, and three of the more common types are described as follows.
The DC brush type servo motors are most commonly found in low-end to mid-range CNC machinery.
The "brush" refers to brushes that pass electric current to the rotor of the rotating core of the motor.
The construction consists of a magnet stator outside and a coil rotor inside. A brush DC motor has
more than one coil. Each coil is angularly displaced from one another so when the torque from one
coil has dropped off, current is automatically switched to another coil which is properly located to
produce maximum torque.
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Encoders
An encoder is a device used to change a signal or data into a code. These encoders are used in metrology
instruments and high precision machining tools ranging from digital calipers to CNC machine tools.
Incremental encoders
With incremental linear encoders, the current position is determined by stating a datum and counting
measuring steps. The output signals of incremental rotary encoders are evaluated by an electronic counter in
which the measured value is determined by counting "increments". These encoders form the majority of all
rotary encoders. Incremental rotary encoders with integral couplings used for length measurement are also
in the market.
Absolute encoders
Absolute linear encoders require no previous transfer to provide the current position value. Absolute rotary
encoders provide an angular position value which is derived from the pattern of the coded disc. The code
signal is processed within a computer or in a numerical control. After system switch-on, such as following a
power interruption, the position value is immediately available. Since these encoder types require more
sophisticated optics and electronics than incremental versions, a higher price is normally to be expected.
Apart from these two codes, a range of other codes have been employed, though they are losing their
significance since modern computer programs usually are based on the binary system for reasons of high
speed. There are many versions of absolute encoders available today, such as single-turn or multi-stage
versions to name only two, and each must be evaluated based on its intended application.
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Rotary and Linear encoders

A linear encoder is a sensor, transducer paired with a scale that encodes position. The sensor reads the
scale in order to convert the encoded position by a digital readout (DRO). Linear encoder
technologies include capacitive, inductive, eddy current, magnetic and optical.
A rotary encoder, also called a shaft encoder, is an electro-mechanical device used to convert the
angular position of a shaft to a digital code, making it a sort of a transducer.
CNC SYSTEMS - MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
The drive units of the carriages in NC machine tools are generally the screw & the nut mechanism.
There are different types of screws and nuts used on NC machine tools which provide low wear,
higher efficiency, low friction and better reliability.
(1) Recirculating ball screw
The recirculating ball screw assembly has the flanged nut attached to the moving chamber and the
screw to the fixed casting. Thus the moving member will move during rotational movement of the
screw. These recirculating ball screw designs can have ball gages of internal or external return, but all
of them are based upon the "Ogival" or "Gothic arc".
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Figure Recirculating ball screw assembly
Figure Preloaded recirculating ball screw

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Roller screw
These types of screws provide backlash-free movement and their efficiency is same as that of ball screws. These are
capable of providing more accurate position control. Cost of the roller screws are more compared to ball screws. The
thread form is triangular with an included angle of 90 degrees. There are two types of roller screws: planetary and
recirculating screws.
Figure Roller screw
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Tool changing arrangements

There are two types of tool changing arrangements: manual and automatic. Machining centres incorporate automatic tool
changer (ATC). It is the automatic tool changing capability that distinguishes CNC machining centres from CNC milling
machines.
Manual tool changing arrangement:
Tool changing time belongs to non-productive time. So, it should be kept as minimum as possible. Also the tool must be
located rigidly and accurately in the spindle to assure proper machining and should maintain the same relation with the
work piece each time. This is known as the repeatability of the tool. CNC milling machines have some type of quick tool
changing systems, which generally comprises of a quick release chuck. The chuck is a different tool holding mechanism
that will be inside the spindle and is operated either hydraulically or pneumatically. The tool holder which fits into the
chuck can be released by pressing a button which releases the hydraulically operated chuck. The advantage of manual
tool changing is that each tool can be checked manually before loading the tools and there will be no limitation on the
number of tools from which selection can be made.
Automatic tool changing arrangement
Tooling used with an automatic tool changer should be easy to center in the spindle, each for the tool changer to grab the
tool holder and the tool changer should safely disengage the tool holder after it is secured properly. The tool changer
grips the tool at point A and places it in a position aligned with the spindle. The tool changer will then insert the tool
holder into the spindle. A split bushing in the spindle will enclose the portion B. Tool changer releases the tool holder.
Tool holder is drawn inside the spindle and is tightened.
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Figure Tool holder
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Tool turrets
An advantage of using tool turrets is that the time taken for tool changing will be only the time taken for
indexing the turret. Only limited number of tools can be held in the turret. The entire turret can be
removed from the machine for setting up of tools.
Figure Six station tool turret Figure Eight station tool turret FigureTwelve station tool turret
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Tool magazines
Tool magazines are generally found on drilling and milling machines. When compared to tool turrets,
tool magazines can hold more number of tools and also more problems regarding the tool management.
Duplication of the tools is possible and a new tool of same type may be selected when ever a particular
tool has been worn off. Though a larger tool magazine can accommodate more number of tools, but the
power required to move the tool magazine will be more. Hence, a magazine with optimum number of
tool holders must be used. The following types of tool magazines exist: circular, chain and box type.
Chain magazine:
These magazines can hold large number of tools and may hold even up to 100 tools. Figures below
show chain magazines holding 80 and 120 tools respectively. In these chain magazines, tools will be
identified either by their location in the tool holder or by means of some coding on the tool holder. In
the former it is followed for identifying the tool and then the tool must be exactly placed in its location.
The positioning of the magazine for the next tool transfer will take place during the machining
operation.
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Figure 80-tool chain magazine Figure 120-tool chain magazine
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Circular magazine:
Circular magazines will be similar to tool turrets, but in the former the tools will be
transferred from the magazine to the spindle nose. Generally these will be holding about
30 tools. The identification of the tool will be made either by its location in the tool
magazine or by means of some code on the tool holder. The most common type of
circular magazine is known as carousel, which is similar to a flat disc holding one row
of tools around the periphery. Geneva mechanism is used for changing the tools.
Box magazine:
In these magazines, the tools are stored in open ended compartments. The tool holder
must be removed from the spindle before loading the new tool holder. Also the spindle
should move to the tool storage location rather than the tool to the spindle. Hence, more
time will be consumed in tool changing. Box magazines are of limited use as compared
to circular and chain type of tool magazines.
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Figure Circular magazine
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Automatic tool changers :

Whenever controller encounters a tool change code, a signal will be sent to the control unit so that the
appropriate tool holder in the magazine comes to the transfer position. The tool holder will then be
transferred from the tool magazine to the spindle nose. This can be done by various mechanisms. One
such mechanism is a rotating arm mechanism.
Rotating arm mechanism:
Movement of the tool magazine to place the appropriate tool in the transfer position will take place
during the machining operation. The rotating arms with grippers at both the ends rotate to grip the tool
holders in the magazine and the spindle simultaneously. Then the tool holder clamping mechanism will
be released and the arm moves axially to remove the tool holder from the spindle. Then the arm will be
rotated through 180 degrees and the arm will then move axially inwards to place the new tool holder
into the spindle and will clamped. Now the new tool holder is placed in the spindle and the other in the
magazine. Figure below show various stages during tool change with a rotating arm mechanism.
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Figure Rotating arm mechanism
Figure Rotating arm mechanism

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Tool wear monitoring :

Most of the modern CNC machines now incorporate the facility of on-line tool wear monitoring
systems, whose purpose is to keep a continuous track of the amount of tool wear in real time. These
systems may reduce the tool replacement costs and the production delays. It is based on the principle
that the power required for machining increases as the cutting edge gets worn off. Extreme limits for
the spindle can be set up and whenever it is reached, a sub-program can be called to change the tool.
Following figures show some typical tool wear monitoring systems.
Figure ON-line tool wear monitoring system Figure Graphical display of tool wear monitoring system
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CNC WORK HOLDING DEVICES

With the advent of CNC technology, machining cycle times were drastically reduced
and the desire to combine greater accuracy with higher productivity has led to the
reappraisal of work holding technology. Loading or unloading of the work will be the
non-productive time which needs to be minimized. So the work is usually loaded on a
special work holder away from the machine and then transferred it to the machine
table. The work should be located precisely and secured properly and should be well
supported.
Turning center work holding methods:

Machining operations on turning centers or CNC lathes are carried out mostly for axi-
symmetrical components. Surfaces are generated by the simultaneous motions of X
and Z axes. For any work holding device used on a turning centre there is a direct
"trade off" between part accuracy and the flexibility of work holding device used.
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Work holding methods Advantages Disadvantages
Automatic Jaw & Adaptable for a range of work-piece shapes and High cost of jaw/chuck changing automation. Resulting in a
chuck changing sizes more complex & higher cost machine tool
Indexing chucks Very quick loading and unloading of the workpiece Expensive optional equipment. Bar-feeders cannot be
can be achieved. Reasonable range of work piece incorporated. Short/medium length parts only can be
sizes can be loaded automatically incorporated. Heavy chucks.
Pneumatic/Magnetic chucks Simple in design and relatively inexpensive. Part Limited to a range of flat parts with little overhang. Bar-feeders
Figure automation is possible. No part distortion is caused cannot be incorporated. Parts on magnetic chucks must be
due to clamping force ferrous. Heavy cuts must be avoided.
Adaptable to automation. Heavy cuts can be taken. Jaws must be changed manually & bared, so slow part change-
Automatic Chucks with soft jaws
Individual parts can be small or large in diameter overs. A range of jaw blanks required.
Expanding mandrels & collets Long & short parts of reasonably large size
accommodated. Automation can be incorporated. Limitation on part shape. Heavy cuts should be avoided.
Clamping forces do not distort part. Simple in design
Expensive & can only be financially justified with either large

Excellent restraint & location of a wide range of
Dedicated Chucks runs or when extremely complex & accurate parts are required.
individual & irregular -shaped parts can be obtained.
Tool making facilities required. Large storage space.
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Work holding for Machining Centres:
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75
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CLASSIFICATION OF CNC MACHINE TOOLS
( 1) Based on the motion type ' Point-to-point & Contouring systems
There are two main types of machine tools and the control systems required for use with them
differ because of the basic differences in the functions of the machines to be controlled. They are
known as point-to-point and contouring controls.
( 1.1) Point-to-point systems
Some machine tools for example drilling, boring and tapping machines etc, require the cutter and
the work piece to be placed at a certain fixed relative positions at which they must remain while the
cutter does its work. These machines are known as point-to-point machines as shown in figure
22.1 (a) and the control equipment for use with them are known as point-to-point control
equipment. Feed rates need not to be programmed. In theses machine tools, each axis is driven
separately. In a point-to-point control system, the dimensional information that must be given to the
machine tool will be a series of required position of the two slides. Servo systems can be used to
move the slides and no attempt is made to move the slide until the cutter has been retracted back.
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( 1.2) Contouring systems (Continuous path systems)
Other type of machine tools involves motion of work piece with respect to the cutter while cutting
operation is taking place. These machine tools include milling, routing machines etc. and are
known as contouring machines as shown in figure 22.1 (b) and the controls required for their
control are known as contouring control.
Contouring machines can also be used as point-to-point machines, but it will be uneconomical to
use them unless the work piece also requires having a contouring operation to be performed on it.
These machines require simultaneous control of axes. In contouring machines, relative positions of
the work piece and the tool should be continuously controlled. The control system must be able to
accept information regarding velocities and positions of the machines slides. Feed rates should be
programmed.
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Figure (a) Point-to-point system

Figure 22.1 (a) Point-to-point system
Figure (c) Contouring systems
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Based on the number of axes ' 2, 3, 4 & 5 axes CNC machines.
2& 3 axes CNC machines:
CNC lathes will be coming under 2 axes machines. There will be two axes along which motion
takes place. The saddle will be moving longitudinally on the bed (Z-axis) and the cross slide moves
transversely on the saddle (along X-axis). In 3-axes machines, there will be one more axis,
perpendicular to the above two axes. By the simultaneous control of all the 3 axes, complex surfaces
can be machined.
4 & 5 axes CNC machines:
4 and 5 axes CNC machines provide multi-axis machining capabilities beyond the standard 3-axis
CNC tool path movements. A 5-axis milling centre includes the three X, Y, Z axes, the A axis which
is rotary tilting of the spindle and the B-axis, which can be a rotary index table.
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Figure Five axes CNC machine

Importance of higher axes machining :
Reduced cycle time by machining complex components using a single setup. In addition to time savings, improved accuracy can also be
achieved as positioning errors between setups are eliminated.
Improved surface finish and tool life by tilting the tool to maintain optimum tool to part contact all the times.
•Improved access to under cuts and deep pockets. By tilting the tool, the tool can be made normal to the work surface and the errors
may be reduced as the major component of cutting force will be along the tool axis.
•Higher axes machining has been widely used for machining sculptures surfaces in aerospace and automobile industry.
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(3.3) Turning centre:
Traditional centre lathes have horizontal

beds. The saddle moves longitudinally and
the cross slide moves transversely.
Although the tools can be clearly seen, the
operator must lean over the tool post to
position them accurately. Concentration of
chips may be creating a heat source and
there may be temperature gradients in the
machine tool. Keeping the above points in
view, developments in the structure of the
turning centres lead to the positioning the
saddle and the cross slide behind the
spindle on a slant bed as shown in the
figure. Chips fall freely because of slant bed
configuration which is more ergonomically
acceptable from operator's point of view.
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Based on the power supply ' Electric, Hydraulic & Pneumatic systems
Mechanical power unit refers to a device which transforms some form of energy to mechanical power
which may be used for driving slides, saddles or gantries forming a part of machine tool. The input power
may be of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic.
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Electric systems:
Electric motors may be used for controlling both positioning and contouring machines. They may be
either a.c. or d.c. motor and the torque and direction of rotation need to be controlled. The speed of a
d.c. motor can be controlled by varying either the field or the armature supply. The clutch-controlled
motor can either be an a.c. or d.c. motor. They are generally used for small machine tools because of
heat losses in the clutches. Split field motors are the simplest form of motors and can be controlled in a
manner according to the machine tool. These are small and generally run at high maximum speeds and
so require reduction gears of high ratio. Separately excited motors are used with control systems for
driving the slides of large machine tools.
Hydraulic systems:
These hydraulic systems may be used with positioning and contouring machine tools of all sizes. These
systems may be either in the form of rams or motors. Hydraulic motors are smaller than electric motors
of equivalent power. There are several types of hydraulic motors. The advantage of using hydraulic
motors is that they can be very small and have considerable torque. This means that they may be
incorporated in servosystems which require having a rapid response.
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Advantages of a CNC System

 Reduces time for delivery of part
 Reduces scrap rate of material
 Reduces tooling costs
 Reduces layout time
 Increases machine and tool life
 Reduces storage problems
 Less setup time
 Reduces actual machining time
 Allows rapid design changes in part
 Less jigs and fixtures are needed
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Limitations of a CNC System
1. High initial investment

Machine tools cost very high
2. High maintenance requirements

Maintenance personnel must have both mechanical and electronics expertise
3. Not cost-effective for low-level production on simple parts

As geometric complexity or volume increases CNC becomes more economical
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Industries Most Affected by Numerical Control

i. Aerospace
ii. Machinery
iii. Electrical
iv. Fabrication
v. Automotive
vi. Instrumentation
vii. Mold making
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Direct Numerical Control (DNC)
• Direct Numerical Control involved the control of a number of machine tools by a

single (mainframe) computer through direct connection and in real time.
• Instead of using a punched type reader to enter the part program into the MCU,
the program was transmitted to the MCU directly from the computer, one block of
instructions at a time. This mode of operation was referred to by the name Behind
the Tape Reader (BTR).
• The DNC computer provided instruction blocks to the machine tool on demand;
when a machine needed control commands, they were communicated to it
immediately.
• As each block was executed by the machine, the next block was transmitted. As
far as the machine tool was concerned, the operation was no different from that of
a conventional NC controller.
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• The general configuration of a DNC system is depicted in figure. The system

consisted of four components: (1) central computer, (2) bulk memory at the
central computer site, (3) set of controlled machines, and (4) telecommunications
lines to connect the machines to the central computer. In operation the computer
called the required part program from the bulk memory and sent it (one block at a
time) to the designated machine tool. This procedure was replicated from all
machine tools under direct control of the computer.
• In addition to transmitting data to the machines the central computer also received
data back from the machines to indicate operating performance in the shop
(example number of machining cycles completed, machine utilization, and
breakdowns). Thus, a central objective of DNC was to achieve two way
communication between the machine and the central compu
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Bulk Memory
Central computer NC Programs
Telecommunication lines
Machine tool Machine tool Machine tool Machine tool
(MCU) (MCU) (MCU) (MCU)
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Advantages of DNC:
 High reliability of the central computer compared with individual hardwired

MCU’s.
 Elimination of the tape and tape reader, which were unreliable and error
prone.
 Control of multiple machines by one computer.
 Improved computational capability for circular interpolation.
 Part program stored magnetically in bulk memory in a central location.
 Computer located in an environmentally agreeable location.
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Distributive Numerical Control

• Distributed NC is known by the same acronym as Direct Numerical Control
(DNC). The configuration of the new DNC is very similar to that of Direct NC
except that the central computer is connected to MCU’s, which are themselves
computers. This permits complete part programs to be sent to the machine tool,
rather than one block at a time. It also permits easier and less costly installation of
the overall system, because the individual CNC machines can be put into service
and the distributed NC can be added later. Redundant computers improve system
reliability compared with the original DNC. The new DNC permits two way
communication of data between the shop floor and the central computer, which
was one of the important features included in the old DNC. However
improvements in data collection device as well as advances in computer and
communication technologies have expanded the range and flexibility of the
information that can be gathered and disseminated .
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• Distributed NC systems can take on a variety of physical configurations,

depending on the number of machine tools included, job complexity, security
requirements, and equipment availability and preferences.
• There are several ways to configure a DNC system: (a) switching network, and
(b) LAN. Each type has several possible variations.
• The switching network is the simplest DNC system to configure. It uses a data
switching box to make a connection from the central computer to a given CNC
machine for downloading part programs or uploading data.
• Transmission of programs to the MCU is accomplished through a RS-232-C
connection.
• Use of a switching box limited the number of machines that can be included in
the DNC system.
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Machine tool
.
Machine tool
DNC computer
(MCU)
(MCU)
Data Switching Box

Machine tool Machine tool
(MCU)
(MCU)
Machine tool
(MCU)
Switching network configuration of DNC

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DNC computer
Satellite computer Satellite computer
Machine tool
Machine tool Machine tool Machine tool
(MCU) (MCU) (MCU) (MCU)
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Key Features of DNC
Because CNC machine tools have the ability to run multiple programs without
being attached to a centralized computer this enables a centralized computer to
perform many different tasks.
– Line balancing
– Scheduling
– Monitoring
– Quality
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Adaptive control
Improvements in CNC machine tools depend on the refinement of adaptive control,
which is the automatic monitoring and adjustment of machining conditions in response to
variations in operation performance. With a manually controlled machine tool, the
operator watches for changes in machining performance (caused, for example, by a dull
tool or a harder workpiece) and makes the necessary mechanical adjustments. An
essential element of NC and CNC machining, adaptive control is needed to protect the
tool, the workpiece, and the machine from damage caused by malfunctions or by
unexpected changes in machine behaviour. Adaptive control is also a significant factor in
developing unmanned machining techniques.
One example of adaptive control is the monitoring of torque to a machine tool’s spindle
and servomotors. The control unit of the machine tool is programmed with data defining
the minimum and maximum values of torque allowed for the machining operation. If, for
example, a blunt tool causes the maximum torque, a signal is sent to the control unit,
which corrects the situation by reducing the feed rate or altering the spindle speed.
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Adaptive control (AC) machining originated out of research in early 1990's sponsored by
U.S Air Force. The initial adaptive control systems were based on analog devices,
representing the technology at that time. Today adaptive control uses microprocessor
based controls and is typically integrated with an existing CNC system.
Adaptive control possesses attributes of both feedback control and optimal control. Like
a feedback system measurements are taken on certain process variables. Like an optimal
system, an overall measure of performance is used. In adaptive control, this measure is
called the index of performance (IP). The feature that distinguishes adaptive control from
other two types is that an adaptive system is designed to operate in a time varying
environment. It is not usual for a system to exist in environments that change over the
course of time.
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FUNCTIONS OF ADAPTIVE CONTROL

The three functions of adaptive control are:
 Identification function.
 Decision function.
 Modification function.
IDENTIFICATION FUNCTIONS
This involves determining the current performance of the process or system. Normally, the
performance quality of the system is defined by some relevant index of performance. The
identification function is concerned with determining the current value of this performance measure
by making use of the feedback data from the process. Since the environment will change overtime, the
performance of the system will also change. Accordingly the identification is one that must proceed
over time or less continuously. Identification of the system may involve a number of possible
measurements activities.
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DECISION FUNCTION
Once the system performance is determined, the next function is to decide how the control
mechanism should be adjusted to improve process performance. The decision procedure is
carried out by means of a pre-programmed logic provided by the designer. Depending upon the
logic the decision may be to change one or more of the controllable process.
MODIFICATION FUNCTION
The third AC function is to implement the decision. While the decision function is a logic
function, modification is concerned with a physical or mechanical change in the system. It is a
hardware function rather than a software function. The modification involves changing the
system parameters or variables so as to drive the process towards a more optimal state. The
process is assumed to be influenced by some time varying environment. The adaptive system
first identifies the current performance by taking measurements of inputs and outputs.
Depending on current performance, a decision procedure is carried out to determine what
changes are needed to improve system performance. Actual changes to the system are made in
the modification function.
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WHERE TO USE ADAPTIVE CONTROL

One of the principal reasons for using NC is that it reduces the non-productive time
in a machining operation. This time saving is achieved by reducing such elements as
work piece handling time, set up for job, tool changes and other sources of operator
and machine delay.
Adaptive control is not suitable for every machining situation. In general, the
following characteristics can be used to identify situations where adaptive control
can be beneficially applied. The in-process time consumes a significant portion of
the machining cycle time.
 There are significant sources of variability in the job for which AC can
compensate.
 The cost of operating the machine tool is high.
 The typical jobs involve steels, titanium and high strength alloys.
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TYPES OF ADAPTIVE CONTROL

There are basically two groups of adaptive control.
a. Geometrical adaptive control.
b. Technological adaptive control.
GEOMETRICAL ADAPTIVE CONTROL
This type of adaptive control is concerned with monitoring the shape and dimension of a machined
component. It relies on some in process gauging instrument to relay information with a very short
time response. The index of performance of such a syst٤em is the final dimension and shape of the
component. It may be said that the desired final goal of the automated machining process is that the
drawing of the work piece to be machined component is the output.
TECHNOLOGICAL ADAPTIVE CONTROL SYSTEM
Under the umbrella of technological AC two distinct systems are grouped:
 Adaptive control constraint (ACC)
 Adaptive control optimization (ACO)
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Machining Center
The term “machining center” describes almost any CNC milling and drilling machine that includes an
automatic tool changer and a table that clamps the workpiece in place. On a machining center, the
tool rotates, but the work does not. The orientation of the spindle is the most fundamental defining
characteristic of a CNC machining center.
The machining center, developed in the late 50’s is a machine tool capable of multiple machining
operations on a work part in one setup under NC program control.
There are a number of different types of machining centers differentiated by the number of
programmable axes.
 Three Axis Machining Center

 Horizontal Three Axis Machining Center
 Four Axis Machining Center
 Five Axis Machining Center
 Machining Center with pallet changer
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Three Axis Machining Center: – A three axis machining center has programmable X and Y axes in the plane of the table
and a Z axis in the spindle’s direction. This is the most basic type of machining center, and they start at about $30,000.
Typically, three axis machines are in the vertical configuration shown here. Tool changer, control, and enclosure not
shown. With three axes, we can machine one surface of a cube with the end of the cutter and four additional surfaces with
the side of the cuter.
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Horizontal Three Axis Machine:- The illustration depicts a three axis horizontal machining center. Note the different
orientation of the X, Y, and Z axes. This type of machine starts at about $90,000. Again, the tool changer, control, and
enclosure are not shown. We can still only machine one surface of a cube with the end of the cutter and four additional
surfaces with the side of the cutter.
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Four Axis Machining Center: – Four axis machining centers are generally horizontal, and the table rotates to create the
forth axis. True four axis machines start around $100,000 We can also do this by adding a CNC controlled rotary table to a
three axis vertical machine, and this is commonly done for small parts. Frequently, a fixture called a tombstone (see sketch
later) is mounted on the table and many small parts machined at once on a large machine. We can machine four surfaces of
a cube with the end of the cutter and two additional surfaces with the side of the cutter.
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Five Axis Machining Center: – Be prepared to spend about $250,000 for a true five axis machine. Notice that it is very
similar to the four axis machine except the spindle rotates from horizontal to vertical. These machines are used to machine
complex parts and molds in the aerospace and automotive industries. We can machine five sides of a cube with the end of
the cutter and six sides with the side of the cutter. Besides complex geometry, we can often machine a part in one setup on
a five axis machine that would require two or more setups in a simpler machine. This results in a more accurate part.
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Machining Center with Pallet Changer: – Most machining centers can be fitted with a pallet changer to
increase productivity. On a plain machine, it sits idle while the operator removes the completed parts and loads
the fixture with new ones. With a pallet changer, the operator unloads and reloads one pallet while the machine
works on the other. This way, the machine continuously cuts parts.
Features of Machining Centers

Higher spindle speed 10,000-30,000 rpm.
Higher rapid traverse 40 to 60 meters / minute.
Quick and faster tool changing system.
It has digital servo control system of main spindle for accuracy.
It has very efficient thermal control system on various machine elements like main spindle, balls and ball screws
and ball bearings for accuracy
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Manual Part Programming

• The term part program is used to describe a set of instructions that, when entered into a machine
control unit, will cause the machine to function in the manner necessary to produce a particular
component or part. Manual part programming is the term used to describe the preparation of a part
program without recourse to computing facilities to determine cutter paths, profile intersecting
points, speeds and feeds, etc.
• The program may be prepared manually and expressed in a coded language that is applicable to
the machine controller being used. Alternatively, it may be written in another language or
compiled by the use of computer graphics. The result is then postprocessed, or translated, to suit
the machine controller.
• Included in the part program will be the necessary dimensional data relating to the features of the
component itself, together with control data that will result in the machine making the slide
movements required to produce the component. These data will be supplemented by instruction
data that will activate and control the appropriate supporting functions.
• Programs as entered into machine control units involve either of two programming concepts:
– (a) Word address.
– (b) Conversational manual data input (MDI).
109
Word Address Programming

• Word address programming is largely based on an International Standards
Organization (ISO) and Electronic Industries Association (EIA) code that
requires the program to be compiled using codes identified by letters, in
particular G and M. Each code addresses, or directs, the item of data it precedes
to perform a certain function within the control system.
• The ISO and EIA Standards provided for 99G codes and an identical number of
M codes, each being expressed by the address letter followed by two digits.
• The G codes, or preparatory functions, are used to set up the machine control unit
modes of operation required for the machining that is to be carried out whether
movement is to be in a straight line/linear or radially/circular, for example. In
general they relate to slide motion control.
110
07‐Oct‐21
• It is always assumed that the tool moves relative to the work piece no matter
what the real situation is. The position of the tool is described by using a
Cartesian coordinate system. If (0,0,0) position can be described by the
operator, then it is called floating zero.
• Modal commands: Commands issued in the NC program that will stay in effect
until it is changed by some other command, like, feed rate selection, coolant
selection, etc.
• Nonmodal commands: Commands that are effective only when issued and
whose effects are lost for subsequent commands, like, a dwell command which
instructs the tool to remain in a given configuration for a given amount of time.
111
• Figure: NC part programming flow chart

112
07‐Oct‐21
Basics of NC Part Programming

• Preparatory functions: which unit, which interpolator, absolute or incremental
programming, which circular interpolation plane, cutter compensation, etc.
• Coordinates: three translational, and three rotational axes.
• Machining parameters: feed, and speed.
• Tool control: tool diameter, next tool number, tool change.
• Cycle functions: drill cycle, ream cycle, bore cycle, mill cycle, clearance plane.
• Coolant control: coolant on/off, flood, mist.
• Miscellaneous control: spindle on/off, tape rewind, spindle rotation direction,
pallet change, clamps control, etc.
• Interpolators: linear, circular interpolation
113
• 'Word Address Format' in which each of the information or data to be input in the form
of numerical digits is preceded by a word address in the form of an English alphabet.
• N115 G81 X120.5 Y55.0 Z-12.0 R2.0 F150 M3
• Commonly Used Word Addresses
Addresses Meaning
F Feed rate command
G Preparatory function
M Miscellaneous command
N Sequence number
R Arc radius
S Spindle speed
T Tool number
X x-axis data
Y y-axis data
Z z-axis data
114
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• Co-ordinate function
• As discussed above, the co-ordinates of the tool tip are programmed for
generating a given component geometry. The co-ordinate values are specified
using the word address such as X, Y, Z, U, V, W, I, J, K, etc.
• X123.405 Y-34.450
• Feed function: Generally the feed is designated in velocity units using the F
word address. For example, F150 means that the feed rate is specified as 150 mm
per minute. By using an appropriate G code, it is also possible to change the feed
rate units from mm per minute to mm per revolution or vice versa.
115
• Speed function
• Most of the CNC machines would have the capability for the step less variation
spindle speeds, which is programmed using spindle speed word S. The speed can
be set directly in the revolutions per minute or RPM mode using the S word
address as follows:S1500 means, that spindle speed is to be set at 1500 rpm.
• Tool function
• The tool function is normally indicated by the word address T. This may have 2
or more digits depending upon the tool magazine capacity. Most general is 2
digits such as T15.
• Preparatory functions
• This is denoted by 'G'. It is a pre-set function associated with the movement of
machine axes and the associated geometry. As discusses earlier, it has two digits,
e.g. G01, G42, and G90 as per ISO specifications.
116
07‐Oct‐21

Example: A Milling Operation
NC CODE (Word Address Format)
SPINDLE
N50 G00 X15 Y12.5 Z0 F0 STARTED !
N55 M03 S2000
N60 G01 Z-2.5 F500 M08
N65 G01 X50
N70 G01 Y45
N75 G01 X15
SPINDLE
N80 G01 Y12.5
STOP !
N85 G00 Z0 M09
N90 G79 M04
Z
Y
(0,0,0) X
117
118
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119
120
07‐Oct‐21
121
122
07‐Oct‐21

• Rapid Positioning, G00
• G00 is a preparatory function to specify that the tool should be moved to a specified location. This
function is used only to control the final position of the tool and is not concerned with the path
that is followed in arriving at the final axes destination. For this reason, motion with this function
is also referred to as positioning mode.
• This is used for moving the tool at a rapid rate (normally the maximum available feed rate such as
8000 or 20 000 mm/min) along the axes involved for achieving the position programmed. It is not
important for this code, the path taken by the tool to reach the programmed point.
• Example:
• N105 G90 G00 X150.0 Y30.0
123
124
07‐Oct‐21
• Linear or Straight line Interpolation, G01

• G01 is another preparatory function to specify that the tool should be moved to a
specified location along a straight line path. It is referred to as linear
interpolation. This function is typically used to specify machining of straight
features such as turning a cylindrical surface in turning, cutting a slot in milling,
etc.
• Example:
• N115 G01 X110.0 Y30.0 F250
125
• Circular Interpolation, G02 / G03

• G02/G03 is also a preparatory function to specify that the tool should be moved to a specified
location along a circular path in a clockwise direction. In order to specify the path to the MCU, the
end point of the arc and the location of the center of the arc should be specified. Within the block in
which the G02/G03 code is programmed, the center of the arc is given by specifying its location
relative to the start of the arc.
• Examples:
– N125 G02 X65.0 Y60.0 I35.0 J-10.0 F250
• But, if the motion were from G to F, then it would be
– N130 G03 X15.0 Y30.0 I-15.0 J-40.0 F250
126
07‐Oct‐21
• Circular interpolation
• Two basic methods
• I. J. K. Method
• (G02,G03) Xx Yy Ii Jj Ff (on the XY plane)
• Radius method
• (G02,G03) Xx Yy Rr Ff (on the XY plane)
• IJK Method
• The I, J, K addresses are used to specify the distances from the start
of the arc to the arc center coordinates in XYZ directions.
• Radius Method
• Requires two entry parameters in the command the XYZ end point
of the arc and the radius R
• G02/G03 Xx Yy Zz Rr
127
G32 – Threading motion

• A threading motion is a motion along a straight line, but is NOT a linear
interpolation motion. The tool motion does not start immediately when the
command is encountered. It is coordinated with the rotation of the spindle - the
tool starts moving when an index pulse is received from the spindle encoder. This
pulse occurs at a specific angular position of the spindle, once in each spindle
rotation. This ensures that each thread starts at the same angular position, and
each cut follows the path of the earlier cut. The Lead is the axial distance the nut
advances in one revolution of the screw, while the pitch is the distance between
adjacent threads. Lead = Pitch x No. of starts. In a single start thread the lead is
equal to the pitch. When cutting a thread, for every revolution of the part the tool
moves axially by a distance equal to the Lead of the thread.
128
07‐Oct‐21
129
Code This with radius method
130
07‐Oct‐21
• Dwell, G04
• This is to give a delay in the program. When the G04 code is encountered, the
controller stops at that particular point for a specified time mentioned in the block.
• N045 G04 X3.0This calls for a stoppage of the control for a period of 3 seconds.
• Positioning Systems
• G90 (modal)
• Use to specify the absolute positioning system
• All coordinates are based off a single origin in the work coordinates system
• G91 (modal)
• Use to specify the incremental positioning system
• The current tool position is taken as a reference point in the tool moves the
incremental distance given in the command
131
• Units
• G70: Used to specify inches as the unit of measurement
• G71: Use to specify millimeters as the unit of measurement
• These cannot be used in the same part program
• Absolute Zero Setting
• G92: Sets the absolute zero for the coordinates system
• G92 X Y Z
• Does not cause any tool motion
• Specifies the distance of the cutter in XYZ to the origin
• Ties the coordinates of the machine tool to the coordinates of the program
132
07‐Oct‐21
• Stop and End Functions

• M00 unconditional stop shuts down all drive motors until re-started by the
machinist
• M01 optional stop will stop the program if the optional stop button is pressed
• M02/M30 end of program statement
• G41 : TOLL RADIUS COMPENSATION (LEFT)
• G42 : TOLL RADIUS COMPENSATION (RIGHT)
• G40: TOLL RADIUS COMPENSATION CANCEL
CORE TOOL
POCKET TOOL
G41 Dr. Binay Kumar, Deptt. of Production and Industrial Engineering, BIT Mesra, Ranchi
G42
133
Computer Aided Part Programming

• NC program preparation may be tedious and difficult if the part to be machined has a complex
geometry. The main difficulty is to find out the cutter locations during the machining.
• Computers may be used to assist the programmers in preparing the NC codes.
• Advantages of applying computer-aided part programming include the following:
• It reduces the manual calculations involves in determining the geometric characteristics of the
part.
• It provides the cutter path simulation.
• It provides tool collision checking.
• It shortens the program preparation time.
• It makes the program preparation easier.
• The Aerospace Industries Association sponsored the work that led to the first part
• programming language, developed in MIT in 1955. This was called: Automatically Programmed
Tools (APT). APT is English like simple programming language which basically produces the
Cutter Location (CL) data. Using the cutter location data, the program can generate the actual
NC codes by using a postprocessor
134
07‐Oct‐21
CAD/CAM Based Part Programming

• The output of any CAD package include the geometric data of the part to be
machined.
• Therefore, many CAD/CAM package can produce cutter location (CL) data to be
used for NC code generation.
• There is still to be a process planning module for a workable NC code generation.
• Some of the CAD/CAM packages that have the NC code generation capabilities
are Computervision, CATIA, CADAM, ProEngineer, MechanicalDesktop (Auto
Desk).
135
• Concept of CAP
136
07‐Oct‐21
Automatically Programmed Tools (APT) Programming

This programming language, developed in MIT in 1955. This was called: Automatically Programmed
Tools (APT). APT is English like simple programming language which basically produces the Cutter
Location (CL) data. Using the cutter location data, the program can generate the actual NC codes by
using a postprocessor.
• The various functions that can be attributed to the postprocessor are:
• Converting the CLDATA to the machine tool co-ordinate system.
• Converting the CLDATA to the control unit understandable NC blocks taking care of the following machine
tool functions:
• Maximum table or spindle traverses,
• Available feeds and speeds,
• Available preparatory, miscellaneous and other functions,
• Straight line and circular interpolations,
• Acceleration and decelerations of slides taking care of the
• overshoot of corners, and
• Other machine tool control unit system requirements such as tape
• reader time, servo setting time, etc.
• Provide output
• Required control tape.
• Diagnostic listing on line printer, and
• Other operator/programmer instructions.
137
• APT Language Structure

• Letters ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
• Numerals 0123456789
• Punctuation marks / , =
• Words: The words to be used in the statements are built up from one to six letters or
numerals with the first one being a letter. No special character is allowed in the words.
• Key words: There are certain reserved names called key words in the language, which
have a fixed meaning.
• Symbols: Symbols are the words used as substitutes for geometrical definitions and
numerical values, where the first character must be a letter.
• Labels: Label names are used to reference a statement so that control can be transferred
to that statement changing the usual linear execution sequence.
• Numbers: Numbers have their usual meaning as in algebra and are often referred to as
scalars.
138
07‐Oct‐21
• APT program
• The complete APT part program consists of the following four types of
statements: • Geometry • Motion • Post processor • Compilation control
• Geometry Commands
• These are POINT, LINE, CIRCLE, PLANE, VECTOR, PATERN, SPHERE,
TABCYL, etc.
139
POINT: The point has three co-ordinates along X, Y and Z-axes. The Z coordinate when not specified is
taken as either zero or the prevailing Z surface definition.
140
07‐Oct‐21
• Points: Specification of a point can be accomplished by the

following:
• Designating its x-, y-, and z-coordinates;
– P1 = POINT/15.0, 10.0, 25.0
• As the intersection of two intersecting lines;
• P2 = POINT/INTOF, L1, L2
• L1 and L2 are two previously defined lines.
141
PTA = POINT/ 3,4,5
y
(3, 4, 5)
PTA
142
07‐Oct‐21
PTB = POINT/ INTOF, LIN1, LIN2
LIN2
PTB
LIN1
143
• Lines: A line in APT is considered to be of infinite length in both

directions. Specification of a line can be accomplished by the
following:
• Two points through which it passes;
– L1 = LINE/P3, P4
– P3 and P4 are two previously defined points.
• Passes through point (P5) and parallel to another line (L3) that has
been previously defined;
– L2 = LINE/P5, PARLEL, L3
144
07‐Oct‐21
LIN1 = LINE/ P1, P2
P2
P1
LIN1
145
LIN4 = LINE/ PT6, 15, -30, 3
PT6
L4 (15, -30, 3)
146
07‐Oct‐21
L12 = LINE/ PT4, ATANGL, 20, XAXIS

L14 = LINE/ PT1, ATANGL, 40
L15 = LINE/ 32, -3, 2, ATANGL, -15, XAXIS
L16 = LINE/ PT3, ATANGL, 40, YAXIS
PT3 L14
40°
PT1 L12
L16
PT4
40° 20°
15° x
L15
147
Circle
C1 = CIRCLE/ 3, 6, 5, 4.3
C1 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, PT3, RADIUS, 4.3
y
C1
4.3
PT3
(3,6,5)
148
07‐Oct‐21
C3 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, PT6, TANTO, LN4

C7 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, PT8, PT5
y y
LN4
PT5
PT6 PT8
C3 C7
149
• There are two commands; GOTO and GODLTA.

• * The GOTO statement instructs the tool to go to a particular point location specified in the
descriptive data. Two examples are:
• GOTO/P2
• GOTO/25.0, 40.0, 0
• * The GODLTA command specifies an incremental move for the tool. To illustrate, the following
statement instruct the tool to move from its present position by a distance of 50 mm in x-
direction, 120 mm in y-direction, and 40 mm in z-direction;
• GODLTA/50.0, 120.0, 40.0
• * The GODLTA statement is useful in drilling and related machining operations. The tool can be
directed to go to a given hole location; then the GODLTA command can be used to drill the hole,
as in the following sequence;
• GOTO/P2
• GODLTA/0, 0, -50.0
• GODLTA/0, 0, 50.0
150
07‐Oct‐21
Postprocessor commands for a particular machine tool are:

MACHIN/ : used to specify the machine tool and call the postprocessor for that tool:
MACHIN/ DRILL, 3
COOLNT/ : allows the coolant fluid to be turned on or off:
COOLNT/ MIST
COOLNT/ FLOOD
COOLNT/ OFF
FEDRAT/ : specifies the feed rate for moving the tool along the part surface in inches per
minute:
FEDRAT/ 4.5
SPINDL/ : gives the spindle rotation speed in revolutions per minute:
SPINDL/ 850
TURRET/ : can be used to call a specific tool from an automatic tool changer:
TURRET/ 11
151
End of Module-II
152

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07‐Oct‐21

PE 402 AUTOMATION IN ANUFACTURING

Module 2: CNC Tools [8]

BASIC PRINCIPLES, CLASSIFICATION AND

Introduction to Numerical control (NC) :

Numerical control (NC) is a form of programmable automation in

Numerical control can be applied to a wide variety of processes.

The common operating feature of NC in all of these applications is control of the

History of Numeric Control

Motivation & Objectives

• Reduced labor costs

• Make production more economical

• Machining components with repeatable accuracy

• Unmanned machining operations

Difference of Numerically Controlled Machine Tools

Basic Elements of a NC System

• An NC system consists of three basic components: (1) a program of instruction,

• The programme of instructions is the detailed step-by-step commands that direct

Basic Components of NC System (1. Program of Instructions)

Magnetic tape: plastic film

For rotational parts:

Right hand co-ordinate systems

Motion control is done by: servo-controlled motors

Input (converted from analog to digital value)

Controller: (Machine Control Unit, MCU) 

• Based on Motion Type:

• Based on Control Loops:

• Based on Power Supply:

• Based on Positioning System

Motion control systems

Motion control systems

Motion control systems

Absolute vs. Incremental Positioning

Types of control circuits

Direct and Indirect Measurements for control circuits

Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

Computer Numerical Control

Basic Elements of a CNC System

POST PROCESS TO CREATE CODE

INTERPOLATE CODE INTO DRIVE

Features of a CNC System

• Acceleration and deceleration calculations: These feature is applicable when the

The MCU for CNC

Memory: I/O interface :

Machine tool Controls: Sequence controls:

The MCU for CNC

• The machine interface software is used to operate the communication link

Machine axes designation

Figure Right hand rule for vertical and horizontal machine

CNC SYSTEMS - ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

Rotary and Linear encoders

Figure Recirculating ball screw assembly

Figure Preloaded recirculating ball screw

Figure Roller screw

Tool changing arrangements

Figure Tool holder

Figure 80-tool chain magazine Figure 120-tool chain magazine

Figure Circular magazine

Automatic tool changers :

Figure Rotating arm mechanism

Figure Rotating arm mechanism

Tool wear monitoring :

CNC WORK HOLDING DEVICES

Turning center work holding methods: