Ital. J. Geosci., Vol. 134, No. 3 (2015), pp. 423-441, 14 figs., (doi: 10.3301/IJG.2014.
20)
© Società Geologica Italiana, Roma 2015
The role of mechanical stratigraphy on normal fault growth
across a Cretaceous carbonate multi-layer, central Texas (USA)
FABRIZIO AGOSTA (*), CHRISTOPHER WILSON (**), (***) & ATILLA AYDIN (**)
ABSTRACT
We present the results of an integrated field and laboratory
investigation of the deformation mechanisms associated with nucle-
ation and development of normal faults across heterogeneously
layered Cretaceous carbonates. These results shed a new light on the
role of partitioning of failure structures in the fault growth across
such a carbonate multi-layer. Structural data show that the oldest
structural elements consist of low-angle to bedding pressure solution
seams, which formed during burial diagenesis of limestone rocks,
such as wackestones, containing a large amount of carbonate mud.
Subsequently, we envision that normal fault nucleated due to shear-
ing of these burial-related structures. Continuous slip along the
sheared low-angle pressure solution seams localized fault-related
dilation in the surrounding stiffer carbonate beds, which mainly
consisted of packestones and dolostones. In particular, dilation
localized within releasing jogs, as shown by the high frequency of
high-angle to bedding splay joints. The splay joints were eventually
sheared during fault development due to fault-related bed tilting.
Linkage of the sheared elements originally compartmentalized
within individual beds, which were characterized by variable cut-off
angles, determined the observed scalloped vertical trace of the
through-going normal faults across the carbonate multi-layer.
KEY WORDS: carbonate rocks, mechanical stratigraphy,
normal faulting, fault growth.
INTRODUCTION
It is well known that the varying material properties
cause the none uniform deformation of sedimentary
multi-layers when subjected to burial or tectonic stress. A
cursory glance at measurements from rock mechanics
experiments on sedimentary rocks displays a wide vari-
ability of their material properties. In fact, tensile
strengths range from 2 to 40 MPa, compressive strengths
from 30 to 350 MPa (BIENIAWKSI, 1984), and the elastic
Young’s moduli from about 1 to 100 GPa (ESCHBAC,
1961). The confining stress at which the brittle to ductile
failure occurs range between 30 and 300 MPa (JAEGER et
alii, 2007). Coupling these wide ranges of material prop-
erties with the heterogeneity and anisotropy introduced
by bedding interfaces and sedimentary structures such as
ripple marks, hummocky cross-bedding stratification,
bioturbation and tepees, it is of little surprise that bed-
(*) Dipartimento di Scienze, Università degli Studi della
Basilicata, Potenza, Italy. Telephone number 0971-206176. Corre-
sponding author e-mail: fabrizio.agosta@unibas.it
(**) Geological and Environmental Science Department, Stan-
ford University, Palo Alto (California), USA.
(***) Currently at Chevron Corporate Upstream & Gas, Hous-
ton (Texas), USA.
partitioned deformation is responsible for several types of
geologic structures. Actually, it is documented that this
type of deformation affected fold formation (CURRIE et
alii, 1962; JOHNSON, 1967; AYDIN et alii, 2010), breccia-
tion (DHOLAKIA et alii, 1998), fault geometry (WOODWARD
& RUTHERFORD, 1989; FISCHER & JACKSON, 1999), and
fault growth (WILKINS & GROSS, 2002; ANTONELLINI et
alii, 2008; AGOSTA et alii, 2012).
Bed-partitioned deformation is due to mechanical
stratigraphy, which subdivides stratified rocks into
discrete intervals, named mechanical units, bounded by
mechanical interfaces (cf. GROSS & ENGELDER, 1995;
FERRILL & MORRIS, 2008; RUSTICHELLI et alii, 2013).
Mechanical stratigraphy is a product of depositional com-
position, texture and structure as well as of the physical,
chemical and mechanical changes associated to diagene-
sis. Differently, fracture stratigraphy subdivides rocks
into intervals according to the vertical extent, density, or
some other observed attributes of fractures crosscutting a
layered rock mass (LAUBACH et alii, 2009, and references
therein). Commonly, both terms are often used as syno-
nyms in literature, but they do not always coincide.
Layered Cretaceous carbonate rocks of central Texas
nicely record the influence of mechanical stratigraphy on
bed-partitioned deformation associated to growth of
small offset normal faults, with throws up to about 1m.
Previous works carried out in the area documented the
impact of faults and fractures on fluid flow. It has been
shown how fractures strongly control the reservoir per-
meability in the Austin Chalk Formation (COLLINS et alii,
1992; LAUBACH et alii, 1995; TAYLOR & GRANT, 2004), and
faults pronouncedly influence groundwater flow in the
Edwards Aquifer (FERRILL et alii, 2004).
In this paper, contrasting failure modes are docu-
mented for normal faults that crosscut the Cretaceous
carbonate multi-layer. The results of combined field and
laboratory analyses show the control exerted by the
mechanical rock properties on deformation. The two
investigated vertical outcrops expose normal faults with
scalloped vertical traces. The working hypothesis is that
the carbonate mechanical stratigraphy influenced the
faulting process and, hence, impacted the resulting fault
architecture. To support this hypothesis, the geometry
and distribution of opening-mode (joints) and closing-
mode fractures (pressure solution seams) are investigated
throughout the outcrops to determine whether certain
lithologies contain predominantly fractures of one type or
the other. Then, a conceptual model of normal fault
growth across the carbonate multi-layer is proposed in
terms of the initial failure structures.
424 F. AGOSTA ET ALII
TERMINOLOGY
Since jointing in the carbonates of Texas has been
well documented in the past (e.g., TAYLOR & GRANT,
2004), a greater effort has been devoted to establish the
wide spread occurrence of pressure solution seams (pss).
Except few notes (e.g., CHANCHANI et alii, 1976) and two
recent publications (WILSON et alii, 2011a,b), little is
known about occurrence of pressure solution in these
rocks. The role of a pressure solution-based mechanism
on faulting has been described from other parts of the
World. For instance, the shearing of multiple generations
of solution seams appears to be responsible for the for-
mation of normal faults in the Majella Mt. of central Italy
(GRAHAM et alii, 2003). In Mesozoic platform carbonates
of central Italy, normal faults initiated by shearing of pre-
existing solution seams and formation of new sets of solu-
tion seams and joints/veins (AGOSTA & AYDIN, 2006).
Strike-slip faults found in shallow marine carbonates
near Somerset, UK appear to result, in large part, through
the coalescence of solution seams and calcite veins
(WILLEMSE et alii, 1997; PEACOCK & SANDERSON, 1995).
SALVINI et alii (1999) documented that the lateral propa-
gation of the Mattinata strike-slip fault in Mesozoic plat-
form carbonate rocks, exposed in southern Italy, occurred
thanks to pressure solution processes that localized.
ANTONELLINI et alii (2008) reported three types of failure
modes, pss, deformation bands, and joints in Meso-Ceno-
zoic slope and basinal carbonates of the Majella Mt. of
central Italy. Coeval formation of two conjugate sets of
strike faults and two conjugate sets of normal faults
occurred, in concomitance to fold-related reverse fault-
ing, by mean means of pressure-solution based mecha-
nisms as documented by AYDIN et alii (2010) in the Meso-
zoic platform carbonates of the Majella Mt., central Italy.
One of the premises of this investigation is that pres-
sure solution is one of the most dominant failure mecha-
nisms. For this reason, this process and its structural prod-
ucts require a specific introduction. The term pressure
solution describes a three step process that includes the
dissolution resulting from grain interpenetration at grain
contacts subject to high effective stress, which is followed
by the diffusion/dispersion of the dissolved material, and
then the precipitation of the dissolved material in locations
of lower effective stress (WEYL, 1959; GROSHONG, 1988).
Pressure solution may either occur pervasively throughout
a body of rock, characterized by distributed dissolution at
grain contacts (HEALD, 1956) sometimes referred to as “fit-
ted fabric” (BUXTON & SIBLEY, 1981), or it may localize
along discrete surfaces or bands known as pressure solu-
tion seams (STOCKDALE, 1922). The process of pressure
solution results in a permanent strain of rocks and is
therefore indicative of an inelastic, or creep, deformation
(RUTTER, 1983). However, when pressure solution local-
izes along discrete tabular bands forming pss, its mecha-
nical failure mode is more accurately described as a
closing-mode fracturing (FLETCHER & POLLARD, 1981).
Conceptualizing pressure solution seams as closing-mode
fractures (also coined as anticracks, localized volume
reduction structures or mode-IV fractures) proves useful
when evaluating their associated stress fields (FLETCHER &
POLLARD, 1981; KATSMAN et alii, 2006; FOSSEN, 2010;
ZHOU & AYDIN, 2010). Moreover, the aforementioned fail-
ure mode interpretation is the key to decipher the relation-
ships between pss with secondary structures such as splay
fractures (RISPOLI, 1981; BATHURST, 1987; PETIT & MAT-
TAUER, 1995).
Pressure solution structures exhibit a variety of mor-
phologies. Stylolites, perhaps the most recognizable mani-
festation of one type of pressure solution often localized
along bedding, appear as jagged and serrated bands
defined by insoluble material, mostly clay minerals
(STOCKDALE, 1922). These features often cut across
allochems, cement, and matrix and are commonly ori-
ented parallel or sub-parallel to bedding (STOCKDALE,
1922; BATHURST, 1987; RUSTICHELLI et alii, 2012). Stylo-
lites are equivalent to what WANLESS (1979) refers to as
sutured-seams. However, pss do not always appear as
conspicuous as stylolites. They also occur as relatively
smooth, undulated seams of insoluble clay-rich residue
which lack the obvious sutures or the jagged morphology
that characterizes stylolites. In the past, researchers used
various terms to refer to these smooth, undulated seams;
such terms include non-sutured seams (WANLESS, 1979;
CHANCHANI et alii. 1996), solution seams (GARRISON &
KENNEDY, 1977), microstylolites (MARSHAK & ENGELDER,
1985), and dissolution seams (BATHURST, 1987). In this
paper, we will refer to all types of pressure solution-
related features simply as pss. However we will note evi-
dence leading to our interpretation of their origin, such as
stylolitic sutures, clay mineral infillings, or truncated and
interpenetrating grains or fossils.
In addition to exhibiting a variety of morphologies,
pss may influence the fabric of the rocks that contain
them. For instance, pervasive pressure solution accompa-
nied by mechanical compaction during late stage diagen-
esis may alter carbonate beds into small bodies of rela-
tively pure carbonate encapsulated by clay-rich undulated
pss (GARRISON & KENNEDY, 1977). When the encapsu-
lated carbonate bodies take on an ellipsoidal or lenticular
shape, the rock is said to exhibit flaser fabric or flaser
structure (GARRISON & KENNEDY, 1977). If, however, the
carbonate bodies appear to be rounded rather than long
and lenticular, the beds are referred to as a nodular
(SCHOLLE, 1977; WANLESS, 1979; GARRISON & KENNEDY,
1977; BATHURST, 1987; FLÜGEL, 2004). Though largely
attributed to pressure solution, some nodular fabrics may
also arise from depositional processes (FLÜGEL, 2004).
The key for identifying the pressure solution genesis is
the content and morphology of the structure.
GEOLOGICAL AND STRUCTURAL SETTINGS
During the Cretaceous period, the shallow seas that
extended across central and west Texas, USA, provided a
depositional environment for the formation of a carbo-
nate sequence that crop out across much of the state
(BARKER et alii, 1994; fig. 1a). The Cretaceous, shallow-
water, marine carbonates are made up of alternated lime-
stone, dolostone, calcareous shale, chalk and marl units.
The two study outcrops expose a section of the Upper
Glen Rose and Buda Formations, respectively (figs. 1b
and 1c). These two roadcuts are hundreds of kilometres
apart, and display Tertiary normal faults formed at
crustal depths not greater than 2,3 km (FULLMER &
LUCIA, 2006).
The Glen Rose Formation comprises the upper unit of
the Cretaceous Trinity Group. Many researchers attribute
the deposition of the Glen Rose to a Late Aptian and
 THE ROLE OF MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY 425

Fig. 1 - Location map of the study areas and stratigraphic sections: (a) Digital elevation map of Texas. Areas where Cretaceous aged rocks
crop out are shaded green. The outline of the subsurface Ouachita orogenic belt is in blue. The Trans-Pecos region of Texas is in brown.
Several regionally mapped normal faults within the Balcones Fault Zone and in the Trans-Pecos region are traced in black. The two study
locations (1 and 2) included in this work are labelled in the order they appear in the text. Selected cities referred to in the text are marked
with black circles; (b) Cretaceous stratigraphic column showing the thickness of the formations in the San Antonio/Austin area (after
COLLINS, 2000); (c) Cretaceous stratigraphic column for the Trans-Pecos region (after BRAND & DEFORD, 1958). Arrows between (b) and
(c) indicate time equivalent correlations.

Early Albian regional high stand (BEHRENS, 1965; KE-
RANS, 2005; STRICKLIN & AMSBURY, 1971; YOUNG, 1974).
Stratigraphic relationships show that the Glen Rose gen-
erally overlies and interfingers with the Hensel Sand-
stone, and underlies the Edwards Group (FERRILL &
MORRIS, 2008). Based upon the fossil content of specific
beds (STRICKLIN & AMSBURY, 1971) and distinctive well
log signatures (BEHRENS, 1965; PITTMAN, 1989), the Glen
Rose Formation is believed to extend from western cen-
tral-south Texas (1067 m-thick) to the adjacent territories
of Arkansas and Louisiana (610 m-thick). Its exposed
thickness of the Glen Rose Formation in the Austin and
San Antonio region, the current study area, varies
between 225 m (WARD & WARD, 2007) and 270 m
(COLLINS, 2000). The Glen Rose Formation consists of
vertically stacked dolostones, limestones, clays, marls and
evaporates, consistent with an open-marine, shallow sub-
tidal-peritidal, restricted inner shelf depositional environ-
ment (STRICKLIN & AMSBURY, 1971; WARD & WARD,
2007). A regionally identified corbula marker separates
the Glen Rose Formation into upper and lower intervals
(STRICKLIN & AMSBURY, 1971). Each one of these two
intervals can be also subdivided into several lithostrati-
graphic units (WARD & WARD, 2007).
The other study location is in the Cretaceous Buda
Formation, which crops out extensively in south, central,
and western Trans-Pecos Texas as well as northern Chi-
huahua and Coahuila, Mexico (REASER & DAWSON,
1995). It serves as an oil and gas reservoir in south Texas,
where production is generally associated with intense
brecciation and fracturing in the upper part of this for-
mation (STAPP, 1977). REASER & DAWSON (1995) docu-
mented a thickness variation of the Buda Fm. between
less than 1 m (northeast Texas) and 107 m (western
Trans-Pecos Texas). In the latter area, the Buda Forma-
tion is subdivided into six informal lithofacies, which are
sandwiched in between the Boracho and Boquillas For-
mations. These informal lithofacies include fossiliferous
426 F. AGOSTA ET ALII
sparites, sandy micrites, a range of biomicrites, and
interbedded shale intervals (REASER & DAWSON, 1995).
Although the two study outcrops are found in differ-
ent tectonic settings, they each expose various types of
fractures and small normal faults crosscutting Cretaceous
carbonate rocks. One of these outcrops (figs. 2a and 2b)
lies within the Austin-San Antonio corridor of the Bal-
cones Fault Zone, about 32 km northwest of Austin,
Texas (USA), where the total thickness of the Cretaceous
section is approximately 1045 meters (COLLINS, 2000).
The second outcrop is located within the Trans-Pecos
region of Texas (figs. 2c and 2d), 8.7 km northwest of the
city of Balmorhea, Texas (USA). There, the 307 m-thick
exposed Cretaceous section reflects a depositional Late
Triassic-Early Cretaceous hiatus (BRAND & DEFORD,
1958; LEHMAN, 1986).
Despite the aforementioned depositional hiatus, the
Mid-to-Late Cretaceous carbonates are believed to extend
from the Austin-San Antonio corridor to the Trans-Pecos
region (about 640 km west) as an essentially continuous
body of rock (BRAND & DEFORD, 1958). Several stra-
tigraphic contacts are correlated between these two
regions. For instance, the Upper Glen Rose Formation
found in central Texas is time equivalent to the Yearwood
Formation in the Trans-Pecos region. Furthermore, the
unconformable contact between the Buda Limestone and
Eagleford Shale in central Texas is the same as that
between the Buda and the Boquillas Formations in the
Trans-Pecos region (see arrows connecting figs. 1b to 1c).
As stated above, even if the geologic history of two
study fault zones is quite different, the normal faults in
the Balcones Fault Zone and those in the Trans-Pecos
region both formed at similar shallow depths during the
Late Tertiary. Additionally, the initiation of each normal
faulting system appears to be influenced by pre-existing
structures. The Balcones Fault Zone crosses the state of
Texas from the city of Del Rio to the city of Dallas (cf.
fig. 1a). This broad curved belt follows the pre-existing
structural assemblage of compressed Paleozoic rocks that
composes remains of the now eroded Ouachita orogenic
belt, which marks the southern margin of the central
United States craton (CONDON & DYMAN, 2006). Physio-
graphically, the Balcones Fault Zone separates the
Tertiary clastic sediments that overlie the Gulf Coastal
Plane from the predominantly carbonate sediments now
exposed in the Edwards Plateau (Texas, USA). From SW
to NE, the dominant fault strike rotates counter-clock-
wise from an approximately east-west direction, near Del
Rio, to a nearly north-south direction, near Dallas. In gen-
eral, the dip directions of the normal faults throughout
the Balcones Fault Zone show presence of a conjugate
system made up of SE and NW dipping fault sets, respec-
tively. At surface, the aforementioned fault zone ranges
in width between 25 and 30 km (WILTSCHKO et alii, 1991;
FERRILL et alii, 2004; TAYLOR & GRANT, 2004). Cumulative
fault throws appear to be greatest, more than 500 meters,
in the vicinity of the San Antonio and Austin cities (COLE
& PANTEA, 2004).
The mechanisms leading to the initiation and growth
of the faults within the Balcones Fault Zone remain
unclear. Some researchers proposed that their formation
is associated with a period of regional extension induced
by a rapid accumulation of Tertiary sediments along the
Gulf Coast. That is, the rapid accumulation of Tertiary
sediments lead to the formation of salt related growth
faults and the general subsidence of the Gulf Coast
(GALLOWAY, 2000); the normal faults of the Balcones
Fault Zone formed at the boundary of the subsiding gulf
coast and the uplifting central United States craton.
Evidence supporting this hypothesis includes reworked
Cretaceous faunas and chert cobbles found within Ter-
tiary sediments along the Gulf Coast, which suggests that
the majority of displacement across the Balcones normal
faults occurred during the Oligocene-Early Miocene
(WEEKS, 1945; EWING, 1987).
The development of normal faults in the Trans-Pecos
region, situated west of the Edwards Plateau of Texas
(cf. fig. 1a), exhibits some differences from those in the
Balcones Fault Zone to the northeast. As it lies closer to
the central part of the North American craton, the
Trans-Pecos geology reflects the influence of both
Laramide orogeny and Basin and Range rifting (HENRY
& PRICE, 1986). From the late Cretaceous to the early
Tertiary, the Laramide orogeny mildly compressed rocks
in the Trans-Pecos region, leading to the formation of a
series of mountain ranges and subtle anticlines and syn-
clines (EIFLER, 1951). It has also been surmised that
mild Laramide compression affected central Texas dur-
ing the same period (LAUBACH & JACKSON, 1990). In the
late Tertiary, Laramide compression gave way to Basin
and Range extensional tectonics (BARKER, 1987). Many
of the Trans-Pecos region’s normal faults formed during
this time, probably in the Oligocene (EIFLER, 1951;
MUEHLBERGER et alii, 1978). The surface pattern of
fault traces reveals both north and northwest to west
trending segments, which occupy a 100 km-wide belt
running roughly parallel to the southern border of
Texas. The former fault set is parallel to Late Paleozoic,
Mesozoic and/or Laramide faults, while the latter one
trends parallel to Paleozoic and Precambrian faults
(KING & FLAWN, 1953).
METHODOLOGY
The present work entailed detailed field mapping as
well as petrographic and scanning electron microscope
analyses of selected samples. In the field, the exposed
fractures and faults were mapped at a variety of scales.
The attitudes of these structures were measured and, in
some locations, their spacing was determined by mean of
scanlines oriented perpendicular to their strike direction.
The twenty-two representative samples collected from
specific outcrop locations, mainly of site 1, were then
impregnated with blue epoxy, cut into 2.5×5 cm thin
sections, polished, and then stained with alizarin red
solution to distinguish limestone from dolomite. Petro-
graphic analysis was completed with a Zeiss Avio Plan 2
Optical Microscopes (equipped with reflected, transmit-
ted, and fluorescent light sources). An Axio Cam MRS
digital camera captured the petrographic images pre-
sented in this study. In addition to the petrographic sam-
ples, seventeen samples were impregnated with blue
epoxy, cut into 2.5×5 cm thin sections, polished with a
diamond paste, carbon coated and analysed using a JEOL
JXA-733A Super-probe scanning electron microprobe.
SEM backscatter images were used to calculate rough
approximations of rock composition through a three step
process. First, the elemental compositions of the rock
constituents (various grains, matrix, fossils, and fossil
 THE ROLE OF MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY 427

Fig. 2 - Locations of the study Glen Rose and Buda roadcuts: (a) Partial digital elevation map of central Texas; (b) Geologic map of the area
surrounding the roadcut of site 1. The roadcut location, indicated by a white circle, lies at UTM 14R coordinates 603771 east, 3363281 north.
The surface geology of the surrounding area is coloured according to the legend below the map (adapted from PROCTOR et alii, 1981);
(c) Partial digital elevation map of Trans-Pecos Texas; (d) Geologic map of the area surrounding Balmorhea (from MCKALIPS & BARNES,
1981). The roadcut location, indicated by a white circle, lies at UTM 13R coordinates 601573 east and 3434604 north.

fragments) were determined. Then the hue, saturation,
and value (HSV) combinations corresponding to these
constituents were categorized for a given backscatter
image. Lastly, the surface areas of the constituent cate-
gories were calculated. Such calculations provide a first
order approximation to be used for qualitative and rela-
tive comparisons.
RESULTS OF FIELD AND LABORATORY ANALYSES
In this section, the results of combined field mapping
and laboratory analyses conducted on carbonates pertain-
ing to the Upper Glen Rose and the Buda Formations.
The former rocks are exposed 32 km northwest of down-
town Austin, along a roadcut of the Route 620 located in
428 F. AGOSTA ET ALII

Fig. 3 - Overview of the Upper Glen Rose Formation. Photo views are to the north: (a) and (b) are mapped photomosaics upon which Fault
Set 1 and Set 2, as well as the boundaries of a jointed dolostone (in white), are traced. Locations of collected samples are indicated with
enumerated white circles. The lower inset shows the relative positions of (a) and (b) on a photo of the roadcut; (c) Equal-angle stereonet plot
of measured planes. The great circles show the average attitude of the two fault sets and joints. See fig. 3a for the photograph location.

proximity to the Lake Travis (site 1, figs. 2a and 2b).
There, in correspondence of the SW-NE trend of one of
the regionally mapped normal faults pertaining to the
Balcones Fault Zone (fig. 2b), the E-W oriented outcrop is
up to 13 m-high and stretches for about 140 m.
The second site is located nearly 650 km west of the
Balcones Fault Zone, in the Trans-Pecos region of Texas
(fig. 2c), 8.7 km northwest of the city of Balmorhea
along the interstate I-10 (fig. 2d). The roadcut, which
shows a 180 m-long, gently SE-dipping, less than 10°,
portion of the Buda Formation, lies in a horst bounded
by two NW-trending normal faults (MCKALIPAS &
BARNES, 1981).
UPPER GLEN ROSE FORMATION
At site 1, series of vertically stacked, alternating
lithologies of a few dolostone beds embedded within
wackestones are exposed (figs. 3 and 4). The friable
wackestones exhibit an extensive flaser fabric, which
imparts a distinctive undulating apparent layering. The
finely crystalline dolostone beds stand apart from the
wackestones due to their finer grain size and, generally,
The dolostone and wackestone beds exhibit composi-
tional and microstructural differences. Petrographic and
SEM analyses of samples taken from a wackestone bed
(# 2, 3 and 4 in figs. 3 and 4) reveal a wide array of fossils,
mainly miliolid foraminifera and peloids, interspersed
within a micritic (lime mud) matrix, which may contain
some euhedral rhombohedra dolomite crystals. The
results of backscatter image analysis are consistent with
the wackestone being composed of about 56.8% matrix
(mainly calcium carbonate with some remnants of potas-
sium feldspars and clay), 19.5% fossil content, 14.2%
dolomite, 1.5% pyrite and 8% porosity. Both the sutured
boundaries of fossils and the sutured contacts between
adjacent fossil grains (figs. 5a and b) indicate that this
rocks underwent pressure solution. Furthermore, under
the microscope the clay seams with flaser fabric truncate
partial miliolid foraminifera. In fact, the examples of
figs. 5a and b show missing portions of foraminifera
chambers (FLÜGEL, 2004), providing some evidence that
the flaser fabric in the wackestone beds resulted from
pressure solution and the associated seams.
Differently, euhedral rhombohedra dolomite crystals
compose the majority of the dolostone beds and appear to

The dolomite rhombohedra are about 10 to 20 μm-long,

absence of sedimentary structures. Much of the dolostone
beds are stained brown, inferably through the oxidation
of groundwater flow. Oxidation stains are found primar-
ily towards the top of the roadcut as well as in proximity
to normal faults.
have replaced a carbonate mud matrix (figs. 5c and 5d).
and are generally in grain-to-grain contact with each
other. No identifiable fossils are found in the dolostone
samples. Sparse, small and sub-angular quartz and pyrite
 THE ROLE OF MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY 429

Fig. 4 - Mapped photograph of the Upper Glen Rose Formation. View is to the north. Fault Set 1 and Set 2 are traced as well as joints (in
blue). The latter are found primarily within the dolostone layers. The boundaries of the most heavily jointed dolostone bed is traced in white.
See fig. 3a for the photograph location.

grains are present. The results of backscatter image
analysis are consistent with the following average compo-
sition: 55.2% dolomite, 18.3% matrix (calcium carbonate
with some remnant potassium feldspar), 4.5% quartz,
0.5% pyrite and 21.5% porosity.
From a structural perspective, several small normal
faults (figs. 3a and 3b) and fractures (fig. 4) are visible
along the vertical roadcut face. The faults strike about
NE-SW, and dip either SE or NW. Collectively, these
faults form an apparent conjugate system made up of
SE-dipping (Set 1) and NW-dipping faults (Set 2). As
measured in the wackestone beds, the average attitude of
Set 1 is N33E and 55°, while that of Set 2 is N20E and 47°
(fig. 3c). In addition to the small faults, numerous frac-
tures are documented in the wackestone beds. These frac-
ture, which can also be categorized into Set 1 and Set 2
groups based upon their attitudes (fig. 4), do not exhibit a
plumose morphology. Their traces are associated with the
clay-rich seams that define lenticular bodies of rock
(flaser structure). Differently, the dolostone beds contain
numerous fractures sub-perpendicular to bedding (fig. 4).
These fractures, joints because characterized by plumose
structures along their surfaces, are primarily located in
the relatively thin (less than 40 cm-thick) beds. Although
the average joint strike, N25E, approximately aligns with
that of Set 1 and Set 2 faults, their average dip angle, 88°,
is much steeper (fig. 3c).
Focussing on the pss, at the meso-scale they exhibit a
range of morphologies varying from barely visible, thin
wispy lines to clusters up to 3 cm-thick. Their amplitudes
range from 1 to 5 cm, while the wavelengths are com-
prised between 5 and 10 cm. Length of individual seg-
ments of pss is comprised between 2 and 8 cm. Multiple
pressure solution seam segments may link together form-
ing continuous anastomosing zones sub-parallel to bed-
ding, similar to what NENNA & AYDIN (2010) documented
in the Variscan of SE Ireland. Some of these bed-parallel
zones are traceable for several meters, often anastomos-
ing and enclosing, either partially or completely, lens-
shaped and ellipsoidal limestone bodies. In other loca-
tions, multiple segments of different seams may link
together at low angles to bedding forming composite
seams that dip, either SE or NW, between 20° and 45°.
These segments show mutually crosscutting/abutting rela-
tionships (fig. 6). Such composite seams exhibit a similar
attitude of the Set 1 and Set 2 fractures (cf. fig. 4). For
this reason, they are interpreted as linked pss.
Microprobe transects further corroborate the afore-
mentioned interpretation. In fact, an SEM backscatter
image reveals a high resolution view of some of the seams
430 F. AGOSTA ET ALII

Fig. 5 - Petrographic and backscatter SEM images of the samples of the Upper Glen Rose cropping out at the 620 roadcut near Austin, Texas,
USA. Images in (a) and (b) are from a wackestone bed while (c) and (d) are from a dolostone bed (sample locations are labeled 2 and 1,
respectively, in fig. 3a): (a) Transmitted light photomicrograph with several labeled items: a peloid (pd), the sutured edge (sb) of a miliolid
foraminifera (mf), a pressure solution seam (pss) that composes part of an outcrop observed flaser fabric, and a sutured grain (sg);
(b) Backscatter electron image showing a fitted contact (fc) between a bivalve test (bv) and a miliolid foraminifera (mf) whose edges are
sutured (sb), a pressure solution seam (pss) truncating the foraminifera, and a dolomite rhomb (dm); (c) Transmitted light photomicrograph
showing the fine crystalline dolomite crystals; (d) Backscatter electron image from a dolostone bed. Several items are pointed out: the matrix
(m), a quartz grain (q), a dolomite rhomb (dm), and a pyrite grain (p).

dark material about 10 μm-thick and up to 100 μm-long.

that comprise the flaser fabric (fig. 7a). The pss appear as
The micro-scale image also shows presence of the differ-
ent pressure solution sets, the most common of which
appears as sub-parallel to bedding. However, pss oriented
like the Set 1 and Set 2 fractures are also visible. The
results of transects of relative element counts show that
the pss contain a smaller amount of calcium and a higher
amount of insoluble clay-related elements, such as silica
and aluminium, than the surrounding rock (figs. 7b
and 7c). This identification is similar to those docu-
mented in a number of locations worldwide (GARRISON
 THE ROLE OF MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY 431

Fig. 6 - Mapped photograph of flaser fabric in a wackestone bed

within the Upper Glen Rose Formation. View is to the north. Ellip-
soidal limestone bodies partially or fully encapsulated by clay seams
form flaser fabric (or flaser structure). In this case, parts or
segments of the pressure solution seams exhibit dip directions
consistent with the Set 1 and Set 2 fractures and faults. See fig. 3a
for the photograph location.

& KENNEDY, 1977; WANLESS, 1979; BATHURST, 1987;

AGOSTA et alii, 2012).
Investigating the relationship between the flaser fab-
ric and the normal faults, many of the Set 1 and Set 2 pss
align parallel, and in close proximity, to nearby slip sur-
faces (figs. 4 and 8). Additionally, the tips of some indi-
vidual slip surfaces sole out and terminate into the flaser
fabric (fig. 8). This configuration, which indicates that the
slip surfaces either begin or end at those locations, often
include continuous zones of either Set 1 or Set 2 pss
ahead of the fault tips (fig. 8). Locally, either these contin-
uous zones of pss or the fault segments themselves abut Fig. 7 - Micro-probe backscatter electron image and measurements
into networks of the opposite dipping set of pss, forming of the relative element counts across dark seams in the wackestone
an apparent conjugate system (fig. 8). beds. Sample taken from a wackestone bed at location S2 shown in
While in wackestone beds the slip surfaces sub-paral- fig. 3a: (a) Back scatter electron image. The lines 1 to 1' and 2 to 2',
provide the locations of two microprobe transects; (b) Relative
lel the Set 1 and Set 2 pss, they follow the joint attitude in element counts of transect 1 to 1'; (c) Relative element counts of
the dolostone beds (fig. 9). The dip angle of individual transect 2 to 2'. In both cases, relative element counts are specific to
fault segments therefore changes abruptly along the study each transect (that is, a relative concentration of 1 indicates the
outcrop from moderate, ~45° within the wackestone beds, highest elemental count of that particular transect).
to higher values, ~85° in the dolostone beds. This change
of the dip angle is most pronounced in the ~25 cm-thick
dolostone bed at the base of the roadcut, which contains
km2 area (PARKER & MCDOWELL, 1979) whose occur-
very few Set 1 or Set 2 pss, if any. There, the joint spacing
rence was likely related to Basin and Range extension
rapidly decreases in the vicinity of the slip surfaces (fig. 9).
(EIFLER, 1951; MUEHLBERGER et alii, 1978). The study
section of the Buda Formation shows a sharp lithological
BUDA FORMATION variation (fig. 10a). About 2.5 m up from the base of the
roadcut, the bed colours change from interbedded tans,
The study roadcut is located on the easternmost side browns, and blacks to a whitish-gray (fig. 10b). This
of a NW-trending normal fault zone (cf. figs. 2c and d), colour change marks an abrupt transition from grain-sup-
which is sub-parallel to others that crosscut the Gomez ported beds, mainly comprised of fossiliferous packstones
Tuff, a Tertiary aged peralkalic rhyolite that covers a 4300 with calcite cements, to matrix-supported beds made up
432 F. AGOSTA ET ALII

Fig. 8 - Mapped photograph of a fault in a wackestone bed, view is to
the north. The indicated fault surface (semitransparent red) solves a
few cm of throw. Set 1 and Set 2 pressure solution seams are traced in
red and yellow, respectively. An arrangement of Set 2 pressure solution
seams that form an apparent conjugate set with the fault is shown in
semi-transparent yellow. See fig. 3a for the location of this photograph.
Fig. 9 - A 3.5 cm throw normal fault crossing from a wackestone at
the base of the roadcut into a dolostone and then back into a wacke-
stone. Its view is to the north. Both Set 1and Set 2 pressure solution
seams are found predominantly in the wackestone beds, while the
bed perpendicular joints in the dolostone bed (outlined in black).
See fig. 3a for location.

Fig. 10 - Overview of a roadcut through the Buda Limestone. All photograph views are to the south; (a) and (b) consist of photomosaics upon
which several small faults and fractures are mapped. In (b) the double-pointed arrow spans the 1 m of throw across a normal fault. A black
horizontal line at the right of the photomosaic indicates the bedding contact that divides this Buda Limestone exposure into primarily matrix
supported beds and primarily grain supported beds; (c) Equal-angle stereonet plots of the measured planes, the great circles show the
average attitude of the measurements.

of fossiliferous wackestones. Thus, above this transition
both fossil content and amount of calcite cementation
appear to abruptly decrease, while the amount of lime-
mud matrix sharply increases.
In addition to the aforementioned lithological varia-
tion, a series of SE-NW striking normal faults and frac-
tures prominently transects the study exposure. Presum-
ably, these faults formed synchronously with the Tertiary
aged, regionally mapped normal faults. None of the faults
exhibit throws greater than ~1 m. Similar to what it has
been done for the site 1, the outcropping faults are
grouped into two different sets based upon their dip
direction: Set 1 dips SW, while Set 2 dips NE (fig. 10c).
This naming convention does not imply that the sets
 THE ROLE OF MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY 433

defined here share any genetic relationships with the pre-

viously defined sets (cf. Section 5.1). Set 1 and Set 2
faults shows average dip angles of 71° and 76°, respec-
tively (fig. 10c). The majority of the shallower dipping
faults and fractures are located above the sharp litholo-
gical variation described above.
A closer inspection of one of the wackestone beds
reveals that this fossil-rich, hard limestone contains a
well-developed flaser fabric (figs. 11a and 11b). In contrast
to the pss associated to the flaser fabric identified in the
Upper Glen Rose Formation, the seams present in the
Buda Formation readily present themselves as products of
pressure solution. In fact, not only they contain a conspic-
uous clay-rich, orange and brownish, oxidized material,
but also the stylolitic sutures give them jagged edges easily
identifiable at both meso- and micro-scales (fig. 11c).
As the seams encapsulate irregularly shaped limestone
bodies, they often truncate fossil grains. The trace of
the flaser fabric documented in the wackestone beds is
consistent with most of the pss dipping either SW or NE
(fig. 11a). The results of thin section analysis show that
stylolitic sutures formed perpendicular to bedding,
regardless if the individual seams lie parallel (stylolites)
or at an angle to bedding (slickolites).
Considering the flaser fabric, the ellipsoidal lenses

from less than 1 μm to about 3 cm. Though this was an

often contain calcite filled veins. Vein aperture ranges

unexpected finding, it is not unprecedented to find veins

within flaser or nodular limestone rocks. In fact, veins of
similar appearance crosscut the flaser biomicrite beds of
the Chambersburg Limestone, western Maryland, USA
(WANLESS, 1979), and the Ireton Formation, Alberta,
Canada (MCCROSSAN, 1958). Veins are mainly oriented at
a high-angle to bedding, and commonly abut at right
angles against pss (fig. 11b). Similar orthogonal associa-
tions have been reported by NELSON (1981), AGOSTA &
AYDIN (2006), GRAHAM-WALL et alii (2006), AGOSTA et alii
(2009), KATSMAN et alii (2010), and ZHOU & AYDIN
(2010). Along portions of the investigated outcrop, small
groups of individual veins form sub-vertical en-echelon
arrangements. Within this configuration, the pss link
together sequences of either right or left stepping veins,
forming single composite segments of closing- and open-
ing-mode fractures (fig. 11b). The wackestone beds there-
fore contain three types of fractures, which display a vari-
ety of cut off angles. Pss are at low angles to bedding,
with cut offs smaller than 45°, veins are at high angles to
bedding, with cut offs greater than 70°, and composite
fractures whose cut off angles range between 45° and 70°.
At a larger scale, the traces of the fault segments lie at
orientations either roughly perpendicular to bedding, in
the packstone beds, or at lower angles to it, in the wacke-
stone beds (fig. 12a). Within the packstone beds, other
than a few bed-parallel pss, most of the fractures consist
of calcite-filled veins visible at both thin section (figs. 12b
and 12c) and outcrop scales (fig. 12d). The structural
position of calcite filled releasing jogs, which link Fig. 11 - Images of a wackestone bed within the Buda Limestone
together discrete sheared vein segments, provide evidence (cf. sample 5 in fig. 10). View due to south: (a) Mapped photograph
tracing the two sets of pressure solution seams in the wackestone
that the latter features underwent to, at least, one episode that comprise a flaser fabric: Set 1 and Set 2. Subvertical blue lines
of shearing (fig. 12e). A number of these sheared veins mark traces of veins. View due to south; (b) Photograph showing the
show a similar orientation with nearby fault traces, which flaser fabric defined by pressure solution seams. Arrows mark veins
often exhibit some calcite infilling (fig. 12a). that abut against the bed-parallel (bp pss) and low-angle pressure
solution seams (la pss); (c) Plan polarized light view of a thin section
Observations from a 1 m-throw normal fault, the obtained from a hand specimen of the wackestone bed. The flaser
largest at this exposure, indicate that the individual fault fabric is comprised bed-parallel (bp pss) and low-angle pressure
segments have attitudes similar to either the low-angle solution seams (la pss).
434 F. AGOSTA ET ALII

Fig. 12 - A normal fault and several nearby veins in the Buda Limestone. The upper portion of the cliff is made up of wackestones, the lower
part of packstones: (a) Trace (in yellow) of a 5 cm throw normal fault that vertically transects the Buda exposure. The black line and accom-
panying arrows on the left divide the outcrop into primarily matrix-supported and grain-supported beds. The hammer at the base of the
roadcut for scale. The two double-pointed arrows indicate the beds from which the hand specimens shown as microphotographs in (b) and
(c) were collected; (b) View of a stained thin section under cross-polarized light. The veins crosscut a peloidal packstone filled with sparry
cement. The label points to a vein that splits several peloidal bioclasts. This sample is labelled as S6 in fig. 10; (c) View of a stained thin
section under cross-polarized light showing a sparry cement filled vein within a peloidal-bivalve packstone. This sample is labelled as S7 in
fig. 10; (d) Photograph of sheared joints and associated vein precipitation in their dilational quadrants. The hammer is for scale; (e) Structural
interpretation of the image shown in (d).

bedding planes or the high-angle joints (figs. 13a and b). or within the clay-rich beds. Differently, the fault seg-
The bedding plane-parallel fault segments localize either ments are characterized by dip angles of about 80° in the
at the bed interfaces, which are made up of thin shales, primarily grain-supported beds. There, numerous joints
 THE ROLE OF MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY 435

Fig. 13 - Mapped photographs of a 1 m throw normal fault crosscutting the Buda Limestone. The upper side of the cliff is made up of wacke-
stones, the lower one of packstones. In both (a) and (b), red and yellow lines mark fault traces that dip consistently with Set 1 and Set 2
faults and pss, respectively, while blue lines follow the traces of veins and joints: (a) Selectively mapped photograph (view due to southeast)
of the normal fault. A yellow field-book for scale; (b) Detailed map of the normal fault near the transition between wackestone (matrix-
supported carbonate) and packstone (grain-supported carbonate) beds.

and veins surround the fault segments. Veins 4 to 6 cm- DISCUSSION

thick are located on either side of the fault segments,
suggesting that much of the shear strain in these rocks
was accommodated through dilation. The grain-sup-
ported beds also contain sparse, less frequent, Set 1 and
Set 2 pss.
Differently, both Set 1 and Set 2 pss are abundant in
the wackestone bed that lies just above the contact between
the matrix- and grain-supported intervals (figs. 13a and b).
Within this bed, the 1 m-throw normal fault abruptly
changes its dip angle, down to 64°, and is mainly associ-
ated to low-angle pss and composite fractures. Specifi-
cally, the fault segment pertaining to the 1 m-throw fault
is sub-parallel to the Set 1 pss, while some Set 2 pss abut
against this fault segment forming an apparent conjugate
system (fig. 13b).
Recent works on Cretaceous carbonates of Texas
focussed on fracture detection and mapping by using
Lidar technology (WILSON et alii, 2011a), and on the
potential impact of fractures and faults on hydrocarbon
flow and migration in an open pit asphalt mine (WILSON
et alii, 2011b). Previous investigations documented some
expression of the aforementioned mechanical/fracture
stratigraphy within the same carbonate rocks. CORBETT et
alii (1987) measured the uniaxial compressive strength
and magnitudes of strain at failure (a measurement of
ductility) of Austin Chalk samples collected from out-
crops, and identified the measurable rock properties that
appeared to influence the fracture distribution. In fact,
these authors found that samples from heavily jointed
436 F. AGOSTA ET ALII
outcrop intervals tended to be the most porous, contained
the least amount of clay, and exhibited the least amount of
strain prior to failure. CHANCHANI et alii (1996) studied
thin sections obtained from cores of the Austin Chalk,
which were extracted from 2000-3000 meters below the
ground surface, and documented localized presence of
pressure solution seams within its shale-rich intervals.
FERRILL & MORRIS (2003) suggested that a material prop-
erty described as competence determines the mode of fail-
ure in some carbonate rocks. These authors inferred that
the scalloped vertical trace of normal faults is due to a
combination of shearing-mode fracturing of the less com-
petent beds, resulting in fault segments with dip angles
lower than 80°, and mixed shearing- and opening-mode
(hybrid) fracturing of the more competent beds, causing
fault segments with dip angles greater than 80°. FERRILL
& MORRIS (2008) suggested that the dip angle of the fault
segments pertaining to normal faults of the Balcones Fault
Zone depend upon clay content of carbonates. Fault seg-
ments in clay-poor limestones, or dolostones, form at high
angles greater than 70°, while those in clay-rich limestones
at low angles smaller than 60°. MORRIS et alii (2009) fur-
ther investigated this topic, finding a relationship between
the competence property of beds (measured with a
Schmidt hammer) and both spacing and displacement of
normal faults. As already mentioned in the text, LAUBACH
et alii (2009) investigated both fracture and mechanical
stratigraphy in the carbonates of Texas documenting how
they coincide in the Travis Peak Formation, but not in the
Austin Chalk Formation.
Although the two study sites expose different Creta-
ceous carbonates at entirely different regions, they do
exhibit some similarities. Both formations comprise some
beds (made up of dolostones and packestones) that
include more joints than pss due to predominant open-
ing-mode brittle deformation, and others (made up of
wackestones) that contain more pss and flaser fabric than
joints due to closing-mode inelastic, or ductile, deforma-
tion. The latter wackestone beds often include two sets of
low-angle pss. In light of these resemblances, in this sec-
tion the field and laboratory results shown previously are
discussed together in terms of faulting processes in a
multi-layer comprised of the aforementioned carbonate
beds. Based upon the assumption that the vertical propa-
gation of normal faults was strongly controlled by the
contrasting properties of contiguous beds, as shown by
the marked changes in dip angle of individual fault seg-
ments and presence of releasing jogs accompanying these
changes, a conceptual model of fault development across
such a multi-layer is then proposed.
NORMAL FAULTING OF THE CRETACEOUS CARBONATES OF
CENTRAL TEXAS
The fault architecture documented in this work is
consistent with joint localization in the most competent
beds. In fact, most fault segments that transect dolostone
and packestone beds form releasing jogs surrounded by
joint clusters (cf. figs. 3, 4, 10 and 13) fading away from
them. The initiation and progressive slip of the normal
fault segments within the most competent beds is there-
fore associated to pronounced opening-mode fracturing.
This process, widely reported in literature along normal
faults (e.g., DAVATZES & AYDIN, 2003; AGOSTA & AYDIN,
2006), involves localized jointing at the extensional quad-
rants of mode-II propagating shear fractures. To corrobo-
rate this interpretation, it is noted that the number of
joints within and around the releasing jogs tends to rise
with increasing fault slip.
In light of the aforementioned fault-related jointing of
the most competent beds, and interpreting the evolving
fault segments as original sheared pss localized in the less
competent beds (wackestones), the latter features are
interpreted as the oldest structural elements for a few rea-
sons. First, where they connect, joints abut against the
pss, which implies that the former features are younger.
Also, as stated above, the number of high-angle joints
within the most competent beds increases in proximity of
the Set 1 or Set 2 pss present in adjacent wackestone
beds; joint formation appears hence dependent upon pss.
Lastly, Set 1 and Set 2 pss are found within the wacke-
stone beds without a significant presence of nearby joints,
which implies that both Set 1 and Set 2 pss formed inde-
pendently of joints.
The documented relative timing of formation of the
two different fracture types, respectively joints within the
most competent beds and pss in the less-competent ones,
is not what a common experience would suggests for
fault zones that crosscut a mechanically layered sequence
of beds. In fact, when a multi-layer rock is subject to
strain, faults first generally form in the more competent
beds. Then, a further strain causes fault development
across the whole sequence (PEACOCK & SANDERSON,
1991; CHILDS et alii, 1996; WALSH et alii, 1998, 2003;
SCHÖPFER et alii, 2006, 2007; ROCHE et alii, 2012). Differ-
ently, in the study case we document an earlier formation
of pss, a time-dependent slow process, in the less compe-
tent beds , and the subsequent jointing, a dynamic brittle
process, of the most competent ones.
As noted in Section 5.1, both Set 1 and Set 2 pss
appear intimately related to the development of the flaser
fabric within the wackestone beds. In general, flaser
structures develop an ellipsoidal fabric during late stage
diagenesis through mechanical compaction and associ-
ated pressure solution (GARRISON & KENNEDY, 1977). For
this reason, we infer that this process took place during
burial diagenesis of the clay-rich limestone rocks, likely
under a lithostatic load smaller than 50 MPa (FERRILL &
MORRIS, 2008). Differently, the fault-related jointing,
which localized in the most competent beds, probably
occurred within an already lithified medium. The modali-
ties of normal fault evolution through competent beds by
mean of opening-mode fracturing will be discussed in the
next section.
Even if the field and laboratory data reported in the
previous chapters show many consistencies with the
results of previous studies, some key differences are high-
lighted. The two main study lithologies failed through
two markedly different mechanisms: (i) brittle jointing
(clay-poor limestone and dolostone), and (ii) ductile pres-
sure solution (clay-rich limestone). These two failure
mechanisms differ from the shearing-mode and mixed-
mode fracturing proposed in the past, among many others,
by TAYLOR & GRANT (2004) and FERRILL & MORRIS
(2008) to explain the scalloped vertical trace of normal
faults crosscutting similar carbonate multi-layers. Fur-
thermore, since the study normal faults developed by
linking sheared joints with sheared pss, it looks like that
dominant control on fault dip is the failure mechanism,
not the rock competency (FERRILL & MORRIS, 2003).
 THE ROLE OF MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY
It is also noted that the results of this work show a
positive correlation between clay/carbonate mud content
and the occurrence of pressure solution, as previously
suggested by FERRILL & MORRIS (2008). This correlation
is similar to that recently documented by RUSTICHELLI et
alii (2012) for bed-parallel pss present within the fine-
grained packstones of the Bolognano Formation (Majella
Mt., central Italy). The latter authors documented how
bed-parallel pss development was enhanced not only by
discrete amounts of clayish matrix (2-4% of total rock
volume), but also by the degree of sorting and sphericity
of the carbonate grains. COLLINS et alii (1992), on the
other hand, though that the clay distribution (particle
rimming versus pore filling) was more important than the
overall amount of clay for fracture development within
the Austin Chalk Formation of central Texas.
CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF NORMAL FAULT GROWTH ACROSS
A CARBONATE MULTI-LAYER
Taking into account the aforementioned discussion of
the data, a conceptual model of normal fault growth
across a carbonate multi-layer is proposed. Starting from
a background deformation made up of the flaser fabric
due to burial diagenesis (fig. 14a, steps 1 and 2), it is
noted that variations in grain type, such as coarse skeletal
grains, can define positions of the ellipsoids (WANLESS,
1979). It appears that this particular fabric determined
orientations particularly prone to failure along the flanks
of the limestone ellipses (fig. 14a, step 3). In the proposed
conceptual model, both Set 1 and Set 2 pss form weak
zones with an apparent conjugate geometry.
The most competent beds, dolostones (Upper Glen
Rose Formation) and packestones (Buda Formation), are
characterized by a small amount of pss and lead to fault
formation through other mechanisms. Being primarily
composed of crystalline dolomite and a very small
amount of clay, and therefore less susceptible to pressure
solution and other types of ductile behaviour (DONATH,
1970), in the proposed model these most competent beds
likely fail through opening-mode fracturing producing
joints. As previously noted, all the study normal faults
that transect the most competent beds appear to do so by
incorporating high-angle joints within releasing jogs. Dif-
ferently, despite the restraining jogs exhibit splay joints
associated with individual normal fault segments, they do
not develop into fracture clusters and thus larger offset
normal faults. As discussed below, the mechanical con-
trasts of the lithologies does not facilitate the fault devel-
opment by mean of restraining jog configurations.
Evolutionary fault scenarios offer some explanations
for the development of normal faults across the carbonate
multi-layer and their resulting jog geometries. Two end-
member evolutionary scenarios are proposed. The pss
in the wackestone beds intercept the most competent
ones forming either releasing jogs (fig. 14b, step 1) or
restraining jogs (fig. 14c, step 1). Each scenario involves
the sequential formation and shearing of splay fractures
(figs. 14b and c, steps 2 and 3) resulting in the jog confi-
guration observed in the field (figs. 14b and c, step 4).
In the case of an initial releasing jog (fig. 14b, step 1),
the sheared pss form splay joints when intercepting the
most competent beds (fig. 14b, step 2). This process,
which invokes a parent sheared fracture-splay relation-
ship widely documented for normal faults in layered car-
437
bonate rocks (cf. AGOSTA et alii, 2009, and references
therein), determines formation of splay joints at the
extensional quadrants of the sheared fractures. Such
splay joints are characterized by power-law spacing and
length multi-scale distributions (AGOSTA et alii, 2010).
Then, the splay joints dilate and propagate sub-perpen-
dicular to bedding while slip continues to accumulate
along the sheared pss.
Upon transecting the entire most competent bed, due
to bed tilting as a consequence of the aforementioned slip
accumulation in the adjacent sheared pss, the splay joints
also begin to shear forming splay pss at their contrac-
tional quadrants where they tip out in the less competent
beds (fig. 14b, step 3). Formation of splay pss due to
shearing of a parental fracture has been already reported
for carbonate rocks by RISPOLI (1981), GRAHAM et alii
(2003), AGOSTA & AYDIN (2006), AGOSTA (2008), and
ANTONELLINI et alii (2008). An apparent conjugate set of
pss forms, more or less, contemporaneously with this
stage of deformation along the pre-existing zones of
weakness defined by the flaser fabric. Although the exam-
ple in fig. 14b shows the primary fault as a Set 1 pressure
solution seam, an analogous process can also be inferred
for the Set 2 pss. In this case, the Set 2 acts as the pri-
mary fault segments while the Set 1 pss as the apparent
conjugate set.
In the case of a restraining jog (fig. 14c, steps 1 and 2),
no mechanism is readily available for aiding normal
faults to propagate across the most competent beds.
Nevertheless, joints may propagate across these beds in
an analogous manner as in the releasing jog configura-
tion. Upon transecting the most competent beds, due to
bed tilting as discussed above, one of the fault segments
may instigate a releasing jog forming an additional pss in
the adjacent most competent beds (fig. 14c, step 3).
CONCLUSIONS
We documented the inner architecture of small-offset
normal faults that crosscut the Upper Glen Rose and Buda
Formations of central Texas, USA. These normal faults are
characterized by scalloped vertical traces, and developed
within a multi-layer comprised of more competent (dolo-
stones and packestones) and less competent (wackestones)
carbonate beds. The nature, attitude, geometry, distribu-
tion, and relative timing of formation of the several struc-
tural elements present within the fault zones has been
investigated by integrating field structural analysis, optical
microscopy observations and SEM investigations.
The results are consistent with presence of two main
structural elements, joints/veins and pressure solution
seams. Opening-mode fractures, joints/veins, localized
mainly within the grain-supported or crystalline beds,
which formed the most competent units of the carbonate
multi-layer. Some of the original joints were later filled
with a calcite cement precipitated by mineralizing fluids.
Pressure solution, differently, focussed within the matrix-
supported carbonate beds forming two different sets of
pressure solution seams, which formed an apparent con-
jugate geometry. Based upon the relative timing of forma-
tion of the aforementioned structural elements, assessed
by means of detailed mapping of key outcrops, a concep-
tual model of normal fault growth across a carbonate
multi-layer was then proposed.
438 F. AGOSTA ET ALII

Fig. 14 - Conceptual model of fault growth across a carbonate multi-layer: (a) Map-based conceptualization of the formation of Set 1 and Set 2
pressure solution seams in the Upper Glen Rose; (a1) Formation of initial, primarily bed parallel pressure solution seams with locally sinu-
soidal geometry in a wackestone bed; (a2) Continued pressure solution compartmentalizes the wackestone bed into limestone ellipsoids and
pressure solution seams, forming flaser fabric. This arrangement of the pressure solution seams creates weak zones prone to slip; (a3) Set 1
and Set 2 sheared pressure solution seams localize along the weak zones. A photograph of the traced flaser fabric along with the two shear
zones is shown for comparison; (b, c) Modalities of normal fault growth in correspondence of a releasing and restraining jog geometry,
respectively. See text for details.
 THE ROLE OF MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY
Based upon the jog geometries formed by the pre-
existing pressure solution seams, the proposed model
considered two end-members evolutionary scenarios.
Each scenario involved the sequential shearing and for-
mation of splay fractures. The pressure solution seams,
mainly present within the wackestone beds, intercepted
the most competent ones forming either releasing or
restraining jogs. In the first case, the sheared pressure
solution seams formed splay joints when intercepting the
most competent beds. The latter structural elements,
could eventually dilate and propagate sub-perpendicular
to bedding while slip accumulated along the sheared
parental structure. Upon transecting the entire most com-
petent bed, due to bed tilting, the splay joints could also
undergo to shear forming splay pressure solution seams
at their contractional quadrants when tipping out in the
less competent beds. In the case of restraining jogs, no
mechanism was available for aiding normal faults to
propagate across the most competent beds.
We annotate that a good understanding of the geome-
try, dimension, aperture distribution and overall architec-
ture of normal faults that crosscut a carbonate multi-
layer could aid in the exploration as well as the
management of subsurface geofluids. In fact, all geolo-
gists dealing with oil, gas and water resources would ben-
efit of the knowledge derived from detailed studies of the
processes associated to fault growth. In particular, for a
carbonate multi-layer characterized by a pronounced
lithological variation, the knowledge gained from this
work may help to better assess the discrete volumes in
which opening-mode deformation may have clustered
during the fault growth. In fact, a good prediction of the
subsurface distribution of releasing jogs would be benefi-
cial in order to target spots characterized by high values
of splay joint frequency and, hence, connected fracture
porosity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was initially supported by a grant provided by
Anadarko Petroleum Corporation and the Stanford Rock Project.
We thank Andrea Brogi and an anonymous referees for the careful
revision of the text, David Ferrill and Alan Morris for introducing us
to the Buda Limestone, and Jim Grant for the help provided during
the first phase of the project. Bob Jones provided tremendously
helpful instruction in using scanning electron microprobe. Bill
Ward graciously discussed some carbonate nomenclature and fossil
identification.
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