!

N°d’ordre NNT : xxx

THESE de DOCTORAT DE L’UNIVERSITE DE LYON

opérée au sein de
IAE Lyon III

Ecole Doctorale N° 486

L’Ecole Doctorale Sciences Economiques et de Gestion

Doctorat de Science de Gestion et des Systemes d’Information

Soutenue publiquement le 23 Septembre 2016, par :

Stephane RIBOT

Adoption of Big Data And

Cloud Computing Technologies
for Large Scale Mobile Traffic Analysis
Devant le jury composé de :
Directeurs de thèse : Danielle BOULANGER,
Professeur émérite, Université Jean Moulin Lyon3

Jean-Fabrice LEBRATY
Professeur des Universités, Université Jean Moulin Lyon3

Rapporteurs : Frédérique BIENNIER

Professeur à l’INSA de Lyon

Régis MEISSONIER
Professeur des Universités, Université de Montpellier

Suffragant : Marc FAVIER

Professeur des Universités, Université de Grenoble Alpes

"

v"
 "

vi"
 "

Acknowledgements
This! thesis! would! not! have! come! to! fruition! without! the! assistance! and! support! of! ad5
visors,!colleagues,!family,!friends!and!other!supporters.!I!sincerely!appreciate!the!oppor5
tunity! that! the! IAE! Lyon! III! has! afforded! me! to! study! Information! System! and! Manage5
ment,!Big!Data!and!Cloud!Infrastructure.!!

I!also!thank!my!thesis!supervisors!Professor'Danielle'Boulanger'and'Professor'Jean2
Fabrice' Lebraty! for! their! valuable! advice,! guidance! and! feedback! that! enabled! me! to!
continuously!improve!this!dissertation.!I!appreciate!that!they!steered!me!in!the!right!di5
rection!while!allowing!this!paper!to!be!my!own!creation.!In!addition,!I!am!grateful!for!the!
members! of! my! thesis! advisory! committee! Professors' Frédérique' Biennier,' Régis'
Meissonnier'and'Marc'Favier!for!reviewing!my!thesis!and!providing!helpful!direction!
and!feedback.!!

Having! the! support! of! my! family! and! friends! during! this! journey! has! been! particularly!
beneficial.!I!want!to!express!my!deep!gratitude!to!my!wife!for!her!unwavering!confidence!
in! me! during! this! challenging! yet! rewarding! process.! Her! unfailing! support! and! conti5
nuous!encouragement!throughout!my!years!of!study!and!the!process!of!researching!and!
writing!this!thesis!has!been!crucial!to!my!success.!I!also!thank!my!children!for!their!pa5
tience!and!understanding!as!my!time!has!been!divided!with!a!lot!of!my!free!time!being!
consumed!by!the!preparation!of!this!thesis.!!

vii"
 "

Finally,! I! want! to! recognize! everyone! who! participated! in! the! process! by! agreeing! to!
answer!the!surveys,!providing!encouragement,!giving!guidance!or!otherwise!motivating!
me!in!some!way!to!accomplish!this!goal.!This!accomplishment!would!not!have!been!pos5
sible!without!them.!

viii"
 "

"

"

Abstract
A!new!economic!paradigm!is!emerging!as!a!result!of!enterprises!generating!and!mana5
ging!increasing!amounts!of!data!and!looking!for!technologies!like!cloud!computing!and!
Big! Data! to! improve! data5driven! decision! making! and! ultimately! performance.! Mobile!
service!providers!are!an!example!of!firms!that!are!looking!to!monetize!the!collected!mo5
bile!data.!!

To!make!meaningful!progress,!sometimes!scientists!need!to!consider!previous!research!
and! how! it! can! be! adapted! to! address! today’s! challenges.! This! thesis! studies! two! new!
technologies!–!cloud!computing!and!Big!Data!–!through!the!lens!of!past!research!by!such!
social! science! giants! as! Goodhue! and! Davis! as! well! as! more! recent! influencers! such! as!
Thompson,! Venkatesh,! Dishaw! and! Strong! as! well! as! DeLone! and! McLean.! We! use! the!
Task5Technology!Fit!(TTF)!theory!to!examine!the!drivers!and!consequences!of!successful!
task!completion!by!data!scientists!in!the!context!of!mobile!data!traffic!analysis.!

The!purpose!of!this!thesis!is!to!address!the!research!question:!

5! To! what! extent! does! cloud! computing! and! Big! Data! technology! contribute! to! the!
tasks!undertaken!by!data!scientists?!

In! answering! this! question,! we! address! cloud! computing! and! Big! Data! together! for! the!
first! time,! particularly! in! the! context! of! mobile! service! providers.! In! order! to! uncover!

ix"
 "

what!is!needed!to!create!a!new!user!adoption!model,!we!study!scientific!research!on!mo5
bile!traffic!analysis!as!it!relates!to!Big!Data!and!cloud!computing.!In!addition!to!consider5
ing! existing! architectures! and! their! limitations,! we! examine! the! current! research! on!
cloud5based!architectures!and!current!conclusions.!To!gain!a!thorough!understanding!of!
Big!Data!and!how!it!should!be!addressed,!we!delve!into!the!various!aspects!of!Big!Data,!
define!the!data!value!chain,!identify!major!Big!Data!tools!and!determine!the!main!chal5
lenges!of!Big!Data!analysis!and!the!criticisms!of!the!previous!research.!!

Our! thesis! explores! cloud! computing! determinants! of! adoption! and! Big! Data! determi5
nants!of!adoption!at!the!user!level.!Identifying!the!determinants!of!cloud!computing!and!
Big!Data!adoption!is!about!as!straightforward!as!defining!the!technologies!and!identify5
ing! their! key! characteristics.! We! also! define! the! role! of! the! data! scientist.! Previous!
research!shows!that!data!scientists!have!inherently!broad!roles!and!can!fall!into!multiple!
subgroups!with!varying!levels!of!expertise.!Data!scientists!possess!the!aggregated!skillset!
and! understanding! that! enables! them! to! extract,! analyze! and! visualize! data! in! order! to!
bring!real!value!to!the!company.!!

In!this!thesis,!we!employ!a!quantitative!research!methodology!and!operationalized!using!
a! cross5sectional! survey! so! temporal! consistency! could! be! maintained! for! all! the! varia5
bles.!The!TTF!model!was!supported!by!results!analyzed!using!partial!least!square!(PLS)!
structural!equation!modeling!(SEM),!which!reflects!positive!relationships!between!indi5
vidual,!technology!and!task!factors!on!TTF!for!mobile!data!analysis.!!

Our!research!makes!two!contributions:!!the!development!of!a!new!TTF!construct!–!task5
Big! Data/cloud! computing! technology! fit! model! –! and! the! testing! of! that! construct! in! a!
model! overcoming! the! rigidness! of! the! original! TTF! model! by! effectively! addressing!
technology! through! five! subconstructs! related! to! technology! platform! (Big! Data)! and!
technology!infrastructure!(cloud!computing!intention!to!use).!Our!new!framework!takes!
into!account!factors!and!characteristics!for!Big!Data!and!cloud!computing,!task,!technolo5
gy,!individual,!TTF!and!utilization.!!

x"
 "

Based! on! a! hypotetico–deductive! approach,! and! supported! by! Adoption! Theories,! Our!
hypotheses! were! tested! using! the! input! from! a! survey! involving! 169! researchers,! who!
were! participants! to! Mobile! traffic! Analysis! Conferences! such! as! MIT! NetMob! and! the!
Orange! Data! for! Development! (D4D)! Challenge.! In! the! hypotheses,! we! address! the! cur5
rent!research!gaps!by!seeking!to!evaluate!the!TTF!in!relation!to!the!mobile!traffic!analyt5
ics!process,!Big!Data!applications,!Cloud!infrastructure,!the!individual!characteristics!re5
lated!to!the!data!scientist,!utilization!and!perceived!impact/results.!!

Our!research!and!study!uncovered!several!notable!main!and!secondary!findings.!!

•! The!main!finding!can!be!explained!as:!!“The!end!justifies!the!means.”!In!the!scope!
of!mobile!traffic!analysis,!using!Big!Data!and!cloud!technology!in!concert!with!one!
another!is!required.!If!we!want!to!progress,!we!have!to!not!only!use,!but!also!mas5
ter! both! of! those! technologies.! This! is! a! necessary! requirement! to! evolve! data5
driven! decision! making! for! mobile! service! providers.! Just! as! we! have! no! choice!
but! to! use! the! Internet,! Big! Data! and! cloud! computing! technology! will! become!
mandatory.!!
•! Secondarily,!and!contrary!to!the!current!hype,!we!found!that!only!data!value!and!
data!velocity!contribute!to!the!task5technology!fit.!Further,!the!idea!of!the!super!
scientist! is! unrealistic.! Organizations! should! become! much! more! specific! about!
the!role!of!the!data!scientist!and!the!resulting!expectations.!!
•! Finally,! individual! experience! and! competency! reflect! the! technology! adoption.!
Cloud! technology! exhibits! higher! significance! than! Big! Data,! which! exemplifies!
that! technology! maturity! increases! the! fit.! In! addition,! adoption! should! be! facili5
tated!with!a!tight!integration!between!Big!Data!and!cloud.!We!found!that!the!use!
of! cloud! infrastructure! very! significantly! and! positively! affects! the! implementa5
tion! effectiveness! of! Big! Data! applications! and! use! will! be! positively! related! to!
TTF.!

These!findings!provide!direction!to!mobile!service!providers!for!the!implementation!of!
cloud5based!Big!Data!tools!in!order!to!enable!data5driven!decision5making!and!monetize!

xi"
 "

the!output!from!mobile!data!traffic!analysis.!We!believe!the!proposed!model!can!be!gene5
ralized! enough! to! extend! the! recommendations! to! companies! who! intend! to! adopt! Big!
Data!and!cloud!computing!as!part!of!their!new!IT!capabilities.!!

Keywords!

Big! Data,! cloud! computing,! mobile! service! provider,! mobile! traffic! analysis,! knowledge!
discovery,!data!mining,!data!value!chain,!Diffusion!of!Innovation,!Technology!Acceptance!
Model! (TAM),! Task5Technology! Fit! (TTF),! IS! Success! Model,! Unified! Theory! of! Ac5
ceptance!and!Use!of!Technology.!
"

xii"
 !

Résumé
!!

L’émergence! de! technologies! Big! Data! et! Cloud! computing! pour! répondre! a!
l’accroissement!constant!de!la!complexité!et!de!la!diversité!des!données!constituent!un!
nouvel!enjeu!de!taille!pour!les!entreprises!qui!désormais!doivent!prendre!en!compte!ce!
nouveau! paradigme.! Les! fournisseurs! de! services! mobiles! sont! un! exemple! de! sociétés!
qui!cherchent!a!valoriser!et!monétiser!les!données!collectées!de!leur!utilisateurs!!

Cette!recherche!a!pour!objectif!d’analyser!ce!nouvel!enjeu!qui!allie!d’une!part!l’explosion!
du!nombre!des!données!a!analyser,!!a!d’autre!part,!!la!constante!émergences!de!nouvelles!
technologies! et! de! leurs! adoption.!Cette! thèse! adresse! spécifiquement! «Dans!
quelles!mesures!Cloud!Computing!et!Big!Data!contribuent!aux!projets!développés!pas!les!
Data!Scientists.!»!!

!!!!!En!premier!lieu,!nous!étudions!individuellement!les!determinants!de!l’adoption!de!ces!
deux! technologies! (! avantages,! critiques,! risques,! limites! ).! Ensuite,! nous! prenons! en!
compte!les!architectures!existantes!et!leurs!limitations!ainsi!que!la!recherche!actuelle!sur!
les! architectures! Cloud! Computing! !et! de! leurs! conclusions!actuelles.! Afin! d’obtenir! une!
compréhension! minutieuse! de! la! technologie! Big! Data! et! de! comment! l’aborder,! nous!
analysons! la! découverte! de! connaissances! et! l’exploration! de!données,! définissons! la!
chaine!de!valeur!de!données,!identifions!les!outils!principaux!de!Big!Data!et!expliquons!
les!enjeux!majeurs!de!l’analyse!de!Big!Data!ainsi!que!des!critiques!des!recherches!anté5
rieures.!De!plus,!nous!présentons!les!modèles!de!recherche!antérieurs!(!ou!leur!versions!
modifiées)! 5! tels! que:! l’Acceptation! du! Modèle!Technologique! (TAM),! TAM3! et! le! TTF!
(Task!Technology!Fit)5!que!généralement!les!chercheurs!utilisent!lorsqu’ils!étudient!Big!
Data.!

xiv"
 "

Sur!la!base!d’une!approche!hypothético5déductive!relayée!par!les!théories!classiques!de!
l’adoption,!les!hypothèses!et!le!modèle!conceptuel!sont!élaborés,!fondés!sur!l’adéquation!
de! la!tâche! et! de! la! technologie! (TTF)! inspiré! du! model! de! Goodhue! avec! des! facteurs!
proposés!incluant!Big!Data!et!du!Cloud!Computing,!la!tâche,!la!technologie,!l'individu,!le!
TTF,!!l’utilisation,! les! impact! réalisés.! Cette! thèse! aborde! sept! hypothèses! qui! adressent!
spécifiquement! les! faiblesses! des! modèles! précédents.!!Une! enquête! a! été! conduite! au5
près!de!169!chercheurs!contribuant!a!l’analyse!des!données!mobiles.!La!collecte!de!don5
nées! a! été! réalisée! à! l’aide! d’un! questionnaire!adressant! les! construits! théorisés! de! ces!
deux!technologies,!du!Data!Scientist,!De!l’utilisation!et!de!impacts!réalisés.!!Une!analyse!
quantitative! !a!été!effectuée!afin! de! démontrer! la! validité! des! mesures! effectuées! et!
d’établir!la!pertinence!du!modèle!théorique!proposé.!L’analyse!factorielle!confirmatoire!a!
été!utilisé!(Partial!least!square)!!pour!établir!les!corrélations!entre!les!construits.!!

Les!résultats!!soulignent!que!La!technologie!Big!Data!et!Cloud!Computing!est!une!condi5
tion!requise!pour!l’analyse!des!donnes!mobiles!:!

5!L'adoption!de!la!technologie!Big!Data!et!Cloud!Computing!par!le!“Data!Scientist”!prio5
rises!davantage!ses!besoins!et!donc!l’usage!que!l’impact!des!résultats!

5! Contrairement! aux! idées! préconçues,! seul! les! deux! caractéristiques! de! vélocité! et! de!
volume!et!non!pas!la!variété!des!données!importent!au!Data!Scientist!dans!son!choix!de!
technologie.!

5!!L’expérience!et!la!compétence!de!l’individu!reflètent!la!décision!d’adopter!une!techno5
logie!donnée.!Les!résultats!montrent!que!le!Cloud!Computing!revête!une!importance!plus!
grande!que!le!Big!Data,!en!ce!sens!que!la!maturité!technologique!représente!plus!d’enjeu!
et!augmente!les!chances!de!succès.!!

!5!Enfin,! la! complementarité! des! technologies! Big! Data! et! le! cloud! Computing! facilite!
l'adoption.!L’intégration!des!applications!de!Big!Data!est!d’autant!mieux!développée,!uti5
lisées!et!implémentées!si!elle!est!en!parfaite!adéquation!avec!le!cloud!computing.!!

xv"
 "

Cette! recherche! délivre! deux! contributions! majeures!:! le! développement! d'un! construit!
(TTF)!!specifique!au!Big!Data!et!Cloud!computing!et!la!validation!de!ce!construit!!dans!le!
modele! d’adéquation! des! technologies! Big! data! et! Cloud! Computing! et! de! l’analyse! des!
donnees!mobiles.!

xvi"
 !

Table'Of!Contents'
KEYWORDS!.....................................................................................................................................!XII"
LIST!OF!TABLES!...............................................................................................................................!24"
DEFINITIONS!AND!ACRONYMS!.......................................................................................................!27"
" INTRODUCTION!......................................................................................................!33"
1.1" RESEARCH"BACKGROUND"AND"PURPOSE"............................................................................................"34"
1.2" RESEARCH"PROBLEM"AND"GAPS"......................................................................................................."38"
1.3" RESEARCH"OBJECTIVES"..................................................................................................................."39"
1.4" RESEARCH"QUESTION"....................................................................................................................."40"
1.5" OVERVIEW"OF"RESEARCH"AND"STUDY"METHODOLOGY"........................................................................."41"
1.6" ORGANIZATION"OF"THE"THESIS"........................................................................................................."42"
1.7" CONTRIBUTION"TO"KNOWLEDGE"......................................................................................................"44"
" RESEARCH!BACKGROUND!.......................................................................................!45"
2.1" SEARCH"STRATEGY"........................................................................................................................."46"
2.2" DEFINING"THE"MOBILE"TRAFFIC"ANALYSIS"PROCESS"............................................................................."48"
2.2.1" Definition+&+Characteristics+of+Mobile+Service+Providers+....................................................+48"
2.2.2" Mobile+Traffic+Analysis+a+New+Field+of+Research+.................................................................+51"
2.2.3" Definition+and+Taxonomy+of+Mobile+Traffic+Analysis+...........................................................+53"
2.3" REPRESENTATION"OF"THE"ANALYTICAL"PROCESS".................................................................................."60"
2.3.1" The+Use+of+Cloud+as+Collection+and+Processing+Infrastructure+............................................+62"
2.3.2" Ethics,+Security+and+Compliance+..........................................................................................+67"
2.4" MSP"CHALLENGES"........................................................................................................................."69"
2.5" CONCLUSION"................................................................................................................................"69"
"
INVESTIGATION!OF!FACTORS!INFLUENCING!BIG!DATA!TECHNOLOGY!ADOPTION!....!73"
3.1" OVERVIEW"..................................................................................................................................."74"
3.2" BIG"DATA"DEFINITION"...................................................................................................................."75"
3.2.1" Characteristics+of+Big+Data+–+Volume,+Velocity+and+Variety+................................................+78"
3.3" BIG"DATA:""AN"EVOLUTION"OF"KNOWLEDGE"DISCOVERY"AND"DATA"MINING?"........................................."80"
3.3.1" Dispelling+the+terminology+confusion.+.................................................................................+80"
3.4" DATA"VALUE"CHAIN"......................................................................................................................."82"
3.4.1" Data+Acquisition+..................................................................................................................+85"
3.4.2" Information+Extraction+and+Cleaning+..................................................................................+85"
3.4.3" Data+Integration,+Aggregation+and+Representation+...........................................................+85"
3.5" BIG"DATA"TOOLS:" MAJOR DATA ANALYSIS ARCHITECTURES"......................................................"89"
3.5.1" Apache+Hadoop/MapReduce+..............................................................................................+89"
3.5.2" NoSQL+.................................................................................................................................+91"
3.5.3" Streaming+Platforms+...........................................................................................................+92"

xviii"
 "
3.5.4" Big+Data+Programming+Tools+..............................................................................................+93"
3.6" CHALLENGES"IN"BIG"DATA"ANALYSIS"—"CRITICISMS"............................................................................"93"
3.6.1" Dealing+with+Data+Lineage+and+Quality+..............................................................................+95"
3.6.2" Scale+....................................................................................................................................+96"
3.6.3" Timeliness+–+RealZTime+Analytics.+.......................................................................................+96"
3.6.4" Human+Collaboration+..........................................................................................................+97"
3.7" EXTERNAL"DATA"SOURCES"..............................................................................................................."98"
3.8" A"PERSPECTIVE"ON"THE"USE"AND"MISUSE"OF"BIG"DATA"........................................................................"99"
3.9" UNDERSTANDING"THE"FUNCTION"OF"DATA"SCIENTISTS"AND"ADOPTION"DETERMINANTS".........................."104"
3.9.1" The+Role+of+Data+Scientist+.................................................................................................+104"
3.10" THEORETICAL"PARADIGMS"FOR"BIG"DATA"TECHNOLOGY"ADOPTION"AT"THE"ORGANIZATION’S"LEVEL"........"109"
3.11" BIG"DATA"ADOPTION"ADVANTAGES".............................................................................................."112"
3.12" BIG"DATA"ADOPTION"BARRIERS"..................................................................................................."114"
3.13" BIG"DATA"ADOPTION"MODELS"...................................................................................................."115"
3.14" CONCLUSION"............................................................................................................................"116"
"
INVESTIGATION!OF!FACTORS!INFLUENCING!CLOUD!COMPUTING!TECHNOLOGY!
ADOPTION! 119"
4.1" OVERVIEW"................................................................................................................................."120"
4.2" CLOUD"COMPUTING"TRENDS"........................................................................................................."121"
4.3" CLOUD"SERVICE"MODELS".............................................................................................................."123"
IaaS,%PaaS%and%SaaS%Models+........................................................................................................+124"
4.4" BIG"DATA"AND"CLOUD"COMPLEMENTARITY"......................................................................................"125"
4.5" CLOUD"COMPUTING"CHARACTERISTICS"AND"COMPONENTS"................................................................."127"
4.5.1" Taxonomy+of+Cloud+Computing+Benefits+...........................................................................+129"
4.6" THE"DETERMINANTS"OF"CLOUD"COMPUTING"ADOPTION"...................................................................."130"
4.7" THEORETICAL"PARADIGMS"FOR"CLOUD"COMPUTING"TECHNOLOGY"ADOPTION"AT"THE"ORGANIZATION’S"LEVEL
" 134"
4.7.1" Diffusion+of+Innovation+(DOI)+............................................................................................+134"
4.7.2" TechnologyZOrganizationZEnvironment+(TOE)+..................................................................+135"
4.7.3" Technology+Acceptance+Model+(TAM)+and+TaskZTechnology+Fit+(TTF)+..............................+137"
4.8" CLOUD"COMPUTING"ADOPTION"ADVANTAGES".................................................................................."139"
4.9" CLOUD"COMPUTING"ADOPTION"BARRIERS"......................................................................................."143"
4.10" CONCLUSION"............................................................................................................................"145"
"
THEORETICAL!BACKGROUND!................................................................................!151"
5.1" RESOURCE"BASE"VIEW"THEORY"......................................................................................................"152"
5.1.1" Research+Objectives+..........................................................................................................+153"
5.1.2" Resource+Based+View+Model+.............................................................................................+153"
5.1.3" Main+Critics+.......................................................................................................................+154"
5.2" DIFFUSION"OF"INNOVATION"THEORY"..............................................................................................."155"
5.2.1" Rogers+Model+....................................................................................................................+155"
5.2.2" Model+Description+.............................................................................................................+155"

xix"
 "
5.2.3" Main+Results+.....................................................................................................................+156"
5.2.4" Contribution+Value+and+Limitations+of+Model+...................................................................+157"
5.3" DELONE"AND"MCLEAN"IS"SUCCESS"MODEL"......................................................................................"158"
5.3.1" Research+Objectives+..........................................................................................................+158"
5.3.2" DeLone+and+McLean’s+Model+............................................................................................+158"
5.4" TECHNOLOGY"ACCEPTANCE"MODEL"................................................................................................"161"
5.4.1" Davis+Model+......................................................................................................................+162"
5.4.2" Model+Description+.............................................................................................................+162"
5.4.3" Main+Results+.....................................................................................................................+163"
5.4.4" Main+critics+........................................................................................................................+164"
5.4.5" Model+Extensions+..............................................................................................................+166"
5.4.6" Value+and+limit+of+TAM+models+.........................................................................................+167"
5.5" TASKNTECHNOLOGY"FIT"................................................................................................................."167"
5.5.1" Goodhue+Model+................................................................................................................+167"
5.5.2" Model+description+.............................................................................................................+168"
5.5.3" Main+Results+.....................................................................................................................+169"
5.5.4" Contribution+Value+and+limitations+of+TTF+models+............................................................+170"
5.6" CONCLUSION".............................................................................................................................."172"
"
CONCEPTUAL!MODEL!FOR!BIG!DATA!AND!CLOUD!TECHNOLOGY!ADOPTION!........!181"
6.1" BIG"DATA"AND"CLOUD"COMPUTING"ADOPTION"FRAMEWORK"............................................................."182"
6.2" PROPOSED"FRAMEWORK"..............................................................................................................."183"
6.2.1" Proposed+Factors+for+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Adoption+TTF+factors+influencing+Adoption+.....+184"
6.2.2" Proposed+Data+Analysis+Task+Characteristics+....................................................................+185"
6.2.3" Proposed+Factors+of+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+.......................................................+186"
6.2.4" Proposed+Factors+for+Individual+Characteristics+................................................................+187"
6.2.5" Proposed+Factors+for+TaskZTechnology+Fit+Characteristics+................................................+188"
6.2.6" Proposed+Factors+for+Utilization+Characteristics+...............................................................+188"
6.2.7" Perceived+Impacts+.............................................................................................................+189"
6.3" PROPOSED"CONCEPTUAL"MODEL"..................................................................................................."190"
6.4" CONCLUSION".............................................................................................................................."192"
"
RESEARCH!METHODOLOGY!..................................................................................!195"
7.1" RESEARCH"PHILOSOPHY"................................................................................................................"196"
7.2" EPISTEMOLOGY"..........................................................................................................................."197"
7.3" RESEARCH"APPROACH".................................................................................................................."197"
7.4" RESEARCH"STRATEGY"...................................................................................................................."198"
7.5" QUANTITATIVE"RESEARCH"............................................................................................................."199"
7.5.1" Research+Design+................................................................................................................+200"
7.5.2" Survey–based+Research+.....................................................................................................+201"
7.5.3" Measurement+Scale+Development+....................................................................................+203"
7.6" SURVEY"......................................................................................................................................"216"
7.6.1" Pre+test+D4D+Survey+...........................................................................................................+216"

xx"
 "
7.6.2" Survey+Process+...................................................................................................................+225"
7.7" DATA"ANALYSIS"METHOD"............................................................................................................."226"
7.7.1" Preliminary+Data+Analysis+.................................................................................................+226"
7.7.2" Structural+Equation+Modeling+(SEM)++&+Partial+Least+Square+...........................................+227"
7.7.3" Assessing+the+Measurement+Model+..................................................................................+230"
7.7.4" Assessing+the+Structural+Model+.........................................................................................+232"
7.8" CONCLUSION".............................................................................................................................."234"
"
DATA!ANALYSIS!AND!RESULTS!..............................................................................!237"
8.1" DATA"COLLECTION"......................................................................................................................."237"
8.2" DATA"ANALYSIS"..........................................................................................................................."238"
8.2.1" Data+Preparation+..............................................................................................................+238"
8.2.2" Data+Screening+..................................................................................................................+241"
8.2.3" Missing+Data+.....................................................................................................................+242"
8.2.4" Outliers+..............................................................................................................................+242"
8.2.5" Multicollinearity+................................................................................................................+244"
8.2.6" Sample+requirements+Z+Reassessment+..............................................................................+245"
8.3" RESULTS"....................................................................................................................................."247"
8.3.1" Formative+Measurement+Models+Evaluation+....................................................................+248"
8.3.2" Formative+Measurement+Model+Evaluation+.....................................................................+253"
8.3.3" Reflective+Measurement+Models+......................................................................................+256"
8.3.4" Evaluation+of+the+Overall+Measurement+Model+................................................................+259"
8.3.5" Structural+Model+Estimation+Results+.................................................................................+261"
8.4" CONCLUSION".............................................................................................................................."265"
"
DISCUSSION!AND!CONCLUSION!............................................................................!267"
9.1" ACHIEVED"RESULTS"IMPACTING"DECISIONS"TO"ADOPT"BIG"DATA"AND"CLOUD"........................................"268"
9.1.1" Task++Z>+TTF+Constructs+.....................................................................................................+268"
9.1.2" Technology+Z>+TTF+Constructs+...........................................................................................+271"
9.1.1" Individual+Z>+TTF+Construct+................................................................................................+274"
9.1.2" TTF+Z>+Utilization+and+Perceived+Impacts+..........................................................................+276"
9.1.3" Findings+Summary+.............................................................................................................+279"
9.2" DISCUSSION"OF"FACTORS"IMPACTING"BIG"DATA"AND"CLOUD"TECHNOLOGIES"ADOPTION"........................."280"
9.3" IMPLICATIONS"OF"THE"ADOPTION"AND"USE"OF"BIG"DATA"AND"CLOUD"TECHNOLOGY"TOOLS"IN"THE"SCOPE"OF"
MOBILE"TRAFFIC"ANALYSIS"....................................................................................................................."282"
9.4" CONCLUSION,"CONTRIBUTIONS,"LIMITATIONS"AND"FUTURE"WORK"......................................................."283"
9.4.1" Research+Problem+.............................................................................................................+283"
9.4.2" Research+Methodology+.....................................................................................................+285"
9.4.3" Research+Contributions+and+Implications+..........................................................................+286"
9.4.4" USE+CASE+1+Mobile+Provider+..............................................................................................+289"
9.4.5" USE+CASE+2+US+COMPANY+.................................................................................................+291"
9.4.6" Research+Limitations+.........................................................................................................+293"
9.4.7" Recommendations+for+Future+Work+..................................................................................+294"

xxi"
 "
REFERENCES!.................................................................................................................................!300"

xxii"
 "

List!of!Figures!
"

"

Figure"1"Most"CSP"are"in"early"stages"of"Big"Data"Developments."......................................"50"

Figure!2.!Proposed!classification!of!the!mobile!traffic!analysis!literature,!including!the!
spectrum!of!disciplines!related!to!topics."Ribot!et!al.![6]"..............................................."56"

Figure!3!Data!Life!Cycle!Model.!Turban!and!Volonino,!2010"........................................."60"

Figure! 4! IT! infrastructure! of! model! assessment! process! to! create! prediction! model,!
Hung!et#al."..........................................................................................................................."62"

Figure!5"BC5PDM!Architecture.!Yu!et#al.![13]"".................................................................."63"

Figure!6!Simplified!CDRs!Architecture!from!Device!to!Analytics.!Ribot!et#al.![6]"........."65"

Figure!7!Proposed!SOBI!Architecture!Ishaya!et#al.![34]".................................................."66"

Figure!8!Overview!of!the!steps!constituting!the!KDD!process,!Fayyad!et#al.![64]"........"85"

Figure"9"Blueprint"of"Hadoop"Data"platform"proposed"by"HortonWorks"2015".................."91"

Figure!10!Representation!of!Cloud!Computing!Delivery!models,!Ribot!2015"............"124"

Figure!11!!Cloud!Computing!usage!in!Big!Data.!source!Hashem!et!al.![122]"..............."126"

Figure!15!Goodhue's!Task5Technology!Fit!Model"........................................................."168"

Figure!17!Proposed!Model!based!on!Goodhue's!Task5Technology!Fit!Model"............."191"

Figure"18"Establishing"the"methodology"framework"based"on"Crotty"[297]"...................."196"

Figure!19!Path!Diagram!of!the!Task5Technology!Fit!Model,!Ribot!(2015)".................."229"

Figure!20!Use!case:!Proposed!Cloud!Based!Big!Data!Architecture."............................."292"

Figure!21!Evolution!of!Big!Data!and!Cloud!Computing!Research!applied!to!Large!Scale!
Mobile!Data!Analysis!Developed!for!this!research"........................................................"296"
"
"
"

xxiii"
 !

List!of!Tables!

Table!1!Definitions!of!Big!Data:!a!perspective!from!key!researchers"............................"77"

Table! 2! Returned! search! of! data! skillsets! requirements! per! categories! from! hiring!
companies!–!Ribot!2014".................................................................................................."108"

Table!3!Knowledge!and!Data!related!Adoption!models"................................................"110"

Table!4!Definitions!of!Cloud!Computing:!a!perspective!from!key!researchers"..........."122"

Table!5!Taxonomy!of!Cloud!Computing!Benefits!–!Ribot!2015"...................................."129"

Table!6!Cloud!Computing!Determinants!of!Adoption"..................................................."132"

Table!7!!!Studies!investigating!dominant!factors!of!enterprise!cloud!adoption.!Adapted!
and!Augmented!from!Oliveira!et#al.![143],!Phaphoom!et#al.![136]".............................."141"

Table!8!Cloud!Computing!in!the!literature,!Ribot!2015"................................................"148"

Table"9"Summary"Table"of"Key"Theories"Developed"in"this"Chapter"................................."152"

Table!10!Summary!of!Relevant!Studies!on!Task!Technology!Fit"................................."175"

Table!11!Survey!and!Listing!of!the!Measurement!Items!Used!in!the!Study"................"213"

Table!12!Participants!profile!per!Function!and!per!Regions"........................................"217"

Table!13!Researcher’s!Main!Analysis!goals/objectives"................................................"218"

Table!14!Researcher’s!main!functional!goal".................................................................."219"

Table!15!Researcher!Assigned!Responsibilities"............................................................"219"

Table"16"Most"important"technology"functions"or"features"for"the"researcher"..............."220"

Table!17!Data!infrastructure!used!by!the!researcher"..................................................."221"

Table!18!Data!Store!used!by!the!researcher".................................................................."221"

Table!19!Programming!language!used!by!the!researcher"............................................"222"

Table!20!Statistical!and!visualization!tools!used"..........................................................."222"

Table!21!Methods!used!as!part!of!the!analytics!process"..............................................."222"

Table!22!Most!important!analytics!functions/features!for!the!researcher"................."223"

Table!23!Survey!and!measurement!items"......................................................................"239"

Table!24:!!Inner!Values!5!Constructs!5!Variance!Inflation!Factors"................................"244"

Table!25!Basic!Descriptive!Statistics:!!Respondents!profile"........................................."247"

24"
""
Table! 26! Results! of! TTF! Dimension! Reduction! of! 19! TTF! Constructs! with! scale!
refinement"........................................................................................................................"250"

Table"27"KMO"and"Bartlett's"Test"......................................................................................"251"

Table!28!Rotated!Component!matrix"............................................................................."252"

Table! 29! Final! Results! of! TTF! Dimension! Reduction! of! 17! Constructs:! Final! reliability!
testing"..............................................................................................................................."253"

Table!30!Reliability!and!validity!measures!for!formative!constructs".........................."254"

Table!31!Results!summary!for!reflective!measurement!models."................................."257"

Table!32!Fornell5Larcker!Criterion,!Correlation!of!the!Latent!Variables"...................."258"

Table!33!Summary!Table:!Psychometrics!properties!from!latent!variables!using!Partial!
Least!Square!Analysis"......................................................................................................"259"

Table!34!Path!Coefficients,!Standard!Errors!and!T5Tests."............................................"261"

Table!36!Structural!Model!Direct!and!Indirect!and!Total!Effects"................................."264"

Table!37!Summary!of!the!Task!Characteristics!Measurements"..................................."269"

Table!38!Summary!of!the!Big!Data!Technology!Measurements"..................................."271"

Table!39!Summary!of!the!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Measurements"...................."273"

Table!40!Summary!of!the!Individual!Characteristics!Measurements".........................."274"

Table!41!Summary!of!the!Perceived!Impacts!Measurements"......................................"277"

Table!42!Summary!of!the!Utilization!Measurements"...................................................."278"

Table!43!Overview!of!the!hypotheses!testing"................................................................"279"

25"
 !

Definitions!and!Acronyms!

To!maintain!consistency!throughout!the!thesis,!we!present!a!quick!summary!of!key!terms!
used!in!this!dissertation.!Abbreviations!are!used!interchangeably.!!

Amazon'Elastic'Computer'Cloud'(Amazon'EC2):!!Amazon!Elastic!Compute!Cloud!(Am5
azon! EC2)! is! a! web! service! that! provides! resizable! compute! capacity! in! the! cloud.! It! is!
designed!to!make!web5scale!cloud!computing!easier!for!developers.!

Analytical'process:!!Methods!used!to!perform!an!analysis!of!an!event!or!situation.!
'

Average' revenue' per' user' (ARPU):! ! Average! revenue! per! user! (sometimes! known! as!
average!revenue!per!unit)!is!a!measure!used!primarily!by!consumer!communications!and!
networking!companies,!defined!as!the!total!revenue!divided!by!the!number!of!subscrib5
ers.!

Average' margin' per' user' (AMPU):! ! Average! margin! per! user! measures! the! margin!
made!by!the!firm!from!each!customer,!typically!measured!as!the!revenue!minus!the!costs!
and!divided!by!the!number!of!users.!

Back'propagation'neural'network'(BPNN):!!The!back!propagation!neural!network!al5
gorithm!is!a!multi5layer!feed!forward!network!trained!according!to!error!back!propaga5
tion!algorithm!and!is!one!of!the!most!widely!applied!neural!network!models.!

Big'Data:!!Big!Data!is!a!broad!term!for!data!sets!so!large!or!complex!that!traditional!data!
processing!applications!are!inadequate.!Challenges!include!analysis,!capture,!data!cura5
tion,!search,!sharing,!storage,!transfer,!visualization,!and!information!privacy.!

27"
""

Business'support'systems'(BSS):!!Business!support!systems!are!the!components!that!a!
telecommunications! service! provider! (or! telco)! uses! to! run! its! business! operations! for!
the!benefit!of!customers.!

Business' intelligence' &' analytics' (BI&A):! ! Business! intelligence! and! analytics! com5
bines!the!set!of!techniques!and!tools!for!the!transformation!of!raw!data!into!meaningful!
and!useful!information!with!the!practice!of!iterative,!methodical!exploration!of!an!organ5
ization’s!data!with!emphasis!on!statistical!analysis.!!!

Call' detail' records' (CDR):! ! A! data! record! produced! by! a! telephone! exchange! or! other!
telecommunications! equipment! that! documents! the! details! of! a! telephone! call! or! other!
communications! transaction! (e.g.,! text! message)! that! passes! through! that! facility! or! de5
vice.!

Cloud'computing:!!The!practice!of!using!a!network!of!remote!servers!hosted!on!the!In5
ternet!to!store,!manage,!and!process!data,!rather!than!a!local!server!or!a!personal!com5
puter.!!

Communications'service'provider'(CSP):!!A!communications!service!provider!is!a!ser5
vice! provider! that! transports! information! electronically,! for! example! a! telecommunica5
tions!service!provider.!

Common'warehouse'metadata'(CWM):!!The!Common!Warehouse!Metamodel!defines!a!
specification!for!modeling!metadata!for!relational,!non5relational,!multi5dimensional,!and!
most!other!objects!found!in!a!data5warehousing!environment.!

Customer'relationship'management'(CRM):!!Customer!relationship!management!is!an!
approach!to!managing!a!company's!interaction!with!current!and!future!customers.!It!of5
ten! involves! using! technology! to! organize,! automate,! and! synchronize! sales,! marketing,!
customer!service!and!technical!support.!

Data2driven' decision2making' (DDD):! ! Data5driven! decision5making! refers! to! the! col5

lection!and!analysis!of!data!to!guide!decisions!that!improve!business!success.!

28"
""

Extract,'transform'and'load'(ETL):!!In!computing,!Extract,!Transform!and!Load!refers!
to!a!process!in!database!usage!and!especially!in!data!warehousing!that!extracts!data!from!
homogeneous!or!heterogeneous!data!sources.!

Geographic'Information'System'(GIS):!!A!geographic!information!system!(GIS)!is!a!sys5
tem! designed! to! capture,! store,! manipulate,! analyze,! manage,! and! present! all! types! of!
spatial!or!geographical!data.!

Health' Insurance' Portability' and' Accountability! (HIPPA):! ! The! Health! Insurance!

Portability! and! Accountability! Act! of! 1996! comprises! two! main! components.! Title! I! of!
HIPAA! protects! health! insurance! coverage! for! workers! and! their! families! when! they!
change! or! lose! their! jobs.! Title! II! of! HIPAA,! known! as! the! Administrative! Simplification!
provisions,! requires! the! establishment! of! national! standards! for! electronic! health! care!
transactions!and!national!identifiers!for!providers,!health!insurance!plans,!and!employ5
ers.!

Hadoop'distributed'file'system'(HDFS):!!With!a!Hadoop!distributed!file!system,!data!in!
a! Hadoop! cluster! is! broken! down! into! smaller! pieces! (called! blocks)! and! distributed!
throughout! the! cluster.! In! this! way,! the! map! and! reduce! functions! can! be! executed! on!
smaller!subsets!of!your!larger!data!sets,!and!this!provides!the!scalability!that!is!needed!
for!Big!Data!processing.!

Institute'of'Electrical'and'Electronics'Engineers'(IEEE):!!The!world’s!largest!profes5
sional!association!for!the!advancement!of!technology.!

IP' detailed' records' (IPDR):! ! In! telecommunications,! an! IP! Detail! Record! (IPDR)! pro5
vides! information! about! Internet! Protocol! (IP)5based! service! usage! and! other! activities!
that! can! be! used! by! Operational! Support! Systems! (OSS)! and! Business! Support! Systems!
(BSS).!

IT' capabilities:! ! The! ability! to! use! a! wide! range! of! IT! assets! and! know5how! to! create!
business!value.!

29"
""

Knowledge' discovery' in' databases' (or' data)' (KDD):! ! Knowledge! discovery! in! data5
bases!(or!data)!is!the!process!of!discovering!useful!knowledge!from!a!collection!of!data.!
This!widely!used!data!mining!technique!is!a!process!that!includes!data!preparation!and!
selection,! data! cleansing,! incorporating! prior! knowledge! on! data! sets! and! interpreting!
accurate!solutions!from!the!observed!results. !

Long'Term'Ecological'Research'Network'(LTERN):!!The!LTERN!facility!integrates!key!
established!plot!networks!across!Australia!to!tackle!critical!questions!associated!with!the!
impacts!of!disturbance!on!Australian!ecosystems.!

Mobile' traffic' analysis' (MTA):! ! The! study! of! the! massive! traffic! datasets! collected! by!
mobile!service!providers!to!improve!the!understanding!of!large5scale!natural!or!techno5
logical! phenomena.”! Our! definition! applies! only! to! data! collected! by! the! provider! and!
does!not!take!into!account!data!collected!on!the!subscriber’s!side!by!a!third5party!appli5
cation.!

Mobile' service' providers' (MSP):! ! A! mobile! service! provider! is! a! company! that! offers!
mobile!communication!services!to!users!of!mobile!devices!such!as!smartphones!and!tab5
let!PCs.!

Mobile' virtual' network' operator' (MVNO):! ! A! mobile! virtual! network! operator!

(MVNO),! or! mobile! other! licensed! operator! (MOLO),! is! a! wireless! communications! ser5
vices! provider! that! does! not! own! the! wireless! network! infrastructure! over! which! the!
MVNO!provides!services!to!its!customers.!!!!!!

Not' only' Standard' Query' Language' (NoSQL):! ! A! NoSQL! database! provides! a! mecha5
nism! for! storage! and! retrieval! of! data! that! is! modeled! in! means! other! than! the! tabular!
relations!used!in!relational!databases.!

Operations' or' Operational' Support' Systems' (OSS):! ! Operations! support! systems,! or!
operational!support!systems!in!British!usage,! are!computer!systems!used!by!telecommu5
nications!service!providers!to!manage!their!networks!(e.g.,!telephone!networks).!

30"
""

Partial'Least'Squares!(PLS):!!Partial!Least!Squares!is!a!variance5based!structural!equa5
tion!modeling!method.!!!!!

Perceived' usefulness! (PU):! ! Davis! defined! “perceived! usefulness”! as! "the! degree! to!
which!a!person!believes!that!using!a!particular!system!would!enhance!his!or!her!job!per5
formance.”!

Perceived'ease'of'use'to'read!(PEOUR):!!Davis!defined!“perceived!ease!of!use”!as!“the!
degree!to!which!a!person!believes!that!using!a!certain!system!will!be!free!of!effort.”!“Per5
ceived!ease!of!use!to!read”!reflects!a!person!finding!that!reading!reports!from!business!
intelligence!will!be!free!of!effort.!

Perceived'ease'of'use'to'create!(PEOUC):!!Davis!defined!“perceived!ease!of!use”!as!“the!
degree!to!which!a!person!believes!that!using!a!certain!system!will!be!free!of!effort.”!“Per5
ceived!ease!of!use!to!create”!reflects!a!person!finding!that!creating!reports!from!business!
intelligence!will!be!free!of!effort.!

Predictive'model'markup'language'(PMML):!!The!Predictive!Model!Markup!Language!
is! an! XML5based! file! format! developed! by! the! Data! Mining! Group! to! provide! a! way! for!
applications! to! describe! and! exchange! models! produced! by! data! mining! and! machine!
learning!algorithms.!

Radio2frequency'identification'(RFID):!!Radio5frequency!identification!is!the!wireless!
use!of!electromagnetic!fields!to!transfer!data,!for!the!purposes!of!automatically!identify5
ing!and!tracking!tags!attached!to!objects.!

Task2technology'fit'(TTF):!!The!task–technology!fit!(TTF)!model!serves!as!the!theoreti5
cal!framework!to!study!the!relation!between!TTF,!utilization!and!perceived!benefits. !!!

Technology' acceptance' model' (TAM):! ! The! technology! acceptance! model! is! an! infor5
mation!systems!theory!that!models!how!users!come!to!accept!and!use!a!technology.!The!
model!suggests!that!when!users!are!presented!with!a!new!technology,!a!number!of!fac5
tors! influence! their! decision! about! how! and! when! they! will! use! it,! such! as:! ! subjective!

31"
""

norm,!job!relevance,!image,!output!quality,!result!demonstrability,!experience,!perceived!
usefulness,!perceived!ease!of!use,!intention!to!use.!

32"
 !

! Introduction!

This#new#exploratory#research#focuses#on#the#adoption#factors#of#cloud#computing#and#Big#
Data#technologies#and#the#fit#between#them,#the#task#and#its#users#in#the#context#of#mobile#
service# providers.# For! this! research,! we! thoroughly! examine! earlier! theories,! and! their!
determinants,! related! to! technology! and! user! adoption,! such! as:! Goodhue’s! Task5
Technology! Fit! model! developed! in! 1988! and! modified! with! Thompson! in! 1995;! Davis’!
Technology!Acceptance!model!created!in!1985!and!modified!with!Venkatesh!in!1996;!the!
combined! TTF5TAM! model! developed! by! Dishaw! and! Strong! in! 1999;! Innovation! Diffu5
sion! Theory;! Unified! Theory! of! Acceptance! and! Use! of! Technology;! and! the! IS! Success!
Model!developed!by!DeLone!and!McLean!in!1992.!Each!of!these!theories!are!rigorously!
considered!in!light!of!the!two!new!technologies!that!are!being!studied!–!cloud!computing!
and!Big!Data!–!in!order!to!determine!how!these!models!can!contribute!to!a!new!model!
that!can!address!the!characteristics!and!challenges!of!these!technologies.!!

This!chapter!introduces!the!scope!the!research,!its!objectives!and!the!research!question!
and!outlines!of!the!thesis.!Section!1.1!introduces!the!research!background!and!purpose!of!
two!new!technologies!presented!in!the!context!of!mobile!services!providers!in!need!of!an!
analytical! process! to! gain! insights! from! data! that! will! enable! data5driven! decision5

33"
Introduction!

making.!In!Section!1.2,!we!identify!the!research!problem!and!gaps.!Section!1.3!identifies!
the!research!purpose!and!its!objectives.!The!research!question!is!defined!and!described!
in!Section!1.4.!!In!Section!1.5,!we!provide!an!overview!of!the!research!and!study!method5
ology,!the!research!objectives!and!the!resulting!research!question.!The!methodology!and!
the! thesis! outlines! are! presented! in! Section! 1.6.! The! chapter! concludes! with! academic!
and!practical!applications!and!potential!contributions.!!

1.1! Research!Background!and!Purpose!

In! this! time! of! network! ubiquity! and! utility! computing,! enterprises! are! generating! and!
managing!an!increasing!volume!of!data!from!about!every!part!of!the!organization.!As!a!
result,!a!new!economic!paradigm!is!emerging,!where!firms!are!increasingly!interested!in!
using! data! driven! science! to! improve! business! decision5making! and! ultimately! perfor5
mance.!!

In!less!than!a!decade,!two!key!technologies!cloud!computing!and!Big!Data!have!emerged!
and!are!regarded!as!a!potential!game!changing!innovations!for!enterprises.!The!first!one,!
cloud!computing,!offers!a!new!way!to!compute!large!amounts!of!data!on!demand,!provid5
ing!an!effective!way!for!firms!to!manage!their!infrastructure!more!efficiently.!The!second,!
Big!Data,!aims!at!delivering!new!capabilities!to!improve!the!decision!making!process!by!
delivering!new!business!insights!and!enabling!operational!optimization.!More!important5
ly,!exacerbated!and!fueled!by!open!source!software,!the!cost!of!these!new!technologies!is!
lowering!the!barrier!of!entries!for!new!and!smaller!entrants!to!gain!a!technology5based!
competitive! advantage.! Consequently,! the! pace! of! technology! adoption! is! accelerating!
rapidly.!Yet,!IT!organizations!are!facing!increasing!pressure!from!business!units!to!pro5
vide!effective!ways!to!access!and!compute!data.!!

While! academic! research! seems! to! indicate! a! positive! complementarity! between! both!
technologies,!challenges!remain.!The!number!of!use!cases!and!examples!of!implementa5
tion!in!business!organizations!still!remain!anecdotal.!!

34"
Introduction!

These! observations! are! further! confirmed! by! a! survey! conducted! by! the! University! of!
Oxford!and!IBM!research!center!in!2012!that!indicates!that!only!one5third!of!enterprises!
have!launched!Big!Data!pilot!activities!and!the!figure!is!only!about!28%!for!communica5
tion!services!providers.!Moreover,!two5thirds!of!respondents!indicated!that!the!two!key!
requirements!to!drive!a!Big!Data!program!were!information!integration!and!scalable!in5
frastructure.! The! report! also! indicates! that! the! growing! adoption! is! motivated! by! cus5
tomer5centric! objectives! such! as! transactions! improvements! and! to! a! lesser! extent! the!
opportunity!to!develop!new!products!or!markets.!!

Based!on!professional!experience!and!empirical!discussions,!we!chose!the!telecommuni5
cation! industry! and! more! specifically! mobile! service! providers! as! part! of! our! research!
background.! Historically,! mobile! service! providers! have! been! collecting! large! stream! of!
information!about!their!users!communication!patterns.!According!to!GSMA!(Groupe!Spe5
ciale! Mobile! Association)! ([1]),! 2013,! mobile! service! providers! supported! 3.4! billion!
global!users,!or!about!half!of!the!population.!The!smartphones!installed!base!is!estimated!
at! 2.89! billion! units.! Today,! mobile! devices! are! so! ubiquitous! that! they! have! become! a!
natural!extension!of!individual!communications!capabilities.!Those!communications!are!
characterized! not! only! by! voice! call,! but! also! short! messaging,! video! and! Internet! and!
represent! the! social! interactions! of! its! users.! ! Mobile! service! providers! are! logging! for!
billing!purposes!the!communications!transactions!of!each!user,!and!as!a!result,!they!have!
accumulated! a! tremendous! amount! of! data.! Bouillet! [2]! gives! an! example! of! an! Indian!
mobile!provider!processing!in!excess!of!6!billion!call!detail!records!per!day.!To!put!this!in!
perspective,! Visa,! the! global! technology! payments! company,! according! to! its! website! in!
2015,! handles! an! average! of! 150! million! credit! card! transactions! every! day! through!
VisaNet.!!

Davenport![3]!notes!that!unlike!the!banking!and!retail!industries,!telecom!providers!have!
largely!underused!these!customer!data!perhaps!due!to!their!semi5monopoly!status!and!
the!lack!of!IT!capabilities!to!process!these!data.!In!early!2000,!mobile!traffic!data!mining!

35"
Introduction!

was!limited!mostly!to!internal!optimization!such!as!network!management,!fraud!detec5
tion![4]!and!customer!churn!([5]).!This!trend!has!significantly!changed!after!2005;!mo5
bile! traffic! analysis,! in! itself,! has! emerged! as! a! new! field! of! research! and! academic! re5
search!has!grown!significantly!since!2010!([6]).!Researchers!have!developed!a!number!of!
use!cases!demonstrating!that!mobile!data!can!be!used!to!foster!economic!development.!A!
few!examples!below!demonstrate!the!magnitude!of!the!findings:!!!

5!Tizzoni!et#al.![7]!use!mobile!phone!data!to!identify!Europeans’!commuting!patterns!and!
human!movements!and!was!able!to!apply!an!epidemic!model!to!track!disease!transmis5
sion.!The!authors!also!demonstrate!the!mobile!data!based!commuting!networks!can!be!
used!in!place!of!census!based!commuting!networks;!this!can!be!especially!important!for!
developing!countries!where!census!data!is!not!available.!!

5! Calabrese! et# al.! [8]! investigate! how! events! in! the! city! of! Boston! are! detected! using!
crowd! mobility! patterns! from! mobile! call! detail! records! and! apply! machine! learning!
model.!More!interestingly,!the!authors!find!that!crowd!origins!vary!according!to!the!na5
ture!of!the!event.!

5!Hui!et#al.[9]!demonstrate!that!mobile!traffic!data!can!improve!the!understanding!of!the!
socio5economic!status!of!an!individual!or!a!geographic!region!and!find!a!correlation!be5
tween!a!region's!mobile!user!density!and!poverty.!

These! are! just! few! examples.! A! more! in5depth! survey! ([6]! has! identified! over! 200! key!
contributions! in! three! categories:! ! social,! mobility! and! network! analysis.! Nonetheless,!
these!results!have!important!implications!as!they!bring!a!better!understanding!of!coun5
tries’!social!fabric,!economic!development!and!local!communities.!United!Nations!is!ex5
ploring!opportunities!with!telecom!providers!on!how!to!use!and!share!large!datasets!to!
better!measure!their!program!outcomes!in!developing!countries.!

Consequently,!there!are!some!important!implications!for!mobile!service!providers:!!

36"
Introduction!

5!First,!they!have!been!assigned!to!an!ill5defined!task!that!means!that!the!task!has!little!
properly! established! scope.! There! is! still! large! uncertainty! on! how! mobile! service! pro5
viders! can! leverage! their! large! datasets! and! monetize! them! outside! of! their! organiza5
tions.!What!should!be!analyzed!and!for!what!purpose?!These!observations!are!substanti5
ated!by!the!multiple!initiatives!launched!in!recent!years!to!better!understand!how!to!use!
these!datasets:!!Orange!(2013,!2015)!has!introduced!Data!for!Development!challenge!for!
Ivory! Coast;! AT&T! (2014)! proposed! Hackathon! Developer! summit! on! transport! and!
home!connectivity;!Telefonica!organized!Big!Data!for!Good!in!collaboration!with!MIT!and!
Open!Data!Institute!(2014);!Telecom!Italia!made!available!Milan!and!Trento!mobile!da5
tasets! (2014),! as! well! as! datasets! from! 30! different! sources! including! public! transport,!
energy,!weather!and!events;!Nokia!(2012)!released!Lauzanne,!Geneva!mobile!datasets!as!
well!as!geographic!and!social!datasets.!!

5!Second,!there!is!a!need!to!determine!a!new!business!process!to!analyze!data!on!a!large!
scale.! The! mobile! services! providers! information! systems! are! essentially! designed! for!
billing! purpose! and! therefore! have! limited! analytical! capabilities.! These! limitations! in5
clude! long! queries! time,! the! inability! to! perform! ad! hoc! or! real! time! analysis,! a! limited!
call!detail!records!history!or!inability!to!meet!legal!compliance!requirements!such!data!
anonymity!when!shared!outside!of!the!company.!If!the!task!is!ill!defined,!its!characteris5
tics!must!be!adapted!or!integrated!into!a!new!analytical!process,!enabling,!for!example,!
the! accessibility! to! multiple! datasets! (voice,! data,! messaging)! and! real5time! data.! As! a!
result,!the!business!processes!need!to!be!altered!or!reconsidered!to!address!the!new!re5
quirements.!In!turn,!IT!capabilities,!such!as!who!has!the!knowledge!and!skills!to!perform!
the! analysis!and! what! are! the! analytical! applications! required,! may! need! to! be! updated!
[10].!In!this!case,!both!IT!capabilities!and!the!business!process!present!major!challenges!
and!need!to!be!changed,!the!disruption!can!lead!to!new!form!of!organization.!For!exam5
ple,!Telefonica!and!Verizon!have!set!up!separate!entities,!respectively!Dynamic!Insights!
Telefonica!and!Verizon!Precision!Market!Insights,!to!deal!with!mobile!datasets!and!mon5
etize!it.!While!it!is!difficult!to!know!why!these!two!companies!made!the!decision!to!have!

37"
Introduction!

separate!entities,!the!“disruptive”!literature!suggests!that!organizational!spinout!results!
from!the!lack!of!fit!with!the!organization’s!processes!and!values![11].!!

5!Lastly,!the!IT!infrastructure,!which!is!also!part!of!the!IT!capabilities,!must!deal!with!new!
requirements!to!process,!transfer!and!exchange!data.!Mobile!service!providers!use!typi5
cally! large! data! warehouse! optimized! to! collect,! mediate! and! store! the! data! in! a! well5
structured!process.!However,!those!systems!are!not!designed!to!meet!new!goals,!such!as!
on! demand! computation,! large5scale! data! management! systems! and! more! generally!
providing!collaborative!functionalities!to!their!users.!According!to!Laszewsky![12],!China!
Mobile! Communications! Corporation! (CMCC)! processed! 7! petabytes! of! support! service!
data!in!2012,!and!!one!of!the!31!branches!of!the!company!can!generate!up!to!16!terabyte!
of!mobile!call!details!records!for!20!millions!users.!The!magnitude!of!the!data!is!so!large!
that!the!centralized!infrastructure!is!unable!to!scale!analytics!requirements!([13],![14]).!
Comparing! different! types! of! infrastructure,! researchers! ([15],! [16],! [17])! outline! that!
cloud! computing! infrastructure! capabilities! may! be! better! suited! to! process! large!
amounts!of!data.!!

1.2! Research!Problem!and!Gaps!

Academic!research!suggests!several!theoretical!models!dealing!with!technology!adoption!
and! acceptance,! such! as! Task5Technology! Fit! ([18]),! Technology! Acceptance! Model!
([19]),!Unified!Theory!of!Acceptance!and!Use!of!Technology!([20]),!and!Innovation!Diffu5
sion! Theory! ([21]).! However,! to! successfully! address! these! new! data! analytic! require5
ments,!the!need!for!Big!Data!and!cloud!computing!technologies!adoption!must!be!identi5
fied!and!considered!carefully.!Mobile!service!providers!need!to!gain!a!better!understand5
ing!of!IT!capabilities!and!the!fit!with!the!task!not!only!from!a!technology!perspective,!but!
also!from!a!user’s!skills!and!knowledge!perspective.!!

While!the!research!on!Big!Data!and!cloud!computing!technology!has!grown!exponentially!
in!the!last!5!years,!most!research!either!focuses!on!technical!aspects!of!the!technology!or!

38"
Introduction!

identifies! the! possible! challenges! for! enterprises.! While! a! few! examples! deal! with! IT!
adoption,!such!as!Opitz![22]!and!Stieninger!([23]!for!cloud!computing!and!Pozzi!([24]!for!
Big!Data,!those!researchers!do!not!address!both!technologies!together.!This!issue!is!fur5
ther! compounded! by! the! lack! of! studies! regarding! mobile! service! providers’! IT! needs.!
Hence,!the!cloud!computing!and!Big!Data!technology!adoption!research!scarcity!presents!
an!academic!challenge!that!will!be!addressed!in!the!context!of!the!mobile!service!provid5
ers’!IT!needs.!!

1.3! Research!Objectives!!

This!thesis,!explores!the!adoption!of!technology!by!data!scientists!for!the!purpose!of!mo5
bile!traffic!analysis,!with!Goodhue’s!Task5Technology!Fit!model!as!the!theoretical!back5
ground.!

Therefore,#the#aim#of#this#study#is#to#investigate#the#use#and#adoption#of#information#tech>
nology,#more#specifically,#Big#Data#and#cloud#computing#technology,#and#their#effects#on#the#
outcome#in#the#context#of#mobile#service#providers’#analytical#needs.#

The!objectives!of!the!study!are!to:!

5!Conduct!a!literature!review!of!Big!Data!technology!and!cloud!computing!and!their!de5
terminants!in!order!to!identify!our!supporting!theory.!

5! Evaluate! the! relationship! between! the! technology! used! and! the! analytic! tasks! needed!
using!Task5Technology!Fit!as!the!base!model.!

5!Determine!the!level!of!perceived!benefits!of!technology!in!mobile!service!firms.!!
"

39"
Introduction!

1.4! Research!Question!

The!research!purpose!and!objectives!stated!previously!are!focused!on!the!current!gaps!in!
academic!research!in!which!scientists!do!not!address!both!cloud!computing!and!Big!Data!
technologies! together! in! a! single! theoretical! model.! It! is! important! to! address! the! two!
technologies!together,!particularly!in!the!context!of!mobile!service!providers.!Along!with!
that,!we!wanted!to!address!the!tasks!data!scientists!undertake!to!take!full!advantage!of!
the!benefits!of!using!the!two!technologies!together!to!affect!data5driven!decision!making!
in! enterprises.! For! task,! we! considered! Goodhue’s! two5dimensional! construct! of! task!
characteristics:! ! non5routineness! and! interdependence,! as! they! relate! to! Big! Data! pro5
cessing.!In!addition,!we!considered!the!eight!TTF!factors:!quality,!locatability,!authoriza5
tion,! compatibility,! ease! of! use/training,! production! timeliness,! systems! reliability! and!
relationship!with!users,!as!defined!by!Goodhue!and!Thompson![18].!In!addition,!we!ex5
pand!the!research!to!include!Big!Data!factors,!such!as!real5time!analysis,!volume!and!va5
riety.!In!our!study,!we!measure!the!impact!through!a!data!scientist!user!evaluation!that!
addresses!performance!by!asking!to!what!extent!data!analytic!tools!affect!net!results!and!
infrastructure!and!applications!improve!results.!Additional!questions!were!asked!to!de5
termine!what!would!help!users!improve!the!results!of!their!data!analytics!task.!We!con5
sidered!two!hypotheses!related!to!perceived!benefits.!!

Examining! the! research! both! from! a! theoretical! and! managerial! point! of! view! is! im5
portant.! In! a! broader! theoretical! sense,! developing! a! new! theoretical! model! taking! into!
account!the!interplay!between!cloud!computing!and!Big!Data!is!important!for!future!re5
search.!From!a!managerial!perspective,!the!business!insights!derived!using!cloud!compu5
ting!and!Big!Data!to!analyze!mobile!traffic!data!can!benefit!mobile!service!providers!in!
many!ways!including!creating!new!revenue!streams,!improving!customer!service,!devel5
oping! new! solutions,! enhancing! customer! relationships,! contributing! to! global! research!
projects,!among!others.!In!this!thesis,!we!address!the!current!lack!of!relevant!academic!
research!by!considering!the!following!research!question:!

40"
Introduction!

5!To!what!extent!does!cloud!computing!and!Big!Data!technology!contribute!to!
the!tasks!undertaken!by!data!scientists?!

1.5! Overview!of!Research!and!Study!Methodology!!

The! research! is! using! a! quantitative! methodology! and! operationalized! using! a! cross5
sectional! survey! so! temporal! consistency! can! be! maintained! for! all! the! variables.! Alt5
hough!it!would!be!valuable!to!measure!the!evolution!over!time!of!the!technology!adop5
tion! of! mobile! service! providers,! the! cross5sectional! survey! allows! us! to! determine! the!
state!of!use!at!a!given!time!as!well!as!the!relative!strength!between!the!factors!which!is!
appropriate!to!answer!the!initial!objectives.!This!would!eventually!help!us!upon!valida5
tion! to! support! more! refined! hypothesis! for! future! research.! The! conceptual! model! is!
operationalized! by! choosing! a! quantitative! methodology! and! test! the! model! defined! in!
the!previous!part.!The!adoption!of!the!quantitative!methodology!is!motivated!in!our!case!
by!our!ability!to!address!this!issue!in!an!objective!manner!and!to!overcome!some!of!the!
constraints! such! as! working! at! Orange! Business! Services,! or! dealing! with! uncertainty!
how!to!use!technology!and!for!what!purpose.!!

Informal!Interviews!of!industry!experts!indicated!that!mobile!service!providers!capabili5
ties!to!extract!and!analyze!mobile!traffic!data!were!still!limited!to,!for!example,!measur5
ing!customers!churn,!and!had!not,!at!the!time!of!the!study,!yet!fully!leveraged!cloud!and!
Big! Data! technologies! to! develop! new! services.! Further! discussions! were! initiated! with!
few!other!Researchers!fellow!and!led!to!brainstorm!about!possible!solutions.!!

As!a!first!step,!we!operationalize!our!model!and!discuss!the!various!steps!of!the!method5
ology,!including!the!description!of!the!measurement!scale!items!for!the!variables!defined!
in!the!theoretical!model.!The!survey!is!administered!to!more!than!120!users!and!enables!
the!data!collection!process.!We!explain!the!decision!to!use!the!PLS!SEM!statistical!tool!to!
process!the!data.!We!also!review!the!measurements!of!reliability!and!validity.!

41"
Introduction!

"

1.6! Organization!of!the!Thesis!

Based! on! the! research! context,! the! objectives! and! the! research! questions,! the! thesis! is!
structured!as!follow:!!

Chapter'1'–'Introduction:!!This!chapter!introduces!the!scope!the!research,!its!objectives!
and! the! research! question! and! outlines! of! the! thesis.! We! introduce! the! research! back5
ground!and!purpose!of!two!new!technologies!presented!in!the!context!of!mobile!services!
providers!in!need!of!an!analytical!process.!We!identify!the!research!problem!and!gaps!as!
well!as!the!research!purpose!and!its!objectives.!The!research!question!is!defined!and!we!
provide!an!overview!of!the!research!and!study!methodology.!!

Chapter'2'–'Research'Background:'!In!this!chapter,!we!provide!an!overview!of!litera5
ture!on!mobile!traffic!analysis!as!it!relates!to!Big!Data!and!cloud!computing.!We!explain!
the!search!strategy!and!the!research!background.!Next,!we!define!mobile!service!provid5
ers,! highlight! mobile! traffic! analysis! as! a! new! research! field,! and! define! mobile! traffic!
analysis!and!show!its!taxonomy!and!characteristics.!A!review!of!literature!covering!the!
use!of!cloud!as!the!data!collection!and!processing!infrastructure!follows.!!

Chapter'3'–'Investigation'of'Factors'Influencing'Big'Data'Technology'Adoption:!!In!
this!chapter,!we!define!Big!Data!and!describe!its!key!characteristics!(volume,!velocity!and!
variety).!We!discuss!Big!Data!within!the!context!of!knowledge!discovery!and!data!mining!
and!illustrate!the!data!value!chain.!We!discuss!the!array!of!challenges!and!criticisms!of!
Big!Data!analysis.!We!also!explain!the!role!of!the!data!scientist!and!identify!the!related!
adoption!determinants!at!the!individual!and!organizational!levels.!Finally,!we!identify!the!
Big!Data!adoption!advantages,!barriers!and!models.!

Chapter' 4' –' Investigation' of' Factors' Influencing' Cloud' Computing' Technology'
Adoption:!!In!Chapter!4,!we!define!the!cloud!computing!characteristics!and!trends.!The!
cloud!service!models!–!Infrastructure!as!a!Service,!Platform!as!a!Service!and!Software!as!

42"
Introduction!

a! Service! –! are! described.! We! also! address! Big! Data! and! cloud! complementarity.! The!
cloud!computing!characteristics!are!addressed.!Cloud!computing!adoption!determinants,!
advantages! and! barriers! are! outlined.! In! addition,! the! theoretical! paradigms! are! ex5
plained!in!the!context!of!cloud!computing!adoption.!

Chapter' 5' –' Theoretical' Background:! ! This! chapter! proposes! a! concise! literature! re5
view! to! gain! a! better! understanding! of! the! key! IT! adoption! theories! and! frameworks!
used,! including:! ! resource5based! view;! diffusion! of! innovation! theory;! DeLone! and!
McLean!IS!success!model;!technology!acceptance!model;!and!task5technology!fit!model.!
The!models!are!described!and!the!main!critics!and!contributions!are!identified!for!each!
one.!!

Chapter'6'–'Conceptual'Model'for'Big'Data'and'Cloud'Technology'Adoption:!!In!this!
chapter,!we!explain!the!Big!Data!and!cloud!computing!adoption!framework!and!describe!
the!proposed!framework!along!with!the!proposed!factors!and!characteristics!for!Big!Data!
and! cloud! computing,! task,! technology,! individual,! TTF! and! utilization.! In! addition,! we!
illustrate!the!proposed!conceptual!model!based!on!Goodhue’s!original!TTF.!

Chapter'7'–'Research'Methodology:!!In!Chapter!7,!we!will!present!the!research!meth5
odology,! strategy,! design! and! measurement! scale! along! with! specific! constructs! along!
with!their!respective!subconstructs!that!are!used!in!the!new!model.!The!specific!survey!
questions!that!address!each!of!these!constructs!and!subconstructs!are!also!provided..!

Chapter'8'–'Data'Analysis'and'Results:!!This!chapter!presents!and!discusses!the!steps!
in! the! data! analysis! process! and! the! results.! We! describe! the! data! collection! and! data!
analysis.!We!explain!the!data!coding!and!show!the!data!coding!used!for!our!study,!which!
involves! assigning! alphanumeric! codes! to! answers! so! that! statistical! techniques! can! be!
applied.!

Chapter' 9' –' Discussion:! ! This! chapter! highlights! the! key! findings! and! contributions!
(both!to!theory!and!practice).!We!address!the!implications!of!these!findings!on!current!

43"
Introduction!

and!future!research.!In!addition,!we!acknowledge!the!study!limitations.!Finally,!we!pro5
pose!several!recommendations!for!future!research!provide!a!better!understanding!of!Big!
Data!and!cloud!requirements!from!the!users,!the!task!and!the!IT!tools!used.!

1.7! Contribution!to!Knowledge!!

From!an!academic!perspective,!based!on!a!literature!review,!we!believe!that!this!is!the!
first!research!that!focuses!on!measuring!the!impact!of!a!new!technology,!Big!Data,!on!a!
user’s!work.!In!the!operationalization!of!his!model,!Goodhue![18]!defined!the!task!output!
as! data! that! enabled! decision5making.! In! our! research,! we! not! only! adopt! and! analyze!
Goodhue! TTF’s! constructs,! but! also! add! new! constructs! specific! to! Big! Data.! Our! other!
contribution! to! the! research! is! focused! on! TTF! antecedents.! We! aim! to! show! that! com5
plementarity!of!technologies!(Big!Data!and!cloud!computing!combined)!might!be!an!im5
portant!factor!leading!to!adoption!and!usage!and!as!a!result!lead!to!more!tuned!theoreti5
cal!models.!We!specifically!look!at!the!impact!of!big!data!and!cloud!computing!adoption!
on!data!scientists!analyzing!mobile!traffic!data.!

From!a!practical!perspective,!we!hope!that!the!results!can!provide!a!better!understand5
ing!of!Big!Data!and!cloud!requirements!from!the!users,!the!task!and!the!IT!tools!used.!In!
turn,!this!also!may!lead!to!new!implications!for!organizations!in!(re)defining!the!role!of!
the!user!(data!scientist)!by!either!better!organizing!the!human!resources!scarcity,!subdi5
viding!the!tasks!or!providing!better!training,!for!example.!Findings!could!also!help!in!ar5
ticulating!a!better!architecture!and!improved!solutions!for!mobile!services!providers.!We!
believe!also!that!the!model!can!be!generalized!enough!to!extend!the!recommendations!to!
companies! who! intend! to! adopt! Big! Data! and! cloud! computing! as! part! of! their! new! IT!
capabilities.!
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

44"
 !

! !Research!Background!

Mobile!service!providers!(MSP)!need!to!look!for!ways!to!use!Big!Data!to!tap!into!the!full!
potential! of! the! unprecedented! amount! of! data! they! have! available! and! to! find! ways! to!
monetize!it.!For!many!years,!MSPs!have!used!data!from!call!detail!records!(CDR)!for!in5
ternal! purposes! only,! typically! for! billing! and! minimizing! customer! churn.! By! tapping!
into! the! true! power! of! Big! Data,! MSPs! can! expand! their! use! of! the! vast! streams! of! data!
they! are! already! collecting.! In! fact,! the! outcomes! from! data! scientists! using! this! data! in!
new!and!powerful!ways!will!not!only!become!competitive!differentiators!and!drive!com5
panies!into!new!markets,!but!also!help!improve!society!as!a!whole!by!providing!scientists!
the! datasets! they! need! to! solve! some! of! the! world’s! most! complex! problems.! Already,!
CDR! analytics! have! been! used! to! study! many! topics:! infectious! diseases! and! epidemics,!
charitable!giving!after!natural!disasters,!poverty!and!socioeconomics!and!transportation.!
Mobile!traffic!analysis!is!a!rapidly!emerging!research!field!that!can!benefit!greatly!from!
additional!research!related!to!cloud5based!architectures!suitable!for!Big!Data!implemen5
tations.!!

In!this!chapter,!we!provide!an!overview!of!scientific!research!on!mobile!traffic!analysis!as!
it!relates!to!Big!Data!and!cloud!computing.!!We!explain!the!search!strategy!and!the!re5

45"
Research!Background!

search! background.! Next,! we! define! mobile! service! providers,! highlight! mobile! traffic!
analysis!as!a!new!research!field,!and!define!mobile!traffic!analysis!and!show!its!taxonomy!
and! characteristics.! ! In! addition,! the! analytical! process! for! mobile! traffic! analysis! is! ex5
plained,!including!data!collection,!the!analytical!process!and!prediction!models.!A!review!
of! literature! covering! the! use! of! cloud! as! the! data! collection! and! processing! infrastruc5
ture!follows.!We!look!at!the!existing!architectures!and!their!limitations!as!well!as!the!cur5
rent! research! on! cloud5based! architectures! and! the! current! conclusions.! As! in! all! cases!
when! customer! data! is! involved,! ethics,! security! and! compliance! issues! are! important,!
and!we!address!concerns!related!to!data!storage!and!mobile!traffic!anonymization.!Final5
ly,!the!current!challenges!that!mobile!service!providers!face!are!summarized.!

2.1! Search!Strategy!!

In!order!to!contribute!to!the!body!of!knowledge!and!identify!the!possible!gaps!in!the!lit5
erature,!a!thorough!review!of!the!published!articles!was!undertaken.!First,!we!searched!
key!sources!of!scientific!and!academic!papers!referenced!by!Google!Scholar,!Science!Di5
rect,!IEEE!and!ACM!Digital!Library.!To!do!so,!we!defined!and!used!a!combination!of!key5
word! and! phrases! such! as:! Big! Data! and! cloud! computing! adoption,! Big! Data,! Hadoop,!
data! analytics,! Big! Data! for! mobile! traffic! analysis,! cloud! computing,! IT! virtualization,!
data! scientist,! high! performance! computing,! technology! acceptance,! task! technology! fit,!
and!IT!adoption.!!

Initial!findings!were!very!limited.!One!of!the!major!challenges!was!to!identify!intersect5
ing!literature!for!Big!Data!and!Cloud!computing!adoption.!This!initial!search!proved!to!be!
rather!limited!due!to!the!novelty!of!those!technologies.!!Therefore,!we!used!a!recursive!
approach!of!important!papers’!bibliography!to!ensure!we!covered!existing!literature.!As!
a!second!step,!we!extended!the!search!to!Big!Data!only!and!cloud!computing!only.!!In!ad5
dition,!we!also!participated!to!academic!conferences!that!were!relevant!such!as:!

46"
Research!Background!

N! SIENA'Cloud'2012:!!Standards!and!Interoperability!for!eInfrastructure!Implementa5
tion!Initiative!(SIENA)!focuses!on!helping!to!define!interoperability!and!standards!to!
gain! a! better! understanding! of! distributed! computing! technology,! the! conference! is!
supported!by!the!European!Commission.!!

N! MIT' Big' Data' Classes' 2013:' ' The! course! is! taught! by! Erik! Brynjolfsson! and! Alex!
Pentland' and! focus! on' technologies! and! applications! that! are! driving! the! use! of! Big!
Data.!

N! D4D/Netmob'MIT'Boston'201322015:!!This!is!the!largest!conference!on!the!analy5
sis!of!Mobile!Datasets.!The!purpose!of!the!conference!is!to!investigate!how!mobile!da5
tasets!can!be!used!to!analyze!human!mobility!and!behaviors,!network.!

N! IEEE' International' Conference' on' Big' Data' 2012' (Washington,' DC)' and' 2013'
(Santa'Clara,'California):!!The!conference!provides!an!academic!forum!for!dissemi5
nating! the! latest! research! in! Big! Data! Research,! Development! and! Applica5
tion. Research!topics!included!Big!Data!characteristics,!Big!Data!infrastructure,!Big!
Data!management,!Big!Data!security,!and!Big!Data!applications.!

N! Other'conferences'included'Cloud'Standard'Customer'Council'(2012),'Europe2
an'Data'Forum'(2013)'and'NIST'(National'Institute'Standard'and'Technology)'
Big'Data'Workgroup.!

Overall,!we!collected!over!400!key!research!papers.!!
"

"

47"
Research!Background!

2.2! Defining!the!Mobile!Traffic!Analysis!Process!"

2.2.1! Definition!&!Characteristics!of!Mobile!Service!Providers!!

A!mobile!service!provider!(MSP)!is!defined!as!“a!provider!of!services!wireless!communi5
cations!that!owns!or!controls!all!the!elements!necessary!to!sell!and!deliver!services!to!an!
end!user!including!radio!spectrum!allocation,!wireless!network!infrastructure,!backhaul!
infrastructure,!billing,!customer!care,!provisioning!computer!systems!and!marketing!and!
repair! organizations.”1.! Other! names! for! MSP! are! cellular! company,! mobile! carrier,! mo5
bile!network!carrier,!mobile!network!operator,!wireless!service!provider!or!wireless!car5
rier.! In! this! paper,! we! will! use! the! term! mobile! service! provider! specifically! meaning! a!
company! that! offers! transmission! services! to! wireless! device! users! through! radio! fre5
quency!signals!rather!than!through!end5to5end!wire!communication.!MSPs!offer!services!
for! cellphones,! RFID! tags,! sensors,! smartphones,! smart! TVs! and! tablets,! among! others.!
The!two!main!criteria!of!the!covered!devices!are!that!they!use!wireless!capabilities,!such!
as!3G,!4G!and!LTE,!and!can!exchange!data.!This!is!important!due!to!the!emergence!of!the!
Internet! of! Things! and! machine5to5machine! which! include! devices! capable! of! sending!
and! receiving! information! and! carry! the! same! communication! properties! as! human5
controlled!devices.!!

Mobile!service!providers!have!evolved!over!time!as!wireless!devices!have!become!more!
advanced.!The!upward!trajectory!of!device!usefulness!has!tracked!with!the!volume,!vari5
ety! and! velocity! of! data! that! is! being! generated.! MSPs! have! huge! subscriber! bases! that!
generate!massive!amounts!of!data!every!day.!According!to!the!International!Telecommu5
nication! Union,! mobile! phone! subscriptions! have! increased! from! covering! 12%! of! the!
world’s! population! in! 2000! to! an! estimated! 97%! by! the! end! of! 2015.! This! means! the!

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1
Wikipedia!definition!of!MSP:!https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_network_operator!!

48"
Research!Background!

number! of! mobile! cellular! subscriptions! has! risen! from! 738! millions! in! 2000! to! more!
than!7!billions!in!20152.!!

A!major!outcome!from!so!many!wireless!devices!is!the!generation!of!billions!of!call!detail!
records!per!day.!For!example,!T5Mobile!in!the!United!States!collects!17!billion!events!a!
day!from!its!network![25].!MSPs!have!always!collected!simplistic!voice5related!data,!but!
the! contextual! data! that! comes! from! smart! devices! today! is! simultaneously! more! com5
plex!and!more!useful![25].!In!the!case!of!T5Mobile,!the!provider!performs!mobile!traffic!
analysis!to!examine!and!correlate!network!performance!with!high5value!subscribers!and!
services!in!order!to!better!target!its!capital!expenditures!and!network!engineering.!

Fox!et#al.![25]!present!findings!from!communications!service!providers!(CSP)!surveyed!
in!the!2012!Big!Data!@!Work!Study,!conducted!by!the!IBM!Institute!for!Business!Value!in!
partnership! with! the! Saïd! Business! School! at! the! University! of! Oxford.! When! asked! to!
describe!Big!Data!using!no!more!than!two!characteristics,!respondents!defined!Big!Data!
as!“real5time!information”!and!“non5traditional!sources!of!information.”!Some!communi5
cations!service!providers!are!focusing!on!Big!Data!supporting!their!core!business!while!
others! are! already! starting! to! take! advantage! of! the! full! breadth! of! what! Big! Data! can!
provide.! Fox! et# al.! [25]! explains:! ! “Using# Big# Data# in# delivering# location>based# services,#
tailored# marketing# campaigns,# next# best# actions# for# sales# and# services,# network# intelli>
gence,#social#media#insights#and#high>velocity#fraud#detection#has#the#potential#of#both#in>
creasing# revenue# and# reducing# costs,# often# while# improving# the# customer’s# experience.”!
Sixty5six! percent! of! CSP! respondents! say! that! their! Big! Data! objectives! are! customer5
centric,!meaning!that!they!are!using!Big!Data!to!improve!the!customer!experience!in!or5
der!to!limit!churn!and!build!loyalty.!Survey!results!show!that!generally!service!providers!
are! taking! a! pragmatic! approach! to! Big! Data! –! identifying! business! requirements! and!
then!tailoring!infrastructure,!data!sources!and!analytics!to!support!the!business!oppor5
tunities.! In! this! study,! 85! percent! of! CSP! respondents! indicated! that! the! use! of! infor5
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

2!ITU!figures!http://www.itu.int/en/ITU5D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICTFactsFigures2015.pdf!

49"
Research!Background!
CSPs are being practical about big data Whether CSPs are using big data to support the
CSPs are increasingly seeing the enormous potential of big business, or are considering big data sales as a so
data. More than half (54 percent) are in the process of revenue, they need to develop a roadmap, set up
mation,!including!Big!Data,!and!analytics!creates!a!competitive!differentiator.!As!seen!in!
developing a strategy and roadmap on big data and how to infrastructure and adopt new methods, processes
apply it to business challenges. One-third are developing manage the unique volume, velocity, variety and
the! figure! below,! 54%! of! the! CSP! respondents! are! in! the!
proofs of concepts (POCs), or have already implemented big
process! of! planning!
requirements Big!
of big Data!
data. By analyzing survey res
data solutions at scale. Only 13 percent of CSP respondents, key findings emerge that reveal common insights
activities!and!33%!are!already!piloting!or!implementing!Big!Data!activities.!!
far fewer than other industries, have not started any big data
activities yet (see Figure 3). r
The business case for big data is strongly focus
! addressing customer-centric objectives
r
A scalable and extensible information managem
foundation is a prerequisite for big data advanc
Big data activities
r
CSPs are beginning their pilots and implemen
using existing and newly accessible internal sou
13% 54% 33%
r
Advanced analytic capabilities are required, ye
for CSPs to get the most value from big data
r
The emerging pattern of big data is focused on
24% 47% 28% measurable business value.

Customer-centric objectives are driving big

Have not Planning big Pilot and initiatives
begun big data data activities implementation
activities of big data
When asked to rank their top three objectives fo
activities two-thirds of CSP respondents identified custome
CSP respondents objectives as their organization’s top priority (see F
All industry respondents
CSPs are committed to improving the customer
Source: Big Data @ Work survey, a collaborative research survey conducted by the and better understanding customer preferences a
IBM Institute for Business Value and the Saïd Business School at the
University of Oxford. © IBM 2012
Better understanding, predicting and giving toda
“empowered customers” what they really want w
Figure!1!Most!CSP!are!in!early!stages!of!Big!Data!Developments.!
Figure 3: Most CSPs are in early stages of big data developments. identified as the top priority for 93 percent of CS
IBM’s 2012 Global CEO study.11

CSP!respondents!in!our!global!2012!Big!Data!@!Work!Study,!conducted!by!the!IBM!Insti5
tute!for!Business!Value!in!partnership!with!the!Saïd!Business!School!at!the!University!of!
Oxford.!!

Big!Data!presents!MSPs!an!opportunity!to!analyze!data!in!real5time!or!near5real!time!in!
order!to!gain!new!insights!and!predict!trends!that!can!create!new!ways!of!doing!business!
both!internally!and!externally.!Call!data!records!needed!by!mobile!service!providers!for!
billing!purposes!contain!vast!amounts!of!information!on!call!location!origination,!desti5
nation!and!duration.!In!real!time,!the!MSP!can!see!who!is!calling!whom,!from!where!and!
for!how!long.!The!location5specific!information!they!derive!is!unique!and!invaluable,!en5
abling!providers!to!look!for!patterns!and!track!habits!and!preferences.!This!information!

50"
Research!Background!

can!help!MSPs!improve!their!product!offerings,!enhance!their!internal!systems!and!cre5
ate! new! offerings! that! are! well! suited! to! the! user’s! preferences.! In! addition! to! call! data!
records,!Blondel!et#al.![26]!identify!numerous!secondary!uses!of!mobile!phones!that!cre5
ate! data,! including:! ! distributed! seismographs,! medical! sensors,! traffic! sensors! and!
transmitting!evasive!species!data!by!citizen!scientists.!Kushwaha!et#al.![27]confirm!that!
competition!in!the!telecom!industry!has!intensified!due!to!the!saturation!of!the!customer!
base.!Providers!are!finding!average!revenue!per!user!(ARPU),!a!typical!measurement!of!
success,!eroding!with!increased!competition.!As!Kushwaha!et#al.![27]!reports,!some!MSPs!
are!switching!from!ARPU!to!average!margin!per!user!(AMPU),!which!is!calculated!on!the!
basis!of!net!profit!rather!than!total!income.!To!combat!profit!erosion,!MSPs!are!turning!to!
mobile!traffic!analysis!to!capitalize!on!data5driven!decision!making!in!order!to!gain!new!
market! insights! and! to! develop! creative! ways! to! improve! customer! keep! existing! cus5
tomers!and!to!gain!new!ones.!!

2.2.2! Mobile!Traffic!Analysis!a!New!Field!of!Research!

Mobile!service!providers!are!looking!for!ways!to!use!Big!Data!to!tap!the!potential!of!the!
unprecedented!amount!of!data!they!have!available!and!to!find!ways!to!monetize!it.!Mo5
bile!traffic!analysis!is!a!rapidly!emerging!research!field!that!is!defined!as!«!the#study#of#the#
massive#traffic#datasets#collected#by#mobile#service#providers#to#improve#the#understanding#
of# large>scale# natural# or# technological# phenomena#».! Our! definition! applies! only! to! data!
collected!by!the!provider!and!does!not!take!into!account!data!collected!on!the!subscrib5
er’s!side!by!a!third5party!application.!!

Finding!deeper!meaning!by!analyzing!mass!amounts!of!data!is!not!new;!the!first!colossal!
application!appeared!in!the!1949!book!titled!“Human#Behavior#and#the#Principle#of#Least#
Effort”!by!George!Zipf![28]!in!which!he!formulated!the!principle!of!least!effort.!For!this!
book,!Zipf!studied!everything!from!the!frequency!of!words!in!the!English!language!to!the!
distribution!of!city!sizes!in!proportion!to!their!rank.!!

51"
Research!Background!

Since! mobile! service! providers! own! and! manage! their! networks,! they! can! use! mobile!
traffic!analysis!to!improve!user!perception!by!being!able!to!quickly!identify,!troubleshoot!
and!either!prevent!or!fix!network!issues.!In!addition,!Fox!et#al.![25]!explains!that!by!ap5
plying!mobile!traffic!analytics!to!call!detail!records!MSPs!can!determine!what!products!
and!services!to!offer!and!how!to!deliver!a!high5quality!customer!experience!at!the!right!
place!and!the!right!time.!Through!“next!best!action”!modeling,!or!anticipating!the!wants!
and!needs!of!customers,!MSPs!can!increase!revenue,!profits!and!customer!satisfaction,!as!
well!as!reduce!churn![25].!Blondel!et#al.![26]!points!out!the!benefit!of!mobile!phones!be5
ing! personal! objects.! While! landlines! are! shared,! one! person! generally! uses! his! or! her!
mobile! phone;! therefore,! the! data! recorded! represent! a! part! of! that! individual’s! social!
network.!

In!addition!to!internal!uses,!there!are!game5changing!ways!in!which!mobile!traffic!analy5
sis! can! be! performed! for! other! reasons! beyond! network! improvements,! marketing! to!
customers!or!improving!customer!service.!As!seen!in!the!study!by!Ribot!et#al.![6],!what!
makes!mobile!service!provider!datasets!unique!is!that!they!typically!contain!information!
about!hundreds!of!thousands!of!customers!over!the!course!of!a!month.!The!availability!of!
terabytes!of!data!from!billions!of!individuals!over!long!time!periods!makes!mobile!traffic!
especially! appealing! to! researchers.! Epidemiologists,! physicists,! sociologists! and! trans5
portation! and! telecommunication! experts! can! see! in! these! datasets! an! opportunity! to!
bring!their!analyses!to!an!unprecedented!scale!while!retaining!a!sufficient!level!of!detail.!
No!traditional!data!collection!technique!offers!a!comparable!perspective!on!human!activ5
ities,! and! this! fact! alone! is! sufficient! to! explain! the! dramatic! surge! in! in! mobile! traffic!
studies!over!the!last!few!years.!Since!2005,!the!number!of!academic!papers!covering!mo5
bile!traffic!analyses!has!grown!at!a!90%!compound!annual!growth!rate.!In!addition,!Or5
ange,! a! mobile! services! provider,! created! the! Data! for! Development3! challenge!that!ran!
from!2014!to!April!2015!in!which!a!large!number!of!research!teams!were!given!access!to!

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

3!http://d4d.orange.com/content/download/43330/405662/version/3/file/D4Dchallenge_leaflet_A4_V2Eweblite.pdf!

52"
Research!Background!

the!same!mobile!traffic!dataset!from!Senegal!with!the!goal!of!uncovering!ideas!for!socie5
tal!development!and!population!welfare.!Using!mobile!traffic!analysis,!researchers!pro5
posed!advancements!in!agriculture,!energy,!health!and!transportation,!among!other!are5
as.!!

When!conducting!a!literature!review,!Ribot!et#al.![6]!found!an!incredible!number!of!dif5
ferences!in!the!datasets!being!used!and!how!mobile!data!analysis!is!being!conducted.!For!
example,!they!found!differences!related!to!where!within!the!MSP’s!network!the!data!was!
collected,! the! number! of! subscribers! included,! geographical! locations,! and! the! duration!
and!timing!of!the!data!collection.!Different!researchers!used!a!wide!range!of!spatial!gran5
ularities!that!range!from!cell!sectors!to!whole!cities!and!temporal!granularities!that!span!
from!milliseconds!to!hours.!In!some!cases,!datasets!contained!no!or!minimal!information!
regarding!the!services!being!provided!(e.g.,!voice,!texting!or!data)!whereas!other!datasets!
included!specific!details!such!as!protocols,!applications!and!URLs.!!

Due!to!the!ever5increasing!amount!of!data!being!generated!by!mobile!service!providers,!
the! mobile! traffic! analysis! field! of! research! is! growing! fast.! In! the! past,! providers! have!
used! their! own! data! primarily! for! billing! as! well! as! for! network! management! and! cus5
tomer!service!purposes.!However,!MSPs!are!finally!realizing!that!they!have!a!goldmine!of!
customer!data!that!can!be!monetized!through!the!use!of!Big!Data!and!can!be!an!extreme5
ly!valuable!asset!for!fundamental!research!with!a!return!for!the!operators!themselves.!!

2.2.3! Definition!and!Taxonomy!of!Mobile!Traffic!Analysis!

2.2.3.1! Definition!

A!call!data!record!(CDR),!which!was!previously!user!primarily!for!billing!by!mobile!ser5
vice!providers,!is!generated!each!time!a!mobile!device!connects!with!a!network!and!con5
tains!rich!data!detailing!how,!when,!how!long,!where!and!with!whom!users!communicate!
[26].!The!most!simplistic!view!of!the!CDR!is!that!it!includes!the!phone!numbers!for!the!
calling!and!receiving!parties,!timestamp!(or!current!time!of!an!event),!call!duration,!the!

53"
Research!Background!

approximate!locations!of!the!call!origination!and!destination!according!to!the!base!trans5
ceiver!stations!that!handle!the!call,!and!general!account!information![29],![14].!Depend5
ing!on!the!mobile!service!provider,!CDR!can!include!all!or!part!of!the!following!metadata:!!

•! telephone!number!of!the!subscriber!originating!the!call;!!

•! phone!number!receiving!the!call;!!

•! starting!time!of!the!call;!!

•! call!duration;!!

•! the!billing!phone!number!that!is!charged!for!the!call;!!

•! call!originator,!the!identification!of!the!exchange!or!equipment!writing!the!record;!!

•! a!unique!number!identifying!the!record;!!

•! any!additional!digits!used!to!route!or!charge!the!call;!!

•! the!result!of!the!call!(if!it!connected!or!not);!!

•! approximate! location! of! both! origin! and! destination! based! on! cell! towers! being!
used;!!

•! the!call!type!(voice,!SMS);!!

•! any!fault!condition!that!occurred;!!

•! timestamp.!!
"
"

In!addition!to!data!on!calls,!CDR!can!also!provide!information!on!sent!and!received!texts!
as!well!as!events!related!to!Internet!connections![6].!CDR!data!are!critical!to!mobile!traf5
fic!analysis!since!the!majority!of!the!data!that!can!be!analyzed!are!found!in!these!records.!
The!call!time!and!the!location!of!the!base!transceiver!station,!or!cell!tower,!nearest!where!
the! user! was! located! when! the! call! was! initiated! are! particularly! interesting! and! im5
portant!to!researchers![29].!This!data!give!an!indication!of!the!geographical!position!of!a!
user!at!a!given!moment!in!time!and!are!useful!when!extracting!patterns!of!human!mobili5

54"
Research!Background!

ty!and!patterns![30].!The!information!captured!in!CDRs!can!be!coupled!with!external!da5
ta!on!users,!such!as!age,!gender,!weather!and!population!data,!creating!a!clearer!picture!
for!scientists!and!enabling!them!to!make!powerful!inferences.!For!example,!Wang!et#al.!
[31]! were! able! to! analyze! a! combination! of! CDR! data! with! detailed! Geographic! Infor5
mation!System!(GIS)!data!to!expose!hidden!patterns!in!urban!road!usage.!!

Pinelli!et#al.![30]!studied!an!anonymized!dataset!from!Mobistar,!a!Belgian!mobile!service!
provider,!which!included!CDR,!IP!detailed!records!(IPDR)!or!records!of!Internet!connec5
tions,! and! passively! generated! data! called! signaling.! In! this! study,! the! researchers! used!
the! dataset! in! three! different! ways! –! CDR,! CDR+IPDR! and! all! of! the! data! –! in! order! to!
study!human!mobility!as!it!relates!to!urban!sensing!applications.!Soto!et#al.![29]!use!ag5
gregated! cell! phone! data! to! model! and! predict! the! different! socioeconomic! levels! of! a!
population.!

2.2.3.2! Mobile!Traffic!Data!Characterization!

In!conducting!a!survey!on!mobile!traffic!analysis,!Ribot!et#al.![6]!conducted!an!in5depth!
review!of!literature!on!mobile!traffic!analyses!run!on!operator5collected!data.!As!seen!in!
Figure!2,!we!proposed!a!hierarchical!classification!of!the!literature!and!categorized!it!into!
three!macro5subjects:!!social!analysis,!mobility!analysis!and!network!analysis.!

55"
Research!Background!
4

"
"
Fig. 2: Proposed classification of the mobile traffic analysis literature, including the spectrum of disciplines related to topics.
Figure!2.!Proposed!classification!of!the!mobile!traffic!analysis!literature,!including!the!spectrum!of!disci5
plines!related!to!topics."Ribot!et!al.![6]!
of the main results achieved by mobile traffic analyses in A. Cellular network architecture: an overview
"
the considered theme, across disciplines; (ii) the introduction
The network is composed of two main parts: a Radio Access
to significant details of the methodology adopted to obtain
Network (RAN), which provides wireless access to the indi-
"
such results. The former represent the primary output of
vidual devices, and a Core Network (CN), which manages all
Social'Analysis!
the research activities, and are presented in the main text.
operations needed to transfer voice and data among different
Methodological aspects that go into some technical depth are
portions of the RAN as well as to and from external networks,
instead introduced only when required and in footnote, so as
According!to!Ribot!et#al.![6],!social!analyses!investigate!the!relationships!between!mobile!
not to break the flow of the text. We thus suggest that readers
including the Internet. The RAN is composed of base stations,
each in charge of one or multiple cell sectors that jointly
interested in grasping fundamental outcomes of state-of-the-
traffic!and!a!wide!set!of!social!features.!A!major!research!focus!is!on!the!characterization!
art research in mobile traffic analysis go through the main text,
cover the geographical surface the network serves. End devices
connect to the base station overseeing the cell section they
skipping technical footnotes. Readers willing to dig into some
of!the!social!structure!of!mobile!users’!interactions,!typically!represented!as!a!mobile!call!
detail on a specific subject may instead refer to the technical
are currently located in. Mobile devices may trespass the
cell sector boundaries while exchanging data with the RAN,
footnotes associated to that topic.
graph.!Blondel!et#al.![26]!point!out!that!these!massive!datasets!have!been!proven!to!be!
which generates a handover (HO) event to the new serving
Finally, we summarize our review in Sec. VII, which pro- base station. Moreover, cell sectors are clustered into Location
free!from!the!bias!of!self5reporting.!The!second!focus!is!the!interactions!between!mobile!
vides a general discussion of the results achieved in the Areas (LA)8 that represent the spatial granularity at which the
research field. The section gives us the opportunity to highlight device position is known at all times by cellular network, and
communications!
outtakes and! open
and point at main demographic! factors!
issues and future such! itas!
research is age,! gender,!
thus used ethnicity,!
for paging. language!devices
As a consequence, and! moving
directions. to a different LA are required to inform the network via a
economic!factors.!Additionally,!data!related!to!mobile!communications!patterns!and!the!
location update (LU) event, even if they do not have any
ongoing communication at that time.
geographical! and!TRAFFIC
III. M OBILE social!DATA
environment!
COLLECTIONare! taken! into! account.! Finally,! the! researchers!
From a more technical perspective, base stations are referred
to as Base Station Subsystem (BSS) and Radio Network
show!how!inferences!from!mobile!traffic!can!inform!researchers!on!the!implications!of!
The scope of this survey encompasses works dealing with
Subsystem (RNS) in 2G (GSM, GPRS, and EDGE) and
data collected by probes that record traffic at different locations
3G (UMTS and HSPA) architectures, respectively. In both
the! movement!
within of! large!
the cellular network masses!7,of!
infrastructure people!
whose and! the!
architecture spreading! dynamics! of! infectious! dis5
cases, base stations are composed of separated antennas (Base
is outlined in Fig. 3. Such a network grants access to telecom-
Transceiver Station, i.e., BTS, or NodeB) and controlling hard-
eases,! particularly!
munication services and epidemic! prevention!
to the Internet and!ofcontainment.!
by a wide range According! to! Ribot! et# al.# [6],!
ware (Base Station Controller, i.e., BSC, or Radio Network
devices: not only portable devices carried by mobile users,
the!most!promising!social!analysis!research!direction!is!the!investigation!of!the!dynamics!
such as smartphones or tablets, but also meters or other types
Controller, i.e., RNC). In the LTE architecture, the eNodeB
gathers all base station functionalities.
of machine-to-machine (M2M) communicating devices, as
and!evolution!of!mobile!call!graphs!at!multiple!time!scales.!
well as femtocells and cellular-connected Wi-Fi access points
At the CN, and considering 2G and 3G architectures, voice
and texting services are managed via the Circuit Switched (CS)
that bring local connectivity without the need for cabling.
!
8 The notion of Location Area, introduced originally in 2G networks,
7 According to the definition of Smoreda et al. [9], this corresponds to evolved with the development of new generations of mobile networks. Similar
passive monitoring of mobile traffic, in contrast to active collection performed concepts, such as Routing and Tracking Area are described in 3G and LTE
by operator-side platforms that periodically query end devices, typically 56"for systems. However, in this paper, we use Location Area as a generic term,
positioning information intended to enable location-based services. denoting all these different technical definitions.
Research!Background!

Mobility'Analysis'

As!shown!in!the!Ribot!et#al.#[6]!study,!mobility!analyses!involve!the!extraction!of!infor5
mation!from!mobile!traffic!data!that!represents!the!mobility!of!humans!and!the!usage!of!
transportation! infrastructure.! In! research,! human! mobility! includes! movement! at! the!
individual!and!group!level.!The!researchers!address!human!mobility!at!the!following!lev5
els:! ! visited! locations,! travel! distance,! spatiotemporal! regularity! and! predictability.! The!
main! goal! of! human! mobility! research! is! to! “better# understand# and# model# how# people#
travel# at# different# spatial# and# temporal# scales.”.! Another! aspect! of! mobility! analysis! is!
studying!the!use!of!mobile!traffic!data!in!the!context!of!transportation!systems.!The!re5
searchers! show! that! mobile! traffic! data! can! be! used! to! expose! travel! time! and! traffic!
state,! origin5destination! matrices! and! multimodality.! This! data! is! useful! in! planning!
transportation! systems! and! addressing! commuting! patterns.! However,! Wunnava! et# al.!
[32]!concluded!in!2007!that!mobile!traffic!data!could!not!accurately!estimate!congested!
road! traffic! conditions.! Since! that! time,! other! researchers! have! studied! ways! in! which!
mobile!traffic!data!can!more!accurately!contribute!to!addressing!this!research!question.!
Ribot!et#al.![6]!conclude!that!mobility!analysis!is!quite!mature!but!still!have!room!for!ad5
ditional!research!in!the!area!of!bias!reduction!and!elimination.!
!
##

Network'Analysis'

As!mentioned!earlier,!mobile!traffic!analysis!enables!mobile!service!providers!to!manage!
and!improve!network!performance,!target!capital!expenditures!and!network!engineering!
and!provides!insight!into!user!preferences!related!to!products!and!services.!Research!in!
networking!analysis!can!be!described!by!two!datasets:!!mobile!demand!and!technologies.!
Ribot!et#al.#[6]!study!mobile!demand!from!the!perspective!of!the!provider!where!traffic!is!
aggregated!over!many!users!and!from!the!perspective!of!the!user!where!the!focus!is!on!
behavior! related! to! mobile! network! use.! Mobile! demand! related! to! an! overall! network!
viewpoint!considers!temporal!dynamics,!spatiotemporal!dynamics!and!special!dynamics!

57"
Research!Background!

(e.g.,! natural,! social,! political,! economical! or! technical! special! events! that! affect! usage).!
Mobile!network!traffic!data!related!to!individual!access!helps!providers!and!researchers!
understand!how!individual!users!consume!mobile!services.!According!to!the!authors,!the!
main!considerations!in!research!on!individual!users!are:!!mobile!user!categories,!traffic5
mobility! correlations! and! device! and! traffic! types.! Additionally,! Ribot! et# al.# [6]# propose!
that! MSPs! can! use! mobile! traffic! data! to! develop! technologies! to! address! areas! such! as!
networking,!marketing!and!privacy.!Examples!of!networking!solutions!enabled!by!mobile!
traffic! analysis! are! user! localization,! network! parameter! tuning,! network! architecture!
improvements,! energy! efficiency! and! device5to5device! communication.! For! marketing,!
mobile! traffic! data! can! help! providers! understand! their! customers’! behavior! related! to!
churning! and! traffic! plans! as! well! as! service! adoption.! Finally,! the! authors! address! re5
searchers!trying!to!find!privacy!solutions!related!to!using!anonymized!mobile!traffic!da5
ta.!According!to!their!research,!scientists!found!the!commonly!used!standard!of!replacing!
identifiers!with!pseudo5identifiers!is!lacking!and!needs!to!be!modified!so!that!anonymity!
can!be!preserved.!

!
Internal'Data'Sources'

Internal! data! sources! are! the! main! sources! for! data! used! in! mobile! traffic! analysis! be5
cause! the! data! are! easily! acquired,! massive! and! relevant! [33].! Internal! data! can! come!
from!several!internal!sources!generated!through!the!Operational!Support!Systems!(OSS).!
Ishaya!et#al.![34]!identify!some!specific!internal!data!sources,!such!as:!!CDR,!CRM,!billing!
systems!and!service!records.!As!we!have!seen,!the!CDR!contains!a!wealth!of!valuable!in5
formation!for!providers!and!researchers!to!use.!CRM!systems!provide!an!additional!layer!
of!information!that!includes!customers’!wants!and!needs,!the!value!of!the!customer!and!
past!customer!service!interactions.!Zabadi!and!Haron![33]!argue!that!data!generated!by!
OSS!needs!to!be!used!in!conjunction!with!data!generated!by!the!Business!Support!System!
(BSS),!such!as!CRM!and!order!management,!in!order!to!capture!the!full!picture!of!busi5
ness!intelligence.!Data!gathered!from!the!CDR,!CRM!system,!billing!system,!customer!pro5

58"
Research!Background!

file!and!service!record!can!be!used!together!to!enable!data5driven!decision5making!and!
to!provide!a!tailored!level!of!customer!service.!In!addition,!it!is!possible!to!use!internal!
data! to! create! change.! Orange! and! Telecom! Italia! are! pioneers! in! making! internal! data!
available!externally.!As!mentioned,!the!companies!created!Data!for!Development,!an!in5
dustry!challenge!in!which!they!provided!what!would!normally!be!an!internal!dataset!to!
researchers! in! order! for! them! to! propose! solutions! to! certain! societal! and! population!
welfare!challenges![35].!!

External'Data'Sources'

Lack!of!reliability!of!external!data!sources!is!the!main!reason!that!they!are!not!used!as!
the!primary!data!source!for!mobile!traffic!analysis.!Ishaya!et#al.![34]!do!not!acknowledge!
the! numerous! external! data! sources.! Instead,! they! focus! only! data! retrieved! from! the!
network! domain! such! as! telecom! regulatory! bodies! and! specialist! vendors.! In! addition,!
they!argue!that!external!data!is!cost!prohibitive!due!to!its!unstructured!format!requiring!
extensive! manipulation! in! order! to! be! used.! On! the! contrary,! Ribot! et# al.! [6]! tout! the!
availability! and! usefulness! of! many! external! data! sources! that! provide! valuable! data,!
such! as:! GPS! tracking,! mapping,! traffic,! demographics,! economic! indicators,! commodity!
prices,!employment!details,!regional!census!numbers,!land!usage!figures,!health5related!
data!(pathology!and!epidemic)!and!weather!data.!!

A!main!driver!in!the!success!of!mobile!traffic!analysis!is!the!increasing!availability!of!da5
tasets.!After!decades!of!mobile!service!operators!using!their!collected!data!only!for!inter5
nal!troubleshooting,!efficiency!and!billing!purposes,!they!are!finally!seeing!the!data!as!a!
valuable! asset! that! Big! Data! can! help! monetize.! [6].! External! data! sources! play! an! im5
portant!role!in!mobile!service!providers!and!researchers!

59"
Research!Background!

2.3! Representation!of!the!Analytical!Process!

As! illustrated! in! Figure! 3! below,! the! data! life! cycle! involves! data! collection! from! three!
main!sources:!internal,!external!and!personal.!This!data!can!be!structured,!unstructured!
or!semi5structured.!

!!
Figure!3!Data!Life!Cycle!Model.!Turban!and!Volonino,!2010!

We!have!defined!internal!and!external!data!sources!in!the!previous!section.!Zabadi!et!al.!
[33]! add! to! these! personal! data,! which! they! define! as! “documentation! of! staff’s!
knowledge.”!!!

'

Data'Collection'

Mobile!traffic!data!can!be!collected!through!the!use!of!monitoring!probes!throughout!the!
cellular!network!infrastructure,!which!is!made!up!of!a!radio!access!network!and!a!core!
network.! Ribot! et# al.! [6]! define! the! mobile! traffic! probes! used! in! mobile! traffic! analysis!
and!describe!their!characteristics.!For!any!call,!text!or!data!transfer!activity,!remote!net5
work!controller!probes!record!the!state!changes!of!each!device,!detecting!device!attach5
ment! and! detachment! operations,! start! and! conclusion! of! sessions,! handover! and! loca5
tion!update!events.!Mobile!switching!center!probes!collect!similar!statistics,!but!they!col5

60"
Research!Background!

lect! data! on! voice! calls! and! texting,! not! data! traffic,! and! are! located! on! the! circuit!
switched! core.! Gateway! GPRS! support! node/packet! data! network! gateway! probes! col5
lects!data!related!to!external!IP!traffic,!typically!the!Internet,!and!includes:!!session!start!
and!end!time,!device!and!user!identifier,!traffic!volume,!type!of!service!and!class!of!ser5
vice! (Web,! email,! streaming! audio/video! and! sometimes! the! name! of! the! application).!
Finally,! charging! gateway! function! probes! are! responsible! for! providing! the! CDR! infor5
mation!to!the!billing!system.!The!researchers!warn!that!all!of!the!probes!have!strengths!
and!weaknesses!based!on!where!they!are!deployed!within!the!network.!Probes!that!are!
deployed!closer!to!the!end!devices!generally!provide!more!detailed!information!but!are!
more!difficult!to!deploy!and!are!less!reliable.!!

Prediction'Models'

Researchers!can!use!an!array!of!prediction!models!when!studying!mobile!traffic.!Hung!et#
al.![36]!conducted!research!on!using!data!mining!to!address!customer!churn!in!Taiwan5
ese!telecom!companies!that!are!in!a!very!competitive!environment.!They!wanted!to!pre5
dict!which!customers!are!about!to!change!providers,!or!churn,!and!assess!the!most!effec5
tive!way!that!the!provider!can!react.!They!used!several!data!mining!techniques!–!decision!
tree,! back! propagation! neural! network! (BPN)! and! K5means! cluster! –! to! create! the! best!
prediction!model,!Figure!4.!Hung!et#al.![36]!determined!that!the!performance!of!BPN!was!
better!than!the!decision!tree!model!without!customer!segmentation!on!both!model!per5
formance!criteria!–!hit!ratio!and!capture!rate.!!

61"
Research!Background!

"
"
Figure!4!IT!infrastructure!of!model!assessment!process!to!create!prediction!model,!Hung!et#al.!

2.3.1! The!Use!of!Cloud!as!Collection!and!Processing!Infrastructure!!

A!survey!of!Mobile!Virtual!Network!Operator!(MNVO)!experts!reveal!that!most!telecom!
BSS!functions!can!be!deployed!on!the!cloud![37].!For!China!Mobile!Communication!Cor5
poration!(China!Mobile),!the!largest!telecommunications!operator!in!the!world,!the!com5
plexity! of! its! IT! infrastructure! and! information! processing! system! was! a! challenge! that!
was!solved!with!the!adoption!of!cloud!computing.!Deng!et#al.![12]!analyze!the!transfor5
mation!of!China!Mobile!to!a!centralized!cloud5based!IT!strategy!and!evaluate!how!it!sup5
ports!the!provider’s!Big!Data!platform.!Particularly,!user!scale!and!the!increase!of!busi5
ness!applications!needed!to!be!addressed.!The!amount!of!data!China!Mobile!creates!in!a!
125month!span!from!CDRs!alone!ranges!between!12516!terabytes!and!its!signal!data!can!
reach!a!terabyte!per!day.!A!traditional!centralized!infrastructure!can!result!in!low!scala5
bility!and!high!cost.!To!address!these!challenges,!China!Mobile!adopted!a!centralized!IT!
strategy! based! on! a! cost5efficient! and! flexible! federated! cloud! infrastructure! [12].! The!
support! of! its! Big! Data! platform! was! paramount,! so! China! Mobile! benefits! from! large5
scale!storage!and!high!performance!computing!made!possible!by!using!a!federated!cloud!
infrastructure.! With! its! project! called! Big# Cloud,! China! Mobile! created! its! BC5PDM! (Big!

62"
Research!Background!

Cloud!–!Parallel!Data!Mining)!architecture,!based!on!a!commercial!PC!server!cluster!and!
the!Hadoop!platform![12].!To!support!the!necessary!Big!Data!analysis!functions,!the!BC5
PDM!architecture!supports!parallel!extract5transform!and!load!(ETL),!data!mining,!statis5
tics,!social!network!analysis!and!SQL!operations.!Deng!et#al.![12]!highlight!several!desir5
able!features!provided!by!this!cloud5based!architecture.!Web!2.05based!SaaS!enables!us5
ers!to!develop!data!analysis!applications!through!a!Web!browser!as!opposed!to!having!to!
purchase! software! to! install.! MapReduce5based! parallel! algorithms! provide! the! needed!
large5scale!data!computing!performance.!Having!the!infrastructure!based!on!a!PC!server!
cluster!means!that!China!Mobile!meets!its!low!cost!and!high!scalability!goal.!The!BC5PDM!
architecture!provides!extensive!flexibility!in!the!form!of!open!architecture,!various!API,!
flexible! data! management,! as! well! as! a! drag! and! drop! workflow! and! scheduler.! Finally,!
the! ETL! operations! and! data! mining! models! are! exported! as! Common! Warehouse!
Metadata! (CWM)! standards! and! Predictive! Model! Markup! Language! (PMML)! enabling!
the!process!and!model!to!be!reused!in!other!systems.!

Figure!5"BC5PDM!Architecture.!Yu!et#al.![13]"4!

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

4
HDFS:!Hadoop!distributed!file!system!(HDFS)!is!a!distributed,!scalable,!and!portable!file5system!written!in!Java!for!the!Hadoop!
framework!(Wikipediadefinition)!

63"
Research!Background!

Yu!et#al.![13]!tested!the!efficiency!and!effectiveness!of!the!BC5PDM!architecture,!illustrat5
ed!in!Figure!5,!as!it!relates!to!Big!Data!analytics.!!

The! researchers! used! a! dataset! from! China! Mobile! to! solve! three! business! tasks:! ! busi5
ness!recommendation,!customer!community!detection!and!user!preference!classification.!
Based!on!their!experiments,!Yu!et#al.![13]!discovered!that!BC5PDM!“has#the#ability#to#ana>
lyze#the#huge#scale#telecom#data#with#data#mining,#social#network#analysis,#text#mining#and#
statistics#analysis#and#the#high#performance#with#linear#speedup#ratio.”.!In!business!terms,!
BC5PDM! can! be! used! successfully! to! analyze! user! influence,! user! behavior,! user! prefer5
ences,!network!quality!and!the!possibility!of!customer!churn![13].!!

2.3.1.1! Existing!Architecture!and!Limitations!!

Telecom!companies!have!been!processing!data!to!achieve!internal!efficiencies!for!many!
years.!However,!more!recently,!the!companies!have!started!to!focus!on!using!their!vast!
stores! of! data! to! compete! with! each! other! and! improve! the! customer! experience! [33].!
Many!of!the!existing!architectures!reflect!the!original!internal!emphasis!on!data!analyt5
ics.! For! example,! 15! years! ago,! France! Telecom! (now! Orange)! partnered! with! HP,!
CapGemini! and! Oracle! to! create! a! new! central! data! warehouse! called! Symphonie! that!
would!store!its!telecom!traffic,!support!fraud!detection!efforts,!improve!customer!service!
and!enable!effective!network!traffic!analysis.!However,!as!with!all!traditional!infrastruc5
tures,! Symphonie! will! have! to! be! routinely! upgraded! in! order! for! it! to! manage! the! in5
creasing!data!capacity.!!
"

64"
Research!Background!

Event'processor Analytics
Location
Area
boundary
Cell'Tower

mobile' devices
Switch

Rating'and' Data'
Formatting
Billing' System Repositories
Raw'CDRs/UDRs
Switch
femtocells

Switch
Mediation' CDRs CRM
Device
cellular'APs
Switch DWH
Cell
Cell'Tower
sector Formatted
CDRs
connected'devices ERP

"

Figure!6!Simplified!CDRs!Architecture!from!Device!to!Analytics.!Ribot!et#al.![6]!

"

2.3.1.2! Current!Research!on!Cloud5Based!Architecture!!

Peak!and!urgent!event!scheduling!is!an!important!consideration!when!assessing!Big!Data!
infrastructure.!Shih!and!Huang![38]!conducted!unique!research!to!see!how!cloud!compu5
ting! can! adapt! rapidly! (and! unexpectedly)! expanding! and! contracting! computational!
tasks!while!meeting!desired!service!level!agreements.!With!billions!of!CDRs!being!gener5
ated!daily,!performance!and!reliability!were!two!key!requirements!for!effective!data!pro5
cessing.!The!researchers!acknowledged!that!cloud!computing,!with!its!elastic!computing!
resources,!allows!extra!machines!to!be!used!during!peak!and/or!urgent!data!processing!
scenarios.!In!their!research,!they!investigated!four!scheduling!strategies!–!average!strat5
egy,! capacity! reservation! strategy! and! pooling! strategy! –! to! determine! which! ones! will!
minimize! the! cost! of! processing! peak! and/or! urgent! CDRs! that! are! unknown! to! the!
scheduler! while! meeting! designated! SLAs.! Two! CDR! processing! scenarios! –! peak! and!
peak! and! urgent! –! were! tested.! The! researchers! warn:! ! “The# best# (least# expensive)# per>

65"
Research!Background!

forming#strategy#in#[a]#normal#scenario#could#perform#very#poorly#in#[a]#peak#and#urgent#
scenario.”! Through! their! experiments,! they! found! that! on! average! the! capacity! reserva5
tion! strategy! one! performed! best.! Using! this! scheduling! strategy,! the! scheduler! always!
reserves!sufficient!capacity!for!known!events!in!aggregate,!allows!peak/urgent!events!to!
use! the! reserved! capacity! and! tries! to! reserve! sufficient! capacity! for! processing! unfin5
ished!events.!!

In!2012,!Ishaya!et#al.![34]!developed!the!service!oriented!business!intelligence!architec5
ture! to! be! used! in! the! telecoms! industry! based! on! an! analysis! of! existing! architectures!
and!models!while!taking!customer!requirements!into!account.!Their!research!focused!on!
CDR! and! CRM! data! from! telecom! providers! that! use! the! service5oriented! approach! to!
determine!rate!plans.!The!proposed!service!oriented!business!intelligence!(SOBI)!archi5
tecture,!an!extension!of!the!one!proposed!by!Wu!et#al.!,!is!reflected!in!the!figure!below.!

Figure!7!Proposed!SOBI!Architecture!Ishaya!et#al.![34]!

As!Ishaya!et#al.![34]!conclude,!telecoms!operators!need!architecture!that!is!flexible.!Based!
on!what!we!know,!maximum!flexibility!is!most!likely!to!come!from!the!implementation!of!
cloud5based! architecture.! Similarly,! researchers! Zabadi! and! Haron! [33]! agree! that! a!
company’s! ability! to! be! competitive! is! directly! proportionate! to! its! ability! to! adapt! to!
change.!Again,!adopting!a!cloud5based!system!to!manage!Big!Data!is!a!way!for!companies!
to!be!able!to!adapt!to!change!in!an!efficient!and!cost5effective!way.!

66"
Research!Background!

In!their!2014!research,!Theeten!et#al.![14]!explain!that!telecom!companies!are!seeing!the!
benefits! of! Big! Data! platforms! and! are! exploring! frameworks! such! as! MapReduce! and!
open!source!implementations!such!as!Hadoop!and!Storm!to!analyze!streaming!data.!To!
identify!the!best!architecture!for!analyzing!large!datasets!from!telcos!using!a!real!time,!
incremental! streaming! approach,! these! researchers! investigated! several! approaches.!
Based!on!their!experimentation,!Theeten!et#al.![14]!conclude!that!a!new!parameter!con5
figuration!engine!is!needed!to!be!able!to!use!Storm!as!an!effective!framework!for!analyz5
ing!real!time!streaming!data.!

Based!on!our!findings,!it!is!obvious!that!research!on!cloud5based!architecture!for!analyz5
ing! Big! Data! needs! to! be! accelerated.! Current! research! is! lacking! and! the! absence! of!
strong!cloud5based!architectures!suitable!for!handling!Big!Data!results!in!mobile!service!
providers,!as!well!as!other!companies,!not!being!able!to!take!full!advantage!of!the!bene5
fits!than!can!come!from!adopting!a!cloud5based!Big!Data!model.!

2.3.2! Ethics,!Security!and!Compliance!

Mobile! traffic! data! contains! personal! information! that! can! provide! a! 24/7! picture! of! a!
person’s! life.! As! explained! by! Ribot! et# al.! [6],! it! is! this! content! and! the! sheer! volume! of!
data! that! can! be! accessed! that! is! precisely! what! makes! it! so! intriguing! to! researchers.!
However,!the!benefits!of!being!able!to!access!this!data!has!to!be!tempered!with!under5
stand!the!security!and!privacy!concerns!that!people!have!regarding!their!data!being!mis5
used.!Letouzé!and!Vinck![39]!argue!that!there!are!no!coherent!or!comprehensive!regula5
tions!or!guidelines!governing!mobile!traffic!analytics.!One!ethical!dilemma!is!who!owns!
the!data!–!the!mobile!service!provider!or!the!user!–!and!how!is!effective!consent!request5
ed!and!given.!Letouzé!and!Vinck![39]!said:!!“…everybody#agrees#that#CDR#analytics#must#
be#‘responsible’#or#‘ethical’#–#but#it#is#largely#unclear#what#ethical#framework#and#principles#
ought#to#be#used#to#inform#action.”!

67"
Research!Background!

Knowing!that!movements!can!be!tracked,!preferences!can!be!inferred!and!desires!can!be!
anticipated! can! be! disconcerting.! In! their! research,! Bondel! et# al.! [26]! established! that!
mobile! service! providers! do! not! seem! to! know! how! much! personal! information! can! be!
inferred!by!the!analysis!researchers!conduct!on!datasets.!This!led!to!regulators!creating!
laws!to!protect!mobile!phone!users.!For!example,!the!European!Data!Protection!Directive!
95/46/EC! mandates! that! all! mobile! traffic! datasets! be! anonymized! so! that! the! person!
cannot!be!identified!and!the!data!can!only!be!analyzed!for!the!time!necessary!to!provide!
the! intended! value5added! service.! As! a! result,! mobile! users’! identities! are! commonly!
anonymized!by!replacing!them!with!randomly!generated!numbers,!or!pseudo5identifiers,!
from!which!it!is!impossible!to!retrieve!the!original!phone!numbers!through!reverse!engi5
neering.!Researchers!such!as!Zang!and!Bolot![40]have!determined!that!this!standard!ap5
proach! is! not! sufficient! to! ensure! a! user’s! anonymity.! Using! CDR! containing! mobility!
traces,!they!have!proven!that!a!large!fraction!of!users!with!a!small!number!of!preferred!
locations!can!be!uniquely!identified.!Using!a!different!technique,!de!Montjoye!et#al.![41]!
have!re5identified!users!within!95%!probability!while!knowing!only!four!points!in!space!
and!time.!Finally,!with!more!mobile!phones!in!use!than!personal!computers,!the!threat!of!
a!mobile!virus!has!to!be!taken!seriously!also,!though!none!exists!yet.!!

With! Big! Data! comes! big! opportunities! and! potential! big! security! issues! if! they! are! not!
managed! effectively.! Protecting! the! identity! and! identifying! details! of! the! users! from!
which! mobile! data! comes! is! imperative.! Through! best! practices,! guidelines! and! laws,!
large!datasets!can!be!made!available!to!third!parties!and!to!researchers!enabling!them!to!
use!Big!Data!to!help!solve!some!of!the!world’s!most!serious!issues!including!disease,!epi5
demics! and! hunger.! To! that! end,! Blondel! et# al.! [26]! propose! some! possible! fixes! to! the!
data! anonymization! dilemma.! They! argue! that! when! researchers! are! only! considering!
average! behaviors! that! it! is! possible! to! perform! small! modifications! to! the! dataset! that!
will!dramatically!impact!the!outcome!for!any!would5be!attackers!but!would!not!alter!the!
general! findings! for! researchers.! Another! countermeasure! to! safeguard! user! identity!
proposed!by!Blondel!et#al.![26]!is!to!regularly!produce!a!new!random!identifier!so!that!it!

68"
Research!Background!

is!impossible!to!use!longitudinal!information!to!assess!the!preferred!locations!of!a!user.!
Kushwaha!et#al.![27]!suggest!that!using!a!trusted!third!party!for!CDR!storage!and!man5
agement!will!enhance!telecom!companies’!regulatory!and!compliance!efficiency.!Particu5
larly,! the! researchers! address! the! request! for! information! from! legal! authorities.! They!
argue! that! using! a! trusted! third! party! will! protect! the! mobile! service! provider! in! that!
they!are!in!compliance!while!at!the!same!time!the!request!will!be!handled!correctly!since!
the!trusted!third!party!will!be!experts!in!compliance!and!in!how!to!provide!the!necessary!
information!to!fulfill!the!request.!

2.4! MSP!Challenges!

Since! the! privatization! of! the! telecom! industry,! mobile! service! providers! have! been!
forced! to! become! more! competitive! in! order! to! gain! new! customers,! manage! customer!
churn! and! maintain! profitability.! Until! now,! these! internally! focused! challenges! have!
been! the! main! ones! addressed! by! analyzing! mobile! traffic! data.! However,! with! the! in5
creased!competition!and!challenge!to!be!more!innovative!and!profitable,!mobile!service!
providers!are!facing!four!additional!challenges!related!to!mobile!traffic!analysis:!!moneti5
zation;! creating! new! revenue! streams;! operationalization! of! the! analytical! process;! and!
understanding!the!limitations!and!opportunities!of!using!CDR.!

2.5! Conclusion!!

After!a!thorough!review!of!the!literature!on!mobile!traffic!analysis,!it!is!safe!to!conclude!
that!further!investigation!is!needed!in!order!to!articulate!the!justification!for!a!more!ef5
fective!technology.!Mobile!service!providers!need!to!look!for!ways!to!use!Big!Data!to!tap!
into! the! full! potential! of! the! unprecedented! amount! of! data! they! have! available! and! to!
find!ways!to!monetize!it.!But,!before!they!can!effectively!take!advantage!of!the!benefits!of!
Big!Data,!research!has!to!be!conducted!to!overcome!the!issues!that!we!identified.!In!the!
past,! traditional! business! intelligence! analysis! has! been! used! to! minimize! customer!

69"
Research!Background!

churn.!By!tapping!into!the!true!power!of!Big!Data,!MSPs!can!expand!their!use!of!the!vast!
streams!of!data!they!are!already!collecting!to!areas!such!as!network!analysis,!social!anal5
ysis! and! mobility! analysis.! In! fact,! the! outcomes! from! data! scientists! using! data! at! this!
level!of!granularity!in!new!and!powerful!ways!will!not!only!become!competitive!differen5
tiators!and!drive!companies!into!new!markets,!but!also!help!improve!society!as!a!whole!
by!providing!scientists!the!datasets!they!need!to!solve!some!of!the!world’s!most!complex!
problems.!

Ironically,!all!large!telecom!providers!sell!cloud5computing!solutions!but!not!all!of!them!
use!cloud!computing!to!their!best!advantage.!Cloud!computing!is!an!important!option!to!
consider! when! discussing! the! Big! Data! phenomenon.! Big! Data! and! cloud! complement!
each! other! in! several! fundamental! ways.! With! the! unfathomably! large! amounts! of! data!
being!acquired,!stored!and!archived,!virtual!storage,!and!data!accessibility,!is!paramount.!
In!addition,!computing!power!on!demand!is!a!must5have!for!Big!Data!analytics,!and!cloud!
computing! provides! the! needed! scaling/elasticity,! on! demand! processing! and! resource!
optimization!on!a!pay5per5use!basis!all!supported!by!performance5based!SLAs.!!

However,! there! are! still! challenges! that! need! to! be! overcome! to! make! clouds! the! ideal!
platform! for! Big! Data! analytics.! Researchers! have! identifies! data! management,! integra5
tion,! processing! and! security! as! key! challenges! for! hosting! Big! Data! analytics! on! public!
clouds.!To!address!this!concern,!researchers!propose!that!each!cloud!deployment!model!
–!private,!public!and!hybrid!–!be!considered!when!looking!for!complementarity!between!
Big!Data!and!cloud!computing.!!

The!primary!findings!in!Chapter!2!are:!

•! Big!Data!problem:!!Mobile!CDR!exhibit!extremely!large!amount!of!Data.!Being!able!
to!effectively!manage!the!ebb!and!flow!of!massive!amounts!of!data!in!a!scalable!
environment!is!critically!important!to!Big!Data!in!general!and!Big!Data!analytics!in!
particular.!

70"
Research!Background!

•! Green!Field:!!Mobile!traffic!analysis!is!a!new!field!of!research!is!not!yet!well!un5
derstood!adding!an!additional!layer!of!nebulousness!to!the!relative!immaturity!of!
Big!Data!and!Cloud!computing,!!

•! The!analytical!process!is!complex.!However,!the!goal!of!Big!Data!is!not!to!elimi5
nate!the!complexity!but!to!harness!the!complexity!in!a!meaningful!way.!

In! order! to! better! understand! how! Big! Data! and! cloud! computing! can! support! mobile!
traffic!analysis,!we!need!to!further!study!the!available!processes!and!tools!and!determine!
how!companies!can!adopt!these!technologies!in!order!to!gain!the!full!potential!from!their!
data.!In!the!following!chapter,!we!will!commence!this!further!study!by!investigating!the!
factors!influencing!Big!Data!technology!adoption.!

71"
 !

72"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

! Investigation!of!Factors!Influ5
encing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

“Everybody Talks About the Weather,

But Nobody Does Anything About It.”
Mark Twain, Charles Warner!

Big!Data!solutions!give!the!needed!power!to!the!vast!amounts!of!data!being!collected!by!
mobile!service!providers.!By!using!data!scientists!and!employing!robust!analytical!mod5
els! and! systems,! MSPs! can! maximize! the! value! of! this! data.! Effective! Big! Data! analytics!
can! improve! business! performance! and! be! a! competitive! differentiator.! Companies! can!
use! Big! Data! to! innovate,! create! new! business! models! and! improve! products! and! ser5
vices.!Additionally,!the!analysis!of!Big!Data!can!enable!a!wide!variety!of!business!opera5
tions!–!business!process!optimization,!churn!detection,!managing!and!nurturing!custom5
er!relationships,!scientific!breakthroughs!and!targeted!selling!–!and!can!transform!entire!
industries!and!can!contribute!to!the!social!good.!!

73"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

In!the!first!two!sections!of!this!chapter,!we!look!at!several!definitions!of!Big!Data!from!
various!researchers!and!describe!the!key!characteristics!–!volume,!velocity!and!variety.!
Big!Data!is!discussed!within!the!context!of!knowledge!discovery!and!data!mining!in!Sec5
tion!3.3,!and!we!address!the!differences!of!the!various!terms!and!how!they!are!interre5
lated!with!Big!Data.!In!Section!3.4,!we!define!the!data!value!chain,!which!is!illustrated!in!
Figure! 8,! and! explain! the! importance! of! each! step.! Section! 3.5! is! devoted! to! identifying!
the!major!Big!Data!tools!and!points!out!that,!due!to!the!elements!in!data!science!changing!
so!quickly,!the!optimum!tools!to!take!advantage!of!Big!Data!do!not!exist.!In!Section!3.6,!
we!explain!the!main!challenges!of!Big!Data!analysis!and!the!criticisms!based!on!previous!
research.!External!data!sources!are!explained!in!Section!3.7,!and!Section!3.8!gives!a!per5
spective!on!the!use!and!misuse!of!Big!Data!in!terms!of!governance,!ethics!and!errors.!We!
also!discuss!the!role!of!the!data!scientist!as!it!relates!to!Big!Data!adoption!and!the!skillset!
required!depending!on!the!type!of!data!scientist.!In!Section!3.10,!we!identify!the!related!
adoption!determinants!at!the!individual!and!organizational!levels.!Section!3.11!highlights!
the!adoption!advantages!of!Big!Data!both!from!the!business!and!user!perspectives.!The!
barriers!to!adoption!are!explained!in!Section!3.12,!followed!by!a!brief!discussion!of!the!
adoption!models!(or!a!modified!version)!–!TAM,!TAM3!and!TTF!–!that!researchers!usual5
ly!use!when!studying!Big!Data.!

3.1! Overview!

Companies!can!use!Big!Data!to!answer!a!wide!range!of!business!questions,!such!as:!Who!
are!our!customers?!What!do!they!buy?!Where!do!they!live,!work!and!play?!How!will!new!
products!impact!the!existing!ones?!What!marketing!promotions!are!most!effective?!What!
distribution!channels!are!most!efficient?!

Big!Data!analytics!is!a!complex!process!that!requires!human!expertise,!namely!from!data!
scientists,!in!addition!to!robust!systems!and!infrastructure.!Three!key!types!of!Big!Data!
analytics! are! descriptive,! predictive! and! prescriptive! ([17]).! The! authors! describe! de5

74"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

scriptive!analytics!as!using!historical!data!to!summarize!what!happened!by!condensing!
data! into! manageable! datasets.! As! the! next! step,! predictive! analytics! uses! a! variety! of!
techniques!to!analyze!both!current!and!historical!data!to!make!predictions!about!the!fu5
ture,!or!to!predict!future!data!that!does!not!exist.!Finally,!Assunção!et#al.[17],#Delen!et#al.!
[42]! define! prescriptive! analytics! as! a! step! beyond! descriptive! and! predictive! and! one!
that! actually! prescribes! an! action! or! actions! that! a! decision! maker! should! take! and! in5
cludes!a!feedback!loop!to!take!into!account!the!outcome!of!the!action(s)!taken.!!

McAfee! and! Brynjolfsson! [43]! argue! that! data5driven!decisions!are!better!decisions!and!

leaders!will!either!embrace!this!fact!or!be!replaced!by!others!who!do.!Even!though!Big!
Data!analytics!is!a!challenging!and!time5consuming!endeavor,!Big!Data!can!deliver!tangi5
ble!business!value!that!makes!it!a!worthwhile!investment.!

3.2! Big!Data!Definition!

Researchers! agree! that! Big! Data! is! a! term! used! to! identify! very! large! datasets! –! with! a!
wide!variety!of!types!–!which!cannot!be!managed!with!traditional!methodologies!or!data!
mining!software!tools!due!to!their!large!size!and!complexity!([44],![45]).!Being!more!pre5
cise,!Diebold!said,!“Big#Data#is#now#not#only#a#phenomenon#and#term,#but#also#a#discipline.”#
([46]).!From!the!contrarian!point!of!view,!Boyd!et#al.!([47])!agree!with!Manovich![48]!that!
Big! Data! is! a! “poor! term”! because! it! was! originally! meant! to! describe! datasets! so! large!
they!had!to!be!analyzed!using!a!supercomputer!and!now!it!is!used!to!describe!datasets!
that! are! so! small! that! they! can! be! analyzed! on! a! desktop! computer! with! standard! soft5
ware.!!

Diebold!credited!John!Mashey,!retired!former!Chief!Scientist!at!SGI,!with!using!“Big!Data”!
for!first!time!in!1998!in!a!Silicon!Graphics!Inc.!(SGI)!presentation!titled!“Big!Data!and!the!
Next!Wave!of!InfraStress,”!which!demonstrates!a!clear!awareness!of!Big!Data!as!a!phe5
nomenon! and! not! simply! a! term.! Research! by! Fan! and! Bifet! [44]! confirms! that! the! first!

75"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

academic!references!to!Big!Data!are!from!Weiss!and!Indurkhya![49]!in!1998!and!Diebold!
in!2000![50].!The!world!today!is!increasingly!connected,!resulting!in!the!production!and!
storage!of!data!at!unprecedented!volumes.!Researchers!are!convinced!that!mining!both!
structured!and!unstructured!data!helps!companies!learn!from!data!they!acquire!as!well!
as!the!vast!amount!of!publicly!available!data![51].!As!Assunção!et#al.![17]!explain,!Big!Data!
encompasses!the!ability!to!find!relationships!between!private!information!on!consumer!
preferences!and!products!and!public!data!on!social!networks!and!using!the!output!from!
the!data!analysis!to!make!data5driven!decisions.!!

Pospiech! and! Felden! [52]! categorized! existing! Big! Data! literature! by! two! perspectives:!!
the!technical/data!utilization!perspective!and!the!functional/data!provisioning!perspec5
tive.! Their! review! shows! that! both! the! Big! Data! topic! and! researchers! are! technically!
driven! and! focused! on! performance! aspects.! Technical! data! provisioning,! methods! like!
data! mining! and! deep! analytics,! are! discussed! thoroughly.! Conversely,! investigations!
about!Big!Data!in!an!overall!perspective,!such!as!functional!data!provisioning!and!utiliza5
tion,!are!missing.!!

Defining! Big! Data! involves! a! collision! of! many! terms! –! knowledge! discovery! and! data!
mining,! data5driven! discovery! (or! decisions),! data! science,! data! mining,! among! others.!
Chen!et#al.![53]!add!to!this!list!by!providing!an!analysis!of!the!research!over!the!last!dec5
ade!in!business!intelligence!and!analytics!(BI&A).!The!authors!use!business!intelligence!
and!analytics!as!a!unified!term!and!treat!Big!Data!analytics!as!a!related!field!that!can!help!
steer!the!BI&A!research!in!new!directions.!They!identify!the!challenges!and!opportuni5
ties!associated!with!data!analysis!and!explain!how!analyzing!data!can!enable!companies!
to! better! understand! their! businesses! and! markets! and! make! timely,! data5driven! busi5
ness! decisions.! Chen! et# al.! cover! five! emerging! areas! of! foundational! technologies! and!
emerging!research!in!analytics:!!Big!Data!analytics,!text!analytics,!Web!analytics,!network!
analytics!and!mobile!analytics.!Regarding!mobile!analytics,!the!authors!call!for!research5
ers! to! actively! pursue! research! in! what! they! call! BI&A! 3.0,! or! BI&A! focused! on! mobile!

76"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

devices!and!sensor5based!Internet5enables!devices!equipped!with!RFID.!Chen!et#al.![53]!
argues!that!the!Web!3.0!era!of!mobile!and!sensor5base!devices!is!inevitable!and!“the#un>
derlying# mobile# analytics# and# location# and# context>aware# techniques# for# collecting,# pro>
cessing,# analyzing# and# visualizing# such# large>scare# and# fluid# mobile# and# sensor# data# are#
still#unknown.”!As!a!result,!IS!research!and!education!programs!need!to!study!the!upcom5
ing!challenges!and!opportunities!and!develop!action!plans!in!order!to!capitalize!on!and!
be!prepared!for!this!evolution.!

The!most!acknowledged!Big!Data!definition!is!certainly!Doug!Delaney’s!definition!from!
Gartner5!.!He!defines!Big!Data!as!“high>volume,#high>velocity#and#high>variety#information#
assets#that#demand#cost>effective,#innovative#forms#of#information#processing#for#enhanced#
insight# and# decision# making”# # This! definition! is! important! to! consider! because! it! covers!
the!key!characteristics!of!Big!Data!–!volume,!velocity!and!variety.!In!addition,!it!includes!
the!requirement!that!the!data!processing!is!cost5effective!and!that!the!data!is!processed!
by! tools! that! are! more! advanced! than! commonly! used! software! tools,! which! would! be!
ineffective! in! processing! the! volume! of! data! represented! by! Big! Data.! Also,! the! Gartner!
definition!of!Big!Data!includes!a!business!insight!and!decision5making!component,!which!
is!essential!to!realizing!the!real!business!value!of!Big!Data.!

Table!1!Definitions!of!Big!Data:!a!perspective!from!key!researchers!

Author!&!Year! Definition!

Pospiech!et%al.![54]! Big#Data#can#be#described#in#terms#of#volume,#velocity,#variety#and#variability.#

Boyd!et%al.![47]!! Big#Data#is#defined#as#a#cultural,#technological,#and#scholarly#phenomenon#
that#rests#on#the#interplay#of:#
(1)#Technology:#maximizing#computation#power#and#algorithmic#accuracy#to#
gather,#analyze,#link,#and#compare#large#data#sets.#
(2)#Analysis:#drawing#on#large#data#sets#to#identify#patterns#in#order#to#make#
economic,#social,#technical,#and#legal#claims.#

(3)#Mythology:#the#widespread#belief#that#large#data#sets#offer#a#higher#form#
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
5
Gartner: http://www.gartner.com/it-glossary/big-data.

77"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

of#intelligence#and#knowledge#that#can#generate#insights#that#were#previously#
impossible,#with#the#aura#of#truth,#objectivity,#and#accuracy.#

Franklin![55]! Big#Data#is#a#representation#of#limits#and#constraints.#i.e.:#what#is#the#defini>
tion#of#big#for#geneticist,#a#businessperson,#and#astronomer.#Time,#Quality,#
Money#are#the#key#constraints#to#Big#Data,#if#you#have#problem#with#one#then#
you#do#have#a#Big#Data#problem.#Data#scientists#must#mitigate#the#con>
straints#to#produce#the#answer#(i.e.#lower#the#data#quality).#

Diebold![46]! Big#Data#refers#to#the#explosion#in#the#quantity#(and#sometimes,#quality)#of#
available#and#potentially#relevant#data,#largely#the#result#of#recent#and#un>
precedented#advancement#in#data#recording#and#storage#technology.#
!

Madden![56]" Data#that’s#too#big,#too#fast,#or#too#hard#for#existing#tools#to#process.##

#Data#sets#and#analytical#techniques#in#applications#that#are#so#large#(from#
Chen![53]! terabytes#to#exabytes)#and#complex#(from#sensor#to#social#media#data)#that#
they#require#advanced#and#unique#data#storage,#management,#analysis#and#
visualization#technologies.#

3.2.1! Characteristics!of!Big!Data!–!Volume,!Velocity!and!Variety!

In! 2001,! Doug! Laney,! Research! Vice! President,! Gartner,! described! Big! Data! using! the!
well5known!“3Vs”!model:!!volume,!velocity!and!variety.!Since!that!time,!various!experts!
and! researchers! have! tried! to! add! “Vs”! to! the! conversation,! but! beyond! visualization,!
which!is!a!Big!Data!tool!that!will!be!discussed!later,!the!other!Vs!are!not!integral!to!the!
Big!Data!definition.!

3.2.1.1! Volume!

As!the!name!suggests,!volume!is!a!key!characteristic!of!Big!Data.!Large!companies!regu5
larly!work!with!many!petabytes!of!data!per!day.!The!amount!of!data!available!for!analy5
sis! increases! exponentially! every! day,! is! hard! to! store! and! requires! optimized! systems.!
According! to! a! 2013! projection,! 2.5! quintillion! bytes! of! data! are! generated! every! day.!
This!figure!is!indicative!of!the!Big!Data!phenomenon.!The!human!mind!cannot!immedi5
ately! fathom! what! that! amount! of! data! means.! But! Baesens! et# al.! [57]! bring! this! figure!

78"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

into! focus! using! relative! terms! and! assert! that! it! means! 90! percent! of! the! data! in! the!
world!was!created!in!the!last!two!years.!

Storage!and!the!capacity!to!visualize!are!two!considerations!related!to!volume.!As!shown!
by!Assunção!et#al.#[17],!storage!is!important!because!the!sheer!volume!of!data!could!make!
it!impossible!to!transfer!the!data!for!processing!and!analysis.!Reda!et#al.![58]!explain!that!
the!dimensionality!and!volume!of!data!exceed!the!abilities!of!standard!visualization!dis5
plays! and! requires! special! environments! suited! for! handling! Big! Data! visualization.!
Though!the!volume!of!data!is!unprecedented!and!is!a!key!characteristic!of!Big!Data,!Boyd!
and!Crawford![47]!argue!that!the!rationality!of!Big!Data!to!other!data!is!more!remarkable!
than!its!volume.!

3.2.1.2! Velocity!

The!discipline!of!Big!Data!is!more!complex!than!simply!high5volume!data.!Velocity!is!an5
other!key!characteristic!to!consider.!In!fact,!the!velocity!of!the!data!creation!is!more!in5
fluential! than! volume! in! many! applications.! Considering! velocity,! research! from! As5
sunção!et#al.![17]!focus!on!the!importance!of!data!arriving!and!requiring!to!be!processed!
at! different! speeds:! ! batch! (at! time! intervals),! near5time! (at! small! time! intervals),! real5
time!(continuous!input,!process,!output)!and!streams!(data!flows).!!

McAfee!and!Brynjolfsson![43]!propose!that!companies!can!increase!their!agility!over!the!
competition!by!effectively!using!real5time!or!near!real5time!data.!Streams!of!data!arrive!
continuously!and!companies!can!benefit!from!obtaining!information!from!it!in!real!time.!
On!a!Black!Friday,!the!traditional!kickoff!of!the!U.S.!holiday!shopping!season,!Alex!Pent5
land,!a!leading!researcher!in!Big!Data,!and!his!group!of!researchers!from!the!MIT!Media!
Lab!used!mobile!phone!location!data!to!deduce!how!many!shoppers!were!in!Macy’s!park5
ing!lots.!Using!Big!Data!analytics,!the!researchers!predicted!Macy’s!sales!for!the!day!be5
fore!the!sales!were!actually!made.!

79"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

3.2.1.3! Variety!

With! an! increasingly! connected! world,! Big! Data! comes! in! an! ever5increasing! variety! of!
forms,!including:!!audio,!environmental!conditions,!GPS!signals,!graphics,!messages,!pic5
tures,!sensor!readings,!social!media!updates,!statistics,!texts,!traffic!conditions,!weather!
information!and!video,!as!shown!by!various!researchers!([44]).!Billions!of!smartphones!
and!other!connected!and!mobile!devices!provide!constant!streams!of!data!tying!people!to!
activities,!behaviors!and!locations.!

Having!data!coming!from!so!many!different!sources!means!that!the!data!is!in!numerous!
formats! –! structured,! semi5structured! and! unstructured! –! making! integration! challeng5
ing.!Fisher![59]!proposes!that!using!standard!formats!and!interfaces!will!benefit!solution!
providers! by! creating! data! integration! capabilities! that! can! be! used! by! many! different!
customers.!!

3.3! Big!Data:!!An!Evolution!of!Knowledge!Discovery!and!Data!Mining?!

Some! people! view! Big! Data! as! nothing! more! than! hype! –! like! old! wine! in! new! bottles!
([60]).! For! centuries,! people! have! been! analyzing! data! and! decisions! have! been! made!
from!data!analysis.!Over!time,!the!size!of!the!data!sets!has!exponentially!grown!and!be5
come!more!complex.!However,!Big!Data!is!more!than!just!a!lot!of!data!or!vastly!more!data!
than!people!were!used!to!in!the!past.!It!is!a!phenomenon!that!includes!a!detailed!process!
behind!the!scenes!before!data!is!ready!for!analysis!and!exposure!within!an!organization!
to!provide!business!insights!and!enable!data5driven!decision5making.!!

3.3.1! Dispelling!the!terminology!confusion.!

In!order!to!eliminate!potential!confusion,!it!is!important!to!assess!the!definitions!and!the!
interactions!between!and!relationships!among!the!terms!data#science,!knowledge#discov>
ery# in# database# or# data# (KDD),# data# mining,! data>driven# decision# making! (DDD)! and! Big#
Data.! Provost! and! Fawcett! [61]! argue! that! data! science! is! the! overall! field! that! is! the!

80"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

“connective!tissue”!between!data!processing!technologies,!including!Big!Data,!and!data5
driven!decision!making.!Further,!they!point!out!that!data!science!as!a!field!should!be!con5
sidered!separately!from!data!science!as!a!profession.!They!see!data!mining!as!the!most!
closely! related! concept! to! data! science.! However,! many! researchers! point! out! that! data!
mining!is!one!step!in!the!overall!KDD!process.!Even!then,!KDD!is!sometimes!referred!to!
as!knowledge!discovery!in!database!whereas!other!academics,!like!Han!et#al.![62]!define!
it!as!knowledge!discovery!in!data!Han!et#al.![62]!compile!a!list!of!alternatives!names!for!
data! mining! including:! ! “knowledge# discovery# (mining)# in# databases# (KDD),# knowledge#
extraction,# data/pattern# analysis,# data# archaeology,# data# dredging,# information# harvest>
ing,#business#intelligence.”!However,!it!is!important!to!note!that!data!mining!and!KDD!are!
not!synonymous;!data!mining!is!one,!albeit!a!vital,!step!in!the!knowledge!discovery!pro5
cess.! Mitchell! [63]! argues! that,! “Data# mining/knowledge# discovery# in# databases# is# not# a#
single#technique#but#is#a#mixture#of#[artificial#intelligence],#statistical#analysis#and#probabil>
istic#techniques#used#together#in#an#integrated#manner#to#analyze#large#collections#of#data.”!!

In! knowledge! discovery,! careful,! detailed! analysis! and! interpretation! is! used! to! extract!
non5obvious!information!from!Big!Data.!According!to!Fayyad![64],!knowledge!discovery!
is!dependent!on!a!clear!understanding!of!the!business!problem!that!needs!to!be!solved.!
Specifically,! businesses! must! embed! business! analytics! into! their! critical! business! pro5
cesses!and!the!data!scientist!must!have!a!very!clear!understanding!of!the!business!in!able!
to!building!a!data!model!that!will!provide!useful!and!valuable!output.!Knowledge!discov5
ery!entails!all!of!the!steps!in!the!data!value!chain!from!data!recording!(or!data!acquisi5
tion)!through!exposure!(or!decision!making):!!data!recording;!data!cleaning/integration!
and! representation;! data! analysis;! data! visualization/interpretation;! and! decision! mak5
ing! [53].! The! accessibility! of! data,! or! the! ability! to! easily! acquire! it,! is! essential! to! the!
knowledge!discovery!process.!Without!the!ability!to!easily!find!the!data!that!is!needed!to!
solve!a!problem,!the!results!for!Big!Data!analytics!and!data5driven!decision!making!could!
be!delayed!which!could!devalue!the!ultimate!outcomes.!!

81"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

According!to!Provost!and!Fawcett![61],!the!main!goal!of!data!science!is!to!improve!deci5
sion! making! in! business;! therefore,! they! propose! that! data! science! feeds! DDD! and! data!
science! is! fed! by! Big! Data.! For! this! paper,! we! will! consider! data! science! to! be! the! main!
field!of!study!and!one!that!uses!Big!Data!to!help!managers!make!business!decisions!and!
organizations!to!take!actions!that!will!add!value!to!their!businesses.!To!derive!value!from!
Big!Data,!data!scientists!use!core!principles!and!concepts!along!with!various!algorithms,!
techniques!and!tools,!including!knowledge!discovery!in!databases!and!analytics,!and!sys5
tematic!thinking!that!aids!decision!making.!Effectively!implementing!the!results!derived!
from!data!science,!Big!Data!and!ultimately!data5driven!decision!making!has!the!potential!
to!solve!business!problems!and!substantially!improve!business!performance.!However,!it!
is!important!to!differentiate!each!piece!of!the!puzzle!because!each!one!has!a!specific!and!
unique!part!to!play!along!the!data!value!chain.!Regarding!Big!Data,!we!saw!earlier!that!
some!researchers!like!Boyd!et#al.![47]!think!that!Big!Data!is!a!“poor!term”!because!of!the!
evolution!of!its!definition!over!time.!However,!other!researchers!like!Diebold![46]!accept!
that!the!definition!of!Big!Data!has!evolved!and!is!now!a!discipline!as!well!as!a!term!and!a!
phenomenon.!For!this!paper,!we!will!subscribe!to!Diebold’s!view!of!Big!Data!and!will!fo5
cus! on! the! adoption! of! Big! Data! and! cloud! computing! –! as! opposed! to! KDD! and! cloud!
computing,!for!instance!–!because!Big!Data!affects!the!entire!data!value!chain,!which!in5
cludes!KDD,!data!mining,!analytics!(and!visualization)!and!data5driven!decision!making.!

3.4! Data!Value!Chain!

As!we!discussed!in!the!previous!chapter,!various!terms!can!have!different!meanings!de5
pending!on!who!is!using!them.!This!premise!holds!true!for!the!terms!“collaborative”!or!
“collaboration”! as! it! relates! to! data! science! in! general! and! Big! Data! in! particular.! MIT!
Sloan! Management! Review,! in! partnership! with! the! IBM! Institute! for! Business! Value,!
conducted! a! global! survey! of! 4,500! business! executives,! managers! and! analysts.# Kiron!
and! Shockley! [65]! report! that! nearly! half! of! the! 1,200! respondents! that! identify! them5
selves!as!members!of!organizations!that!are!experienced!in!data!analytics!are!also!con5

82"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

sidered!“collaborative”!organizations.!The!authors!defined!collaborative!organizations!as!
those!that!are!“taking#an#approach#focused#on#developing#their#information#management#
competency,#with#attention#focused#on#creating#an#enterprise>wide#information#platform#to#
support# broad# and# consistent# use# of# analytics.”! According! to! the! authors,! an! important!
aspect!of!being!a!collaborative!organization!is!dispensing!with!silos!and!developing!ca5
pabilities!that!encourage!data!creation!and!sharing!across!the!organization.!With!the!vast!
amounts!of!data!being!captured!within!an!organization,!sharing!the!information!with!the!
people!who!can!use!it!to!benefit!the!company!is!essential.!Further,!they!found!that!col5
laborative! companies! are! almost! three! times! more! likely! to! use! data! analytics! to! guide!
future!strategies!and!are!beginning!to!rely!on!analytics!in!their!day5to5day!operations!at!
twice!the!rate!of!companies!that!say!they!are!focused!on!building!their!analytics!exper5
tise!in!certain!functions![65].!Additionally,!the!study!showed!that!collaborative!organiza5
tions!are!twice!as!likely!to!share!the!resulting!insights!with!customer5facing!employees!
to!help!drive!productivity!and!also!are!twice!as!likely!to!provide!insights!to!anyone!wi5
thin!the!organization!that!needs!them.!!

Radhakrishnan!et#al.!![66]!and!Sharma!et#al.![67]!compile!extensive!academic!and!practi5
tioner!literature!reviews!of!the!value!impact!that!investment!in!IT,!Big!Data!and!business!
analytics! has! on! companies.! According! to! Radhakrishnan! et# al.,! [66]! recognizing! infor5
mation! technologies! that! interact,! or! collaborate,! with! key! organizational! processes! is!
important.! This! study! finds! that! “firms# that# focus# on# IT# and# take# measures# to# effectively#
diffuse,#absorb,#manage#and#use#IT#at#the#process#level#enjoy#a#differential#business#value.”!
In!addition,!it!provides!justification!for!investments!in!IT!technologies!that!can!leverage!
critical! business! processes.! According! to! the! authors,! the! study! demonstrates! that! “it# is#
effectiveness#in#IT#usage#which#is#a#determining#factor#for#superior#performance.”!Sharma!
et#al.![68]!propose!that!business!analytics!are!likely!to!affect!decision5making!processes!
and!that!superior!decision5making!processes!enabled!by!business!analytics!in!turn!con5
tributes! to! improvements! in! organizational! performance.! Similarly,! La! Valle! et# al.! [69]!
found!that!high5performing!companies!use!rigorous!analysis!to!make!decisions!at!double!

83"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

the! rate! of! lower! performing! companies.! As! Kiron! and! Shockley! [65]! confirmed,! high5
performing! organizations! use! analytics! to! “guide! both! future! strategies! and! day5to5day!
operations.”!!

When!discussing!Big!Data,!there!is!at!least!one!other!way!to!define!collaboration.!To!capi5
talize!on!their!investments!in!Big!Data,!industry!players!could!share,!integrate!and!ana5
lyze!their!collective!research!data.!In!the!pharmaceutical!industry,!for!example,!collabo5
rating!on!Big!Data!projects!in!this!way!has!the!potential!to!accelerate!research!in!disease!
cures!as!well!as!drug!discovery!and!development.!Industry5wide!collaboration!in!Big!Da5
ta! is! in! its! infancy,! but! this! scenario! has! the! potential! to! benefit! other! industries! in! the!
future!and!exponentially!increase!the!value!achieved!from!Big!Data.!

To!create!value,!data!must!be!manipulated,!processed!and!combined!over!the!course!of!
many!steps.!Understanding!the!steps!is!critical!to!devise!a!way!for!organizations!to!use!
the!data!to!solve!business!problems!and!make!data5driven!decisions.!Boyd!and!Crawford!
[47]!argue!that!the!value!from!data!comes!from!patterns!that!can!be!derived!by!making!
connections! between! data! about! an! individual,! about! individuals! in! relation! to! others,!
about!groups!of!people!or!about!the!structure!of!the!information.!!

As!in!many!other!aspects!of!Big!Data,!there!is!debate!among!researchers!with!regard!to!
the!steps!of!the!data!value!chain.!Overall,!the!various!components!are!there,!but!the!de5
bate!is!in!the!order!in!which!they!appear.!In!this!paper,!the!data!value!chain!is!defined!as!
follows:!!data!acquisition;!information!extraction!and!cleaning;!data!integration,!aggrega5
tion! and! representation;! query! processing! and! data! modeling;! and! analysis! (which! in5
cludes! visualization).! Analytics! is! the! main! focus! of! the! Big! Data! discipline.! However,!
analysis!would!be!impossible!without!successful!completion!of!the!prior!steps!in!the!data!
value!chain,!which!makes!up!around!80%!of!the!overall!process.!As!a!result!of!the!various!
manipulations! at! each! stage! of! the! data! value! chain,! Big! Data! analytics! derives! new! in5
sights!and!actionable!information!and!can!be!aided!by!data!visualization.!

84"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

Selection" PreProcessing" Transformation" Data"Mining" Interpretation/Evaluation"

Preprocessed" Transformed"
Data Target"data Patterns Knowledge
Data Data

"
Figure!8!Overview!of!the!steps!constituting!the!KDD!process,!Fayyad!et#al.![64]!

3.4.1! Data!Acquisition!

Simply!acquiring!the!data!needed!to!answer!business!queries!or!solve!business!quanda5
ries! is! the! first! step! in! the! data! value! chain.! Kandel! et# al.! [70]! argue! that! finding! data!
across! numerous! databases,! tables! or! files! can! be! difficult! and! inefficient! because! com5
panies! have! insufficient! documentation! and! search! capabilities.! In! some! instances,! the!
data!is!restricted!to!certain!personnel,!or!the!data!is!stored,!but!the!person!needing!the!
data!does!not!know!how!to!find!it.!As!a!result!of!the!large!volume!of!data!available,!effi5
cient!ways!to!acquire!the!needed!data!is!critical!to!the!success!of!Big!Data.!

3.4.2! Information!Extraction!and!Cleaning!

According!to!research,!once!an!analyst!discovers!the!appropriate!data!to!use,!she!often!
needs! to! manipulate! the! acquired! data! before! she! can! use! it! for! downstream! analysis!
([70]).!Such!data!cleaning!involves!parsing!text!files,!manipulating!data!layout!and!inte5
grating! multiple! data! sources.! The! cleaning! process! is! tedious! and! time! consuming.! In!
addition,! Boyd! and! Crawford! argue! that! the! data! cleaning! process! –! deciding! which! at5
tributes!and!variables!will!be!counted!and!which!will!be!ignored!–!is!inherently!subjec5
tive!([47]).!

3.4.3! Data!Integration,!Aggregation!and!Representation!

Kandel!et#al.#[70]!identify!integrating!data!from!multiple!sources!as!a!challenge,!particu5
larly! when! identifiers! that! join! records! across! data! sets! are! missing,! inconsistent! or! in5
correct! .! The! research! shows! that! analysts! reported! three! types! of! inconsistencies! in!

85"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

identifiers!during!data!integration:!!slight!variations!of!spelling!or!formatting!that!made!
direct!matches!difficult;!data!sources!that!used!two!encodings!to!represent!a!single!iden5
tifier;! and! identifiers! using! inconsistent! units! of! measurement! or! class! definitions.! ! For!
example,!integrating!the!geographic!data!from!mobile!data!could!be!difficult!if!overlap5
ping!geographical!regions!are!defined!inconsistently.!!

Integration! problems! are! exacerbated! when! data! is! stored! across! multiple! databases.!
Most!analysts!reported!having!to!aggregate!the!disparate!data!sets!into!a!common!pro5
cessing!framework.!Another!overarching!challenge!for!data!integration,!aggregation!and!
representation!is!the!fact!that!analysts!cannot!express!the!needed!queries!within!tradi5
tional!visualization!tools.!Instead,!they!have!to!process!the!data!outside!the!tool!and!then!
load!it!again.!This!two5step!process!can!significantly!slow!Big!Data!analytics.!

3.4.3.1! Query!Processing!and!Data!Modeling!

Data!quality!is!an!important!consideration!of!query!processing.!In!a!study!by!Kandel!et#al.!
[70],!researchers!found!that!data!sets!may!contain!quality!issues!such!as!missing,!errone5
ous!or!extreme!values!due!to!errors!in!automated!processes,!human!data!entry,!misuse!of!
a!data!column!between!departments!or!the!introduction!of!a!new!field!in!a!log!file![70].!In!
addition,!data!scientists!report!the!biggest!difficulty!in!constructing!a!data!model!is!un5
derstanding!which!data!fields!are!most!relevant!to!the!analysis!they!are!undertaking.!In!
particular,! the! study! found! that! it! is! difficult! to! analyze! the! relationships! between! fea5
tures!across!multiple!databases.!!

Data! modeling! is! an! important,! but! time5consuming,! step! in! the! data! value! chain.! The!
results! of! data! modeling! can! show! the! relationships! between! data! in! a! diagram! or!
flowchart.!Data!modeling!is!particularly!useful!for!creating!forecasts!and!predictive!anal5
ysis.!It!enables!the!best!decisions!to!be!made!by!answering!the!Data!Architecture!ques5
tions:!What!should!I!do?!Why!should!I!do!it?!In!order!to!evaluate!their!ability!to!forecast!
future!behavior,!models!need!to!be!tested.!Studies!have!found!that!some!researchers!are!

86"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

looking!for!effective!ways!to!offload!this!work!by!using!cloud!providers!or!by!paralleliz5
ing!machine!learning!algorithms.!

3.4.3.2! Data!Mining!

The!field!of!data!mining!was!formalized!in!1991!in!a!book!by!Piatetsky!and!Shapiro!titled!
Knowledge# Discovery# in# Databases! ([71]).! According! to! Chen,! et# al.! ([45]),! data! mining! is!
defined! as! a! set! of! techniques! to! extract! valuable! information! (particularly! patterns)!
from! data,! including! clustering! analysis,! classification,! regression! and! association! rule!
learning.!

The!concept!of!Big!Data!mining!has!been!relevant!for!at!least!15!years.!In!fact,!Weiss!and!
Indrukya!([49])!wrote!the!first!book!that!mentioned!Big!Data!titled!Predictive#Data#Min>
ing,!published!in!1998.!Fan!et#al.!([44])!explain!that!Big!Data!mining!enables!the!extrac5
tion!of!useful!information!from!large!datasets!or!data!streams!that!previously!could!not!
be!processed!due!to!the!volume,!velocity!and!variety!of!the!data.!Due!to!those!key!charac5
teristics,!it!stands!to!reason!that!Big!Data!mining!is!more!challenging!compared!with!tra5
ditional!data!mining!algorithms.!Unlike!some!other!technological!advances,!Big!Data!min5
ing!is!not!unique!to!the!developed!world!since!approximately!80%!of!the!five!billion!mo5
bile!phones!in!existence!are!located!in!developing!countries.!

3.4.3.3! Analysis!and!Data!Visualization!

Researchers! debate! if! analysis,! data! visualization,! interpretation! and! business! in5
sights/decision!making!are!separate!steps!in!the!data!value!chain!or!should!be!combined!
in! some! way.! In! this! paper,! data! analysis! and! visualization! are! considered! interrelated,!
and! this! data! value! chain! step! encompasses! the! resulting! business! insights,! inferences!
and!decision5making.!!

After!completing!all!of!the!previous!steps!in!the!data!value!chain,!data!analysis!–!the!pri5
mary!focus!of!Big!Data!–!is!possible.!Data!analysis!entails!finding!the!right!data!to!answer!

87"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

your! business! question! or! quandary! and! using! analysis! tools! to! interpret! the! data! and!
find!relationships!between!the!data.!As!part!of!the!analysis,!data!scientists!then!use!visu5
alization!tools!to!translate!the!data!into!business!insights!and!actionable!data!that!can!be!
used!for!decision!making.!!

Data!visualization!is!an!enabling!technology!that!expresses!the!results!of!data!analytics!
using!letters,!lines,!numbers,!points!and!shapes!usually!on!a!chart,!graph!or!map.!Abadi!et#
al.!assert!that!turning!Big!Data!into!a!picture!using!data!visualization!techniques!makes!
interpretation! of! the! results! easier! ([72]).! Interactive! or! static! visualization! supports!
business!intelligence,!messaging,!reporting!and!decision5making.!Infographics!are!a!pop5
ular!way!to!present!information!derived!from!data!visualization!in!a!way!that!enables!lay!
people!to!understand!the!data!and!use!it!to!learn!insights!or!make!decisions.!Chen!et#al.!
propose!that!representing!knowledge!in!the!most!intuitive!and!effective!way!is!the!main!
goal!of!data!visualization!([53]).!The!authors!identify!both!aesthetic!form!and!function!as!
requirements!to!effectively!derive!the!knowledge!that!is!hidden!in!complex!and!volumi5
nous!data!sets.!Davey!et#al.!([73])!conclude!that!data!visualization!capitalizes!on!human!
collaboration!in!the!form!of!background!knowledge!and!pattern!detection!capabilities,!as!
well! as! the! ability! to! detect! trends! and! relate! findings! to! a! holistic! view! of! a! particular!
problem!([73]).!

In!addition!to!being!useful!to!present!data!analysis!results,!Kandel!et#al.![70]!confirm!that!
visualization!and!statistical!routines!can!be!used!to!detect!errors,!appearing!as!outliers,!
in!data.!Researchers!agree!that!robust!data!visualization!tools!are!mission5critical!to!ef5
fectively!handling!the!ever5increasing!amount!of!data!being!analyzed.!

88"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

3.5! Big!Data!Tools:! Major Data Analysis Architectures

In!order!to!take!full!advantage!of!the!value!hidden!in!Big!Data,!researchers!need!effective!
tools! that! enable! them! to! manipulate! the! vast! amounts! of! data! and! manage! it! in! a! way!
that! can! provide! actionable! output.! We! have! addressed! the! definition! of! Big! Data,! its!
characteristics,!and!its!relation!to!other!areas!in!the!data!science!field!and!the!data!value!
chain.!Chen!argues!that!information!is!increasing!at!a!faster!pace!than!information!pro5
cessing!methods![74].!Therefore,!the!optimum!tools!to!fully!take!advantage!of!Big!Data!
do!not!currently!exist.!As!Cattell![75]!points!out!in!his!paper,!elements!in!data!science!are!
changing!so!quickly!that!anything!written!about!it!is!almost!immediately!inaccurate!or!in!
conflict!with!other!documentation.!Nevertheless,!in!this!section,!we!will!describe!the!ma5
jor! data! analysis! architectures,! or! platforms,! used! for! Big! Data! knowledge! discovery.!
Apache!Hadoop,!NoSQL!and!streaming!platforms!will!be!addressed!along!with!how!they!
help!address!the!requirements!of!Big!Data!analytics.!Finally,!we!will!provide!some!survey!
results!highlighting!the!most!popular!data!mining!software,!the!most!used!Big!Data!tech5
nologies! and! the! most! used! programming! languages! when! writing! customer! codes! for!
data!mining.!

3.5.1! Apache!Hadoop/MapReduce!

Apache!Hadoop!is!a!well5established!infrastructure!and!platform!used!by!data!scientists!
working!on!Big!Data!projects.!Begoli![76]!defines!Apache!Hadoop!as!“an#umbrella#project#
for# a# number# of# Java>based# software# packages# and# APIs# for# data# management,# organiza>
tion# and# job# scheduling# on# a# very# large# scale.”! Hadoop! comprises! the! Hadoop! kernel,!
MapReduce!and!Hadoop!distributed!file!system!(HDFS)![74].!MapReduce,!pioneered!by!
Google,! is! a! data! processing! paradigm! based! on! the! “divide! and! conquer”! method! that!
condenses!large!amounts!of!data!into!useful!aggregated!results,!breaking!complex!prob5
lems!into!sub5problems![74].!As!the!name!suggests,!the!divide!and!conquer!method!is!in!
two!steps:!Map,!in!which!a!complex!problem!is!divided!into!sub5problems!and!distribut5
ed!to!worker!nodes;!and!in!the!Reduce!step,!all!of!the!answers!to!the!sub5problems!are!

89"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

collected!and!combined!into!output,!or!a!solution!to!the!original!complex!problem.!Many!
data! mining! algorithms! accommodate! the! MapReduce! function.! The! ability! for! HDFS! to!
partition!data!and!compute!across!many!nodes!is!an!important!aspect!of!the!Hadoop!eco5
system.!It!is!important!to!understand!that!HDFS!is!not!a!NoSQL!database.!One!main!dif5
ference!is!that!it!does!not!index!data!but!instead!executes!a!job!by!scanning!all!the!data.!
Though!processing!data!this!way!is!considered!inefficient!by!NoSQL!advocates,!it!is!irrel5
evant!for!Hadoop!since!its!performance!is!primarily!dependent!on!the!number!of!nodes!
and!the!total!computing!power. !

With!its!free!license,!huge!user!community!and!open!source!techniques,!Hadoop!is!used!
in!many!data!analysis!initiatives.!Lin!and!Liu![77]!identify!Hadoop!as!particularly!appli5
cable!to!Big!Data!because!it!uses!parallel!computing!to!accelerate!the!speed!of!data!pro5
cessing! and! protects! the! data! storage! by! maintaining! multiple! copies! of! the! data! .! Plus!
Chen!and!Zhang![74]!identify!the!main!advantages!of!Hadoop!as!high!scalability,!reliabil5
ity!and!completeness,!making!it!a!desirable!tool!for!Big!Data!analysis.!In!addition!to!HDFS!
and!MapReduce!for!Big!Data,!Hadoop!consists!of!datawarehousing!(Hive),!massive!scale!
column5oriented! database! management! software! (HBase),! machine! learning! library!
(Mahout),! job! tracking! and! scheduling! suite! (ZooKeeper! and! Pig)! and! other! related! li5
braries! and! packages! for! massively! parallel! and! distributed! data! management.! Compa5
nies! and! researchers! that! need! to! store! and! manage! huge! amounts! of! data! in! various!
structures!or!no!structure!at!all!use!Hadoop!extensively,!making!it!synonymous!with!Big!
Data.!!

90"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

Figure!9!Blueprint!of!Hadoop!Data!platform!proposed!by!HortonWorks6!2015!

Many!IT!organizations!are!distributing!their!own!version!of!Hadoop!by!adding!enterprise!
support,!additional!functionalities!and!tools.!Amazon!Elastic!MapReduce!is!a!web!service!
that!runs!Hadoop.!In!addition,!Hadoop!can!run!on!Amazon!Elastic!Computer!Cloud!(EC2)!
and!Amazon!Simple!Storage!Service.!IBM!BigInsights!for!Apache!Hadoop!is!offered!in!the!
cloud!as!Hadoop5as5a5service.!Also,!Microsoft!Azure!HDInsight!is!a!100%!Hadoop5based!
service! in! the! Azure! cloud.! In! some! cases,! researchers! choose! the! batch! based! Hadoop!
option!as!their!data!analysis!architecture.!

Although,!Hadoop!is!an!open!source!framework,!it!is!fair!to!say!that!Hadoop!has!evolved!
as!an!ecosystem!that!hosts!numerous!open!sourced!technologies.!!

3.5.2! NoSQL!

NoSQL!(Not!only!Standard!Query!Language)!database!is!used!in!data!curation!for!large!
and! distributed! data! management! and! database! design! [74].! Because! of! its! acronym,!
some!people!inaccurately!think!that!the!name!means!“not!SQL”!as!opposed!to!“Not!only!

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
6
HortonWorks!Hadoop!Platform:!http://hortonworks.com/blog/defining5enterprise5hadoop/!

91"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

SQL.”! Cattell! [75]! points! out! that! the! definition! of! NoSQL! is! not! entirely! agreed.! These!
databases!generally!offer!flexible!and!scalable!storage!and!query!services!under!usually!
open!source!licenses!and!used!in!many!mainstream!Big!Data!platforms.!In!his!paper,!Cat5
tell!identifies!NoSQL!databases!by!the!following!six!key!features:!the!ability!to!horizontal5
ly!scale!“simple!operation”!throughput!over!many!servers;!the!ability!to!replicate!and!to!
distribute!(or!partition)!data!over!many!servers;!a!simple!call!level!interface!or!protocol!
(in! contract! to! SQL! binding);! a! weaker! concurrency! model! than! ACID! transactions! of!
most!relational!database!systems; efficient!use!of!distributed!indexes!and!RAM!for!data!
storage; and!the!ability!to!dynamically!add!new!attributes!to!data!records.

However,! Chen! and! Zhang! [74]! explain! that! there! are! still! many! Big! Data! analytic! plat5
forms!that!still!use!SQL!in!their!databases.!NoSQL!databases!are!available!with!most!pub5
lic!and!private!cloud!service!offerings!and!are!an!attractive!solution!for!highly!scalable,!
low!cost!data!management!needs.!Chen!explains!that!NoSQL!separates!data!storage!and!
management! into! two! independent! parts,! unlike! other! relational! databases,! and! are!
schema!free,!enabling!applications!to!modify!the!data!structure!without!have!to!rewrite!
tables.! The! most! popular! NoSQL! database! is! Apache! Cassandra,! which! was! released! to!
open! source! by! Facebook! in! 2008.! Other! popular! NoSQL! implementations! include! the!
aforementioned! Apache! Hadoop! and! MapReduce;! companies! using! NoSQL! include!
LinkedIn,!Netflix!and!Twitter![74]!.!

3.5.3! Streaming!Platforms!

In!some!cases,!architecture!such!as!Hadoop!is!insufficient!since!it!uses!batch!processing!
and! cannot! process! large! amounts! of! data! in! real! time.! For! applications! such! as! pro5
cessing! log! files,! sensor5based! data,! machine5to5machine! and! telematics,! real5time! re5
sponse!for!processing!large!data!streams!is!required.!In!this!case,!Chen!and!Zhang![74]!
propose!using!specially!designed!real5time!Big!Data!platforms,!such!as!SQLstream,!Storm!
and!StreamCloud.!To!achieve!real5time!streaming!analytics,!very!low!latency!is!essential.!
Chen!and!Zhang![74]!assess!the!of!some!of!the!most!famous!Big!Data!platforms!based!on!

92"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

stream!processing!as!follows:!!Storm!–!the!most!used,!scalable,!fault!tolerant,!easy!to!set!
up!and!operate;!SQLstream!–!SQL5based,!real5time!streaming!Big!Data!platform;!Splunk!–!
fast! and! easy! to! use,! dynamic! environments,! scales! from! laptop! to! datacenter;! Apache!
Kafka! –! high5throughput! stream! of! immutable! activity! data;! and! Spark! and! SAP! Hana! –!
fast!in5memory!computing!and!real5time!analytics.!

3.5.4! Big!Data!Programming!Tools!!

The!KDnuggets!website!conducted!a!survey!in!2012!of!architectures!to!show!the!current!
state!of!adoption!for!data!mining!software,!Big!Data!technologies!and!programming!lan5
guages! that! are! used! routinely! for! knowledge! discover! and! data! mining! [76].! The! four!
most!popular!data!mining!software!programs!are:!!R7!(30.7%),!Excel!(29.8)!and!Rapid5
IRapid! Miner! (26.7%)! and! KNIME! (21.8%).! The! statistics! show! that! usually! more! than!
one! data! mining! software! program! is! used.! For! Big! Data! technologies! used,! the! survey!
showed! 8.4%! use! Hadoop/HBase/Pig/Hive;! 4.5%! use! Amazon! Web! Services;! 4.1%! use!
NoSQL!databases;!2.6%!use!some!other!Big!Data!software;!and!1.3%!use!some!other!Ha5
doop5based! tools.! Finally,! the! top! five! programming! languages! used! in! writing! custom!
code!for!data!mining!were:!!R;!SQL;!Java;!Python;!and!C/C++.!

3.6! Challenges!in!Big!Data!Analysis!—!Criticisms!!

Big! Data! not! only! offers! big! opportunities,! but! also! exposes! big! challenges.! Lessig! [78]!
succinctly!sums!up!four!forces!that!regulate!systems:!!the!market,!law,!social!norms!and!
architecture!(or!code!in!the!case!of!Big!Data).!Lessig!confirms!that!all!four!forces!are!at!
work!with!Big!Data!and!are!frequently!at!odds!with!one!another.!The!author!insists!that!
the! inbuilt! flaws! of! tools! must! be! taken! into! account! so! that! automation! does! not! com5
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

7
R is a programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics supported by the
R Foundation for Statistical Computing (Wikipedia definition)

93"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

pletely!change!the!definition!of!knowledge.!Research!by!Assunção!et#al.!([17])!shows!that!
Big! Data! analytics! is! a! challenging! and! time5consuming! task! that! requires! expensive!
software,!large!computational!infrastructure!and!expertise.!Some!key!challenges!can!be!
found! along! the! data! value! pipeline:! ! heterogeneity! and! incompleteness;! scale;! timeli5
ness;!privacy/security;!and!human!collaboration.!

Buhl! et# al.! [79]! vigorously! confirm! these! challenges! and! raise! some! of! their! own.! They!
point! out! that! the! sheer! volume! of! data! represented! by! Big! Data! has! the! propensity! to!
lead! to! a! certain! amount! of! “garbage”! that! is! more! easily! recognized! and! managed! by!
humans!as!opposed!to!data!analytic!software.!Further,!they!point!out!challenges!related!
to!every!characteristic!of!Big!Data.!For!variety,!they!point!to!the!challenges!around!effec5
tively! managing! data! from! a! myriad! of! sources.! For! volume! and! velocity,! they! warn!
against!the!challenge!of!archiving,!retrieving!and!analyzing!huge!amounts!of!data!in!real!
time.!Buhl!et#al.#[79]#point!out!that!fully!benefiting!from!Big!Data!requires!an!collabora5
tive! effort! across! companies! including! improvements! to! “technological# infrastructure,#
business# process,# business# applications# as# well# as# an# incremental# change# in# the# business#
model#of#the#company,#including#new#methods#to#derive#knowledge#from#data.”!(Buhl,!67).!
Research!by!Assunção!et#al.![17]!shows!that!Big!Data!analytics!is!a!challenging!and!time5
consuming!task!that!requires!expensive!software,!large!computational!infrastructure!and!
expertise.! Buhl! et# al.! [79]! describe! Big! Data! as!“above# all# a# multidisciplinary# and# evolu>
tionary# fusion# of# technologies# in# combination# with# new# dimensions# in# data# storage# and#
processing,#a#new#era#of#data#source#variety#and#the#challenge#of#managing#adequately.”.!
Even!with!all!of!its!challenges,!they!see!Big!Data!as!a!basis!for!long5term!business!success!
if!companies!take!the!necessary!steps!to!use!it!effectively.!

Kitchin! [80]! addresses! the! epistemological! challenges! that! Big! Data! precipitates.! Based!
on!his!research,!Kitchin!defines!the!empiricist!epistemology!related!to!Big!Data!as:!!“Big#
Data#can#capture#a#whole#domain#and#provide#full#resolution;#there#is#no#need#for#a#priori#
theory,#models#or#hypotheses;#through#the#application#of#agnostic#data#analytics#data#can#

94"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

speak# for# themselves# free# of# human# bias# or# framing,# and# any# patterns# and# relationships#
within# Big# Data# are# inherently# meaningful# and# truthful;# meaning# transcends# context# or#
domain>specific#knowledge,#this#can#be#interpreted#by#anyone#who#can#decode#statistic#or#
data#visualization.”!He!goes!on!to!challenge!each!of!these!points,!explaining!that!data!is!
created!and!acquired!through!a!complex!system!that!does!not!allow!it!to!be!completely!
neutral.!Kitchin!explains!that!since!Big!Data!is!the!result!of!systems!designed!to!capture!it!
and!the!analytics!and!algorithms!are!based!on!scientific!reasoning!and!testing,!then!the!
resulting!data!is!not!“free#from#the#regulating#force#of#philosophy.”!Further,!Kitchin![80]!
argues!that!data!cannot!speak!for!itself!because!it!requires!some!level!of!interpretation!
by!data!scientists!to!be!meaningful.!On!the!opposing!side!of!the!empiricist!epistemology!
is!data5driven!science.!Kitchin!concludes!that!over!time!data5driven!science!will!win!out!
over! the! empiricist! arguments.! He! further! predicts! that! the! data5driven! approach! will!
eventually! present! a! strong! challenge! to! the! knowledge5drive! scientific! method! as! Big!
Data! becomes! more! common! and! new! data! analytics! are! advanced.! Floridi! [81]! ap5
proaches!the!epistemological!challenge!of!Big!Data!differently.!First,!he!is!quite!adamant!
that!the!term!Big!Data!itself!makes!no!sense!and!means!virtually!nothing.!Then,!he!states!
that!the!real!epistemological!problem!with!Big!Data!is!small!patterns,!which!represent!a!
new!frontier!of!competition.!He!proposes!that!businesses!need!to!stop!trying!to!analyze!
all! of! the! data! they! have! available! to! them! and! start! focusing! on! asking! the! right! ques5
tions!in!order!to!determine!what!data!is!worth!collecting!and!analyzing.!Further,!Floridi!
[81]!argues!that!perhaps!a!philosophical!investigation!of!analytical!methods!could!help!
define!Big!Data!more!clearly.!

3.6.1! Dealing!with!Data!Lineage!and!Quality!!

Big! Data! analysis! depends! on! complete! sets! of! homogenous! data.! Data! must! be! well!
structured! and! complete! for! eventual! data! analysis! to! be! accurate.! Unlike! humans,! ma5
chine!analysis!algorithms!cannot!understand!nuances!and!are!most!effective!when!pro5
vided!homogenous!data.!As!Chen!et#al.!([45])!assert,!when!data!is!inconsistent!or!incom5

95"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

plete,! intervention! is! needed! for! data! cleaning,! integration,! transformation! and! reduc5
tion.! Boyd! and! Crawford! ([47])! show! that! incomplete! data! is! of! particular! significance!
when! dealing! with! social! media,! such! as! Twitter,! where! people! can! have! multiple! ac5
counts,!“bots”!can!send!tweets,!some!people!are!solely!listeners!and!multiple!people!can!
tweet!from!a!single!account.!!

3.6.2! Scale!

As!the!name!implies,!a!major!characteristic!of!Big!Data!is!scale,!and!Chen!et#al.![45]!argue!
that!the!top!challenge!for!Big!Data!analytics!is!scalability.!Being!able!to!effectively!man5
age!the!ebb!and!flow!of!massive!amounts!of!data!in!a!scalable!environment!is!critically!
important!to!Big!Data!in!general!and!Big!Data!analytics!in!particular.!!

Boyd! and! Crawford! ([47])! adamantly! disagree! with! non5scientists! like! Chris! Anderson,!
editor5in5chief!of!Wired,!who!thinks!that!through!the!sheer!volume!of!data!that!numbers!
will! speak! for! themselves.! Boyd! and! Crawford! do! not! believe! numbers! speak! for! them5
selves! and! even! go! as! far! as! calling! the! notion! arrogant.! Further,! the! researchers! state!
that!quantity!and!quality!do!not!have!to!be!mutually!exclusive,!but!bigger!is!not!always!
better!when!it!comes!to!data.!!

3.6.3! Timeliness!–!Real5Time!Analytics.!

In! real5time! analytics,! data! may! be! in! flux.! For! that! reason,! recency! is! more! significant!
than! volume.! For! real5time! Big! Data! applications,! like! astronomy,! biomedicine,! finance,!
intelligent!transport!systems,!Internet!of!Things,!navigation!and!social!networks,!Chen!et#
al.!see!timeliness!as!the!top!priority![45].!For!example,!when!circumventing!credit!fraud,!
timeliness!is!essential!in!order!to!benefit!from!the!results!of!the!data!analysis!before!the!
transaction!is!completed.!Boyd!and!Crawford!also!see!time!as!an!issue!with!certain!Big!
Data! sources! that! offer! poor! archiving! and! search! functions,! such! as! Twitter! and! Face5

96"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

book.! In! these! cases,! researchers! are! likely! to! focus! only! on! the! present! or! recent! past!
because!accessing!historical!information!is!too!difficult!or!even!impossible.!

3.6.4! Human!Collaboration!

Humans!can!detect!many!patterns!that!computer!algorithms!have!a!hard!time!detecting.!
Ideally,!Big!Data!analytics!will!be!designed!explicitly!to!have!a!human!in!the!loop!as!op5
posed!to!being!only!computational.!Visualization!takes!human!collaboration!into!account!
with!respect!to!the!modeling!and!analysis!phase!of!the!data!value!pipeline.!There!is!simi5
lar!value!to!human!input!at!all!stages!of!the!analysis!pipeline.!As!mentioned!previously,!
Kitchin![80]!concluded!that!data!needs!some!level!of!human!interpretation!in!order!to!be!
meaningful.!Choo!and!Park![82]!study!convergence!as!it!relates!to!Big!Data.!The!authors!
state! that! many! computational! methods! are! so! complicated! that! the! solution! has! to! be!
iteratively!refined!until!it!converges!to!a!final!solution.!For!this!reason,!humans!can!play!
an!important!role!in!visual!analytics!for!Big!Data.!In!particular,!in!perception5based!con5
vergence,!the!authors!say!that!since!“humans!can!quickly!understand!the!overall!struc5
ture!or!trend!in!data,!they!might!be!able!to!perceive!enough!information!for!an!interme5
diate!result!obtained!from!an!earlier!iteration.”!!

In!today’s!complex!world,!it!often!takes!specialized!tools!being!manipulated!by!multiple!
experts!from!different!domains!to!gain!a!full!understanding!of!the!data!being!analyzed.!A!
Big!Data!analysis!system!must!support!input!from!multiple!geographically!dispersed!ex5
perts!that!are!working!virtually.!Kandel!et#al.!![70]!confirm!the!value!of!tools!that!support!
collaboration:##“Tools#that#simplify#tasks#across#the#analytic#pipeline#could#empower#non>
programmers#to#apply#their#statistical#training#and#domain#expertise#to#large,#diverse#data#
sets.# Tools# that# help# manage# diverse# sets# of# procedures,# data# sets,# and# intermediate# data#
products#can#enable#analysts#to#work#and#collaborate#more#effectively.”!!

97"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

3.7! External!Data!Sources!!

In!this!era!of!Big!Data,!sources!of!vast!amounts!of!data!are!everywhere,!but!gaining!ac5
cess! to! the! data! is! oftentimes! difficult! or! even! impossible.! Data! sharing! started! in! ge5
nomics! in! 1996! when! around! 50! researchers! agreed! to! share! their! large5scale! human!
genome!sequencing!data8.!!The!group!unanimously!developed!a!set!of!principles!to!fol5
low!in!order!to!make!data!“freely#available#and#in#the#public#domain#to#encourage#research#
and#development#and#to#maximize#the#benefit#to#society.”!The!consequence!of!data!being!
freely!available!is!that!genetic!research!is!advancing!faster!that!all!other!biomedicine!ar5
eas9.!However,!all!disciplines!of!research!did!not!get!immediately!on!board.!Wallis!et#al.!
[83]!conducted!a!study!on!how!data!is!shared!and!reused,!specifically!among!researchers!
at! the! Center! for! Embedded! Networked! Sensing.! The! authors! found! that! views! and! ac5
tions!differ!among!researchers.!For!example,!in!a!Tenopir!et#al.![84]!study!of!more!than!
1,000!researchers,!78%!said!that!they!were!willing!to!put!at!least!part!of!their!data!in!a!
central! data! repository! with! no! restrictions;! however,! only! 36%! agreed! that! their! own!
data!is!easy!to!access!and!less!than!6%!made!all!of!their!data!available.!Wallis!et#al.![83]!
reported:!!“Among#our#most#striking#findings#is#the#lack#of#use#of#repositories#for#sharing#
data.#While#CENS#researchers#do#obtain#data#from#repositories,#as#discussed#further#below,#
their#use#of#repositories#to#deposit#data#ranks#a#distant#third,#after#responding#to#individual#
requests# and# posting# data# on# local# websites.”! In! fact,! the! authors! found! that! some! re5
searchers!take!great!strides!in!some!cases!to!keep!their!data!from!becoming!public,!even!
if! federal! law! requires! them! to! release! the! data.! For! instance,! seismological! data! from!
research!conducted!with!U.S.!federal!funds!must!be!deposited!in!a!community!repository!
for!seismic!data!within!two!years!after!the!last!instrument!is!removed!from!the!ground.!
Wallis!et#al.![83]!found!from!their!interviews!that!seismologists!would!ignore!the!spirit!of!
the! law! and! purposely! delay! removing! instruments! in! order! to! give! themselves! more!

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

8!International!Large5Scale!Sequencing!Meeting:!

http://web.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/publicat/hgn/v7n6/19intern.shtml!
9!Sharing!health!data:!good!intentions!are!not!enough:!http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/88/6/095074393/en/

98"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

time! for! data! analysis.! Pisani! and! AbouZahr! [85]! argue! that! open! collaboration! among!
researchers!enables!the!same!data!to!be!used!for!multiple!purposes;!allowing!new!ques5
tions!to!be!answered!and!making!the!data!serve!new!purposes!well!beyond!its!original!
intention.!Toward!this!end,!the!World!Health!Organization!data!depository!provides!pub5
lic!online!access!to!more!than!1,000!high5level!indicators!on!major!health!topics!includ5
ing!mortality!and!diseases!covering!its!member!states.!Pisani!and!AbouZahr![85]!propose!
that!unavailable!data!in!areas!such!as!global!public!health!research!is!not!only!hampering!
research!progress,!but!also!is!wasteful!since!data!collection!is!usually!funded!by!taxpay5
ers!or!charitable!organizations.!However,!since!the!genomic!breakthrough,!some!organi5
zations!in!other!fields!of!study!have!stepped!up!in!a!meaningful!way!to!make!data!availa5
ble!for!researchers!to!use!for!their!own!purposes.!To!grow!the!Big!Data!ecosystem!and!
promote!collaboration,!observatories!and!other!scientific!organizations,!such!as!the!Long!
Term! Ecological! Research! Network! (LTERN),! systematically! provide! open! access! to! re5
mote!sensing!and!Geographic!Information!System!data!as!well!as!climatological!and!hy5
drological! data.! ! As! part! of! the! National! Science! Foundation,! an! independent! federal!
agency! created! by! the! U.S.! Congress,! the! LTERN10! provides! the! long5term! datasets! that!
are!necessary!for!researchers!to!document!and!analyze!environmental!change!which!has!
led!to!significant!findings.!!

3.8! A!perspective!on!the!Use!and!Misuse!of!Big!Data!

3.8.1.1! Privacy/Security!

Chen! et# al.! [74]! identify! significant! security! problems! as! data! security! protection,! intel5
lectual! property! protection,! personal! privacy! protection,! commercial! secrets! and! finan5
cial!information!protection!.!Companies!have!to!be!aware!of!the!various!laws!and!com5
pliance!regulations!for!each!country!to!ensure!data!is!protected!and!stored!accordingly.!
Security! problems! related! to! Big! Data! applications! are! especially! awkward! due! to! the!
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
10
http://www.lternet.edu/network/

99"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

volume!of!data!being!secured!and!the!resulting!heavy!workload.!!In!the!U.S.,!there!is!no!
single,!comprehensive!federal!law!regulating!the!collection!and!use!of!personal!data.!The!
Federal!Trade!Commission,!among!other!entities!and!various!levels!of!government,!pro5
vides!guidelines!and!recommendations!to!companies!related!to!collecting!only!the!data!
they!need,!keeping!the!data!safe!and!disposing!of!data!no!longer!needed!securely.!Unlike!
other! data,! U.S.! health5related! data! has! special! protection! under! the! Health! Insurance!
Portability!and!Accountability!Act!(HIPAA)!of!1996.!One!of!the!primary!goals!of!HIPAA!is!
to! protect! the! confidentiality! and! security! of! health5related! information.! This! law! is! of!
particular! importance! to! wearable! technology,! such! as! Apple! Watch! with! the! Apple!
Health!app!and!FitBit,!in!addition!to!the!overall!e5health!industry!and!connected!medical!
devices,!such!as!home!health!monitors.!It!is!in!the!best!interest!of!e5health!companies!to!
be! completely! HIPAA! compliant! since! customer! trust! helps! drive! the! adoption! of! new!
technology.!

Big! Data! brings! both! big! opportunities! and! big! responsibilities! for! organizations! that!
want!to!benefit!from!Big!Data!analytics!while!securing!the!data!and!ensuring!customer’s!
privacy.!Companies!have!to!ask:!!Who!gets!access!to!all!of!this!data?!How!is!the!informa5
tion! going! to! be! used?! How! will! the! information! be! protected! both! for! the! company’s!
sake!and!the!protection!of!the!provider!of!the!information?!

Baesens! et# al.! [57]! assert! that! governments! and! judicial! systems! have! to! weigh! and! ba5
lance! restraints! on,! or! encouragement! of,! big! data! collection,! analysis! and! the! resulting!
decisions.! Further,! issues! related! to! privacy! regulation,! protection! of! individual! rights!
and!national!security!all!arise!from!big!data!collection!and!analytics.!A!bill!called!the!Do5
Not5Track!Online!Act!of!2011!was!proposed!in!the!United!States!Senate.!The!purpose!of!
the!bill!was!to!curb!the!collection!and!retention!of!data!due!to!privacy!concerns.!Howe5
ver,! this! bill! did! not! become! law.! In! 2013,! a! new! bill! was! proposed! called! the! Do5Not5
Track!Online!Act!of!201311.!Again,!this!bill!was!read!twice!and!referred!to!the!Committee!
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

11
https://www.congress.gov/bill/113th-congress/senatebill/418?q={"search":["Do+not+track+online"]}]

100"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

on!Commerce,!Science,!and!Transportation!but!did!not!become!law.!In!summary,!the!bill!
required! the! Federal! Trade! Commission! to! enact! regulations! that! establishes! a! way! for!
individuals!to!opt!out!of!having!personal!information!collected!by!online!service!provi5
ders,!including!providers!of!mobile!applications!and!services.!The!bill!allowed!the!collec5
tion!and!use!of!personal!information!if!the!information!is!required!to!provide!a!service!as!
long!as!it!is!anonymized!or!deleted!after!the!service!is!provided!or!the!individual!receives!
appropriate!notice!and!consents!to!the!collection!and!use!of!the!data.!!

3.8.1.2! !Governance!of!Customer!Data!

Since! data! is! a! tangible! business! asset,! data! governance! is! a! business! imperative.! Data!
governance!is!about!more!than!just!securing!customer!data,!regulatory!compliance!and!
risk! management;! it! also! takes! into! account! the! value! of! the! data! and! how! a! company!
protects! and! uses! the! data! to! its! benefit.! Having! a! formal! data! governance! strategy! can!
bring! real! business! value! to! companies,! such! as:! ! driving! new! business! opportunities,!
minimizing! risks! and! retaining! existing! customers.! Organizations! need! to! create! an! en5
forceable!framework!to!protect!and!share!data!throughout!the!organization!or!its!ecosys5
tem.! Getting! the! right! information! to! the! right! people! can! enable! proactivity! instead! of!
operating!in!a!reactionary!mode.!However,!procedures!and!security!levels!should!be!im5
plemented!that!limits!the!access!to!personally!identifiable!information!to!employees!with!
a! business! reason! to! know! that! information.! In! other! instances,! companies! can! anony5
mize!the!information!and!still!reap!the!benefits!of!Big!Data!analytics.!

3.8.1.3! Ethical!use!of!Big!Data!and!Analytics !

Although!using!data!might!be!legal,!is!it!ethical?!Boyd!and!Crawford![86]!argue!that!the!
ethical!use!of!data!has!to!be!weighed!against!the!associated!benefits.!Institutional!Review!
Boards!and!similar!committees!prompt!researchers!to!think!critically!about!the!ethics!of!
their!research.!In!particular,!Big!Data!raises!ethical!concerns!about!data!accessibility.!Just!
because!data!is!available!publicly!does!not!mean!people!are!consenting!to!it!being!ana5

101"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

lyzed!and!used.!The!main!ethical!questions!are!identified!related!to!Big!Data!as:!!Is!it!eth5
ical!for!people!to!be!analyzed!without!their!knowledge!or!consent?![44]!

In!some!cases,!data!has!been!collected!in!one!context,!such!as!on!a!social!media!network,!
but! then! is! gathered! and! stored! for! future! use! out! of! that! context.! Boyd! and! Crawford!
[86]!argue!that!social!media!users!are!not!aware!of!the!multiple!uses,!profits!and!other!
gains! that! come! from! information! they! have! posted.! If! they! knew! how! the! information!
was!going!to!be!used!and!were!given!a!choice,!it!is!possible,!even!likely,!that!they!would!
not!agree!to!its!future!use.!!

When!analyzing!Big!Data,!unintended!consequences!can!occur!if!the!proper!measures!are!
not! taken.! Pariser! [87]! warns! that! features! like! personalization! allow! rapid! access! to!
more!relevant!information,!but!they!present!difficult!ethical!questions!and!fragment!the!
public! in! problematic! ways,! such! as! isolating! users! from! new! insights! and! discoveries!
because!they!fall!outside!their!normal!patterns!of!interests![87].!In!a!real!example!of!un5
intended!consequences,!Lewis’![88]!Harvard5based!research!project!studied!1,700!anon5
ymous!Facebook!profiles!of!college!students!to!determine!how!their!interests!and!rela5
tionships! evolve! over! time.! This! data! was! collected! without! the! permission! of! the! stu5
dents! and! was! subsequently! released! for! other! researchers! to! explore! and! analyze.! Re5
searchers!quickly!discovered!that!they!could!de5anonymize!part!of!the!data!which!com5
promised!the!privacy!of!the!students.!An!even!more!disturbing!ethical!dilemma,!in!which!
a!group!of!researchers!notices!a!correlation!between!self5injury!and!suicide!([89],[47]).!In!
an!attempt!to!discourage!people!from!self5injury,!the!researchers!create!an!educational!
intervention.! Unfortunately,! they! learn! that! their! intervention! prompted! an! increase! in!
suicide! attempts! because! they! had! inadvertently! discouraged! people! from! an! act! that!
kept!them!from!attempting!suicide!in!the!first!place.!

102"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

3.8.1.4! Errors!and!Subjectivity!

Other!considerations!when!assessing!the!use!and!misuse!of!Big!Data!are!data!errors!and!
subjectivity.!A!dataset!may!have!millions!of!pieces!of!data,!but!this!does!not!mean!that!it!
is!random!or!representative.!To!make!statistical!claims,!we!need!to!know!where!the!data!
is!coming!from!(Data!Lineage)!and!what!weaknesses!the!data!(Data!Quality)!has.!

Researchers! have! proposed! that! the! number! of! false! correlations! increases! with! the!
number!of!variables!being!analyzed.!An!example!of!one!of!these!false!correlations!is!pre5
sented!by!Leinweber!([90])!in!the!form!of!the!meaningless!relationship!between!annual!
changes! in! the! S&P! 500! stock! index! and! butter! production! in! Bangladesh).! Other! re5
searchers!are!aware!of!the!possibility!of!false!correlations,!and!McAfee!and!Brynjolfsson!
([43]! warn! that! researchers! have! to! proactively! guard! against! mistaking! correlation! for!
causation!and!finding!misleading!patterns!in!data.!!

In! addition,! Boyd! and! Crawford! [47]! warn! that! apophenia,! seeing! patterns! where! none!
actually!exist,!is!another!factor!that!researchers!have!to!take!into!account!(Boyd,!2).!An!
extraordinary! amount! of! data! can! uncover! connections! that! extend! in! every! direction.!
For!this!reason,!data!scientists!must!be!conscious!of!analytic!assumptions,!methodologi5
cal!frameworks!and!underlying!biases!that!are!embedded!in!Big!Data.!The!authors!argue!
that!“In#reality,#Big#Data#is#still#subjective,#and#what#it#quantifies#does#not#necessarily#have#
a#close#claim#on#objective#truth.”#.!Because!Big!Data!is!no!longer!the!domain!solely!of!actu5
aries!and!scientists,!organizations!must!be!particularly!cautious!in!analyzing!and!expos5
ing! data! accurately.! Even! though! new! technologies! have! made! it! possible! for! a! wide!
range! of! people! to! access! Big! Data,! the! role! of! the! data! scientist! has! to! be! appreciated.!
Everyone!is!not!equipped!with!the!knowledge!and!skills!to!be!able!to!effectively!process!
Big!Data,!analyze!it!and!then!accurately!interpret!the!findings.!!

103"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

3.9! Understanding!the!Function!of!Data!Scientists!and!Adoption!Determi5
nants!

McAfee!and!Brynjolfsson!([43])!summarize!the!key!business!benefit!of!Big!Data!adoption:!!
“…because#of#Big#Data,#managers#can#measure,#and#hence#know,#radically#more#about#their#
businesses,#and#directly#translate#that#knowledge#into#improved#decision#making#and#per>
formance.”#!!

With!the!buzz!around!Big!Data,!one!might!think!Big!Data!is!new,!but!is!it!really?!In!fact,!
everyday!people!are!in!contact!with!Big!Data!in!one!form!or!another!on!a!daily!basis.!Big!
Data!users!are!in!nearly!every!department!within!an!organization!–!finance,!human!re5
sources,!marketing,!product!development,!research!and!development,!and!sales!–!and!in!
nearly!every!industry.!!

3.9.1! The!Role!of!Data!Scientist!

According!to!a!study!conducted!by!Swan!et#al.#[91],!people!working!in!data!science!should!
be!categorized!into!four!roles:!!data!creator,!data!scientist,!data!manager!and!data!librar5
ian.! Currently,! people! in! the! industry! interchange! these! terms! and! roles.! The! study! de5
fines!a!data!scientist!as!someone!who!works!where!research!is!carried!out!and!works!in!
close! collaboration! with! the! data! creators! or! make! or! create! data! as! well.! Specifically,!
data!scientists!focus!on!modification,!annotation,!reduction,!derivation!and!other!manip5
ulations! of! data.! Further,! in! experimental! disciplines,! data! scientists! aid! in! experiment!
planning! and! design,! advise! on! how! to! collect! data! in! optimal! ways! and! determine! the!
types!of!data!needed.!

A!survey!by!Harris!et#al.![92]!breaks!down!data!scientists!into!four!varieties:!!Data!busi5
ness!people,!data!creatives,!data!developers!and!data!researchers.!In!summary,!the!sur5
vey!shows!that!data!business!people!are!focused!on!the!organization!and!how!Big!Data!
can!yield!profits.!Data!creatives!are!the!broadest!level!of!data!scientists!who!excel!at!ap5
plying!a!wide!range!of!technologies!and!tools!and!have!substantial!academic!experience!

104"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

coupled!with!business!expertise.!Data!developers!focus!mainly!on!the!technical!problem!
of! acquiring,! storing! and! learning! from! data.! Finally,! the! survey! shows! that! data! re5
searchers!usually!start!their!careers!in!academic!research!in!a!physical!or!social!science!
or!in!statistics.!Typically,!data!scientists!have!two!parallel!levels!of!expertise!–!one!in!a!
scientific!domain!and!one!in!an!industry!or!discipline.!In!some!cases,!data!scientists!are!
scientists!first!and!then!gained!industry!knowledge,!and!in!other!cases,!they!were!in!an!
industry5!or!tools5driven!position!and!developed!their!scientific!skills.!In!fact,!according!
to!survey!results,!the!depth!and!breadth!of!the!data!scientists’!knowledge!was!acquired!
accidentally!in!many!cases.!Today!there!is!an!effort!in!higher!education!to!offer!degrees!
that!are!attractive!to!people!wanting!to!enter!the!Big!Data!field.!Harris!et#al.!are!not!con5
vinced! that! these! new! degrees! will! offer! the! scope! and! practicality! that! data! scientists!
need!to!be!successful.!

In!an!article!published!in!MIT!Sloan!Management!Review!in!April!201312,!Greta!Roberts,!
CEO! of! Talent! Analytics! Corp,! criticizes! Davenport! and! Patil’s! data! scientist! definition.!
She!argues!that!highly!inflated!skills!expectations!are!essentially!the!cause!of!the!talent!
shortage.!Roberts!reiterated!her!research!findings!regarding!data!scientists’!characteris5
tics!by!focusing!less!on!the!technical!requirements!and!taking!a!more!holistic!approach!of!
what!a!data!scientist!should!be:!

o! They#have#a#cognitive#“attitude”#and#will#search#for#deeper#knowledge#about#eve>
rything.##
o! They#are#driven#to#be#creative#and#will#want#to#create#not#only#solutions,#but#also#
elegant#solutions.#
o! They#have#a#strong#desire#to#“do#things#the#right#way,”#and#will#encourage#others#
to#do#the#same.#

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

12
Predicting the Performance of Analytics Talent, MIT Sloan Management Review April 2013,
http://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/predicted-to-perform-how-to-hire-analytic-talent/

105"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

o! They#have#an#extremely#high#sense#of#quality,#standards,#and#detail#orientation,#of>
ten#evaluating#others#by#these#same#traits.#
o! They#tend#to#be#somewhat#restrained#and#reticent#in#showing#emotions,#and#may#
be#less#verbal#at#team#or#organizational#meetings#unless#asked#for#input#or#if#the#
topic#is#one#of#high#importance#from#their#perspective.#
o! They# may# take# calculated,# educated# risks# —# only# after# a# thoughtful# analysis# of#
facts,#data,#and#potential#outcomes.#They#persuade#others#on#the#team#by#careful#
attention#to#detail,#and#through#facts,#data,#and#logic,#not#emotion.#
#
Data!scientists!can!help!companies!overcome!the!barriers!to!Big!Data!adoption.!The!main!
adoption! barriers! are! lack! of! business! acumen! as! it! relates! to! using! Big! Data;! lack! of!
knowledge!or!skills;!and!different!data!management!philosophies.!Data!scientists!possess!
the!aggregated!skillset!and!understanding!that!enables!them!to!extract,!analyze!and!visu5
alize!data!in!order!to!bring!real!value!to!the!company.!With!their!deep!knowledge!of!both!
science! and! industry,! data! scientists! can! use! existing! technology! in! new! ways! and! are!
able!to!extract!more!dimensions!from!the!data!than!was!even!possible!before.!Davenport!
[93]! describes! the! data! scientist! role! as! a! code! writer! who! understands! the! Hadoop!
framework,!typically!with!a!strong!computing!field!background.!According!to!him,!data!
scientists,! unlike! their! predecessors,! need! to! be! able! to! tell! the! “Data! Story.”! This! rein5
forces!the!belief!that!the!social!aspect!is!an!important!component!of!the!job.!!!

While!we!have!been!successful!at!identifying!the!main!trends!regarding!data!scientists,!
the! research! literature! regarding! data! scientists! was! extremely! limited.! As! a! result,! we!
collected!in!June!2014!over!120!“data!scientist”!job!descriptions!from!the!LinkedIn,!Mon5
ster! and! Cybercoder! websites.! We! consolidated! the! results! in! the! table! below! by! main!
categories.!

The!results!show!in!Table!2!below!that!despite!using!the!“data!scientist”!search!term,!the!
job!descriptions!demonstrate!a!wide!interpretation!of!what!skills!are!required.!More!im5

106"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

portantly,!the!table!below!indicates!the!depth!of!knowledge!required!to!be!a!data!scien5
tist.!Data!scientists!and!Big!Data!scientists!essentially!require!the!same!skillsets,!includ5
ing! data! infrastructure! (Hadoop,! NoSQL! database),! data! modeling! &! machine! learning!
knowledge,!programming!languages!(Java,!Python,!R),!SQL!query!knowledge!(Pig,!SQL),!
and! visualization! knowledge.! We! have! also! identified! additional! categories! that! require!
less!or!more!specific!knowledge.!This!differentiation!denotes!the!degree!to!which!firms!
interpret! who! is! an! actual! data! scientist.! Interestingly,! the! results! are! more! consistent!
with! Swan’s! findings! than! Harris’.! Soft! skills,! such! as! the! ones! advocated! by! Roberts,!
were!discarded,!as!we!could!not!categorize!them!effectively.!!!

107"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

Table!2!Returned!search!of!data!skillsets!requirements!per!categories!from!hiring!companies!–!
developed!for!this!research!

Big'Data'' Machine'Learning'
Data'Scientist' Senior'Data'Analyst'
Scientist' Data2Scientist'
•!MapReduce,'Hadoop'(HBase,' •! Algorithm!Devel5 •! Data!Manipulation! •! Churn!Scoring!Models!
Hive,'Pig)! opment!! •! Data!Mining! •! Logistic!Regression!
•!Ability'to'develop'using'Python,' •! Algorithms!! •! Data!Modeling! •! Mathematical!Data!Min5
Perl,'Java'or'C#!
•! Big!Data! •! Hadoop! ing!
•!Advertising'Technology!
•!Algorithm'Development,'Imple2 •! C++!! •! Machine!Learning! •! R!Statistical!Packages!
mentation! •! Data!Mining!! •! Machine!Learning! •! SQL!
•!Big'Data,''Large'Data'Sets! •! data!structures! Tools! !
•!Business'Intelligence!
•! Hadoop! •! Python!Machine! 222222222222222222222222222222222222'
•!Churn'Scoring'Models!
•! HBase! Learning!Libraries! Hadoop'Subject'matter'
•!Computer'Vision'Image'Analysis!
•! UNIX/Linux!Tools! expert!!
•!Data'Analytics! •! Hive!!
•!Data'Manipulation'! ! 55555555555555555555555555555555555555
•! Java!
•!Data'mining'of'large'disparate' 55555555555555555555555555555! 5555!
•! Storm/Spark!
data'! Data'Engineer'' •! Cloudera!
•!Data'Modeling! •! Machine!Learning!
•! Hadoop!
•!Data'Sciences! •! MySQL! 222222222222222222222222222222
•! HortonWorks!
•!Data'Visualization! •! NoSQL!! 222'
•!Databases'! •! MapR!
•! Open!Source!
•!Developing'algorithms'! ! •! Splunk!
•!Distributed'computing,'File' •! OpenGeo!!
!
•! Pig!! •! Active!Learning!!
Systems'!
•! Algorithm! Develop5 222222222222222222222222222222222'
•!Experience'forming'complex' •! Predictive!Model5
ment!!
SQL'queries,'T2SQL'! ing!! '
•! Algorithms!
•!Experience'in'Optimization,'
•! Python!! •! Big!Data!!
Stochastic'Processes'a! Analytics'Architect'2'SQL!!
•!Information'Retrieval! •! R!! •! C++!
•!Logistic'Regression! •! Reporting! •! data!infrastructure! 55555555555555555555555555555555555555!
•!Machine'Learning! •! Data!Mining!! •! Pricing!
•! SAS,!SPSS!!
•!Mathematical'Data'Mining'Mon2 •! Data!Modeling! •! Relational!Databases!!
•! SQL!! •! ETL! •! SAS!!
te'Carlo'simulations,'Bayesian!
•!Natural'Language'Processing! •! Statistics! •! Java! •! SQL!Queries!!
•!Predictive'Analytics'&'Modeling! •! System!Adminis5 •! Machine!Learning!! •! Tableau!Visualization!
•!Production'Softtware'! trator!/!Desktop! •! Metric!System! software!
•!R'Statistical'Packages'Python'! Support! •! OpenGeo! '
•!Relational'Databases'! ! •! Python!
•!Scripting'! •! SQL!
•! Statistical'Analysis,'Modeling,'
!
Programming'

108"
 !

3.10!!!Theoretical!Paradigms!for!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!at!the!
Organization’s!Level!

Big!Data!adoption!determinants!can!be!considered!from!two!perspectives!–!the!in5
dividual!and!the!organization.!According!to!Rogers![21]!diffusion!of!innovation!the5
ory,!two!main!determinants!of!innovation!diffusion,!which!can!lead!to!adoption,!are!
compatibility! and! relative! advantage.! These! characteristics! are! particularly! im5
portant!when!considering!Big!Data!adoption.!According!to!Rogers![21],!“Compatibil5
ity! is! the! degree! to! which! an! innovation! is! perceived! as! being! consistent! with! the!
existing! values,! past! experiences! and! needs! of! potential! adopters.”! Tornatzky! and!
Klein![94]!found!that!an!innovation!is!more!likely!to!be!adopted!when!it!is!compati5
ble! with! the! job! responsibilities! and! value! system! of! the! individual.! Esteves! et# al.!
[95]!focused!on!the!individual!determinants!and!identified!compatibility!as!having!a!
positive!effect!on!attitude!toward!Big!Data.!The!authors!also!recognized!volume!and!
velocity!as!two!key!aspects!of!Big!Data!adoption.!Further,!the!researchers!found!that!
perceived!benefits!has!a!significant!impact!on!Big!Data!adoption,!but!perceived!use5
fulness!does!not.!!In!the!analysis!of!survey!results!from!212!senior!executives!of!For5
tune!1000!companies,!Germann!et#al.![96]!found!that!the!level!of!competition!a!firm!
faces!and!the!degree!to!which!its!customers’!needs!and!wants!change!over!time!are!
determinants!for!adoption!of!a!particular!type!of!Big!Data!solution,!specifically!mar5
keting!analytics.!!

We!can!consider!relative!advantage!and!benefits!nearly!synonymous.!Rogers!defines!
relative!advantage!as!“the#degree#to#which#an#innovation#is#perceived#as#better#than#
the#idea#it#supersedes.”![21].!In!addition,!relative!advantage!can!include!characteris5
tics! like! economic! terms,! social5prestige! factors,! convenience,! and! satisfaction.! Re5
searchers!Cheng![97]!found!that!perceived!usefulness!and!perceived!ease!of!use!are!
two! important! factors! related! an! individual’s! intention! to! use! IT,! particularly! data!
mining!technology.!Their!study!also!found!that!almost!all!task5oriented!antecedents!

109"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

are! significantly! related! to! perceived! usefulness! including! enhancing! job! perfor5
mance,! ease! of! use,! output! quality! and! response! time.! Lin! et# al.! [98]! conducted! a!
survey! of! Taiwanese! companies! and! analyzed! the! results! of! 192! knowledge! man5
agement!systems!users.!They!determined!that!a!person’s!expectation!of!the!outcome!
and!self5efficacy!were!significant!influencing!factors!on!adoption.!In!addition,!Kami5
oka!and!Tapanainen![99]!agree!with!DeLone!and!McLean![101]!that!user!satisfaction!
and!intentions!to!use!are!two!additional!critical!determinants!to!the!Big!Data!adop5
tion!process.!However,!research!by!Esteves!et#al.![96]!shows!no!affect!between!per5
ceived!usefulness!and!attitude!toward!adoption.!However,!they!identify!talent!scar5
city! and! internal! capabilities! as! determinants.! Table! 3! below! summarizes! the! Big!
Data!related!adoption!research.!

Table'3!Knowledge!and!Data!related!Adoption!models!developed!for!this!research!
IT'Adoption' Context' Authors'
Adoption'
(dependent' Variables'used'(Independent'Variable)' Methods'
Theory'
Variable'
Individual!(Novice,!Power,!expert!users),!
Multiple!
Task(routine,!ad5hoc!and!advanced!analysis! 24!inter5 Tijsen!et#
BI5Fit! TTF! case!Stud5
tasks),!technology!(Basic,!Root5cause!and! views! al.[102]!
ies!
Advanced!analytics)!Characteristics! !

Decomposed!
Theory!of! SmartPLS!! 53!users!
Big!data! Individual’s!Big!Data!Attitude,!subjective!
Planned! from!Span5 Esteves!et#al.!
Adoption! norms,!and!Perceived!Behavioral!Control.!!
Behavior! ! ish!firms! [96]!
(DTPB)!

Structural! 212!Fortune!
Top!Management!Team!Advocacy ,!Analytics!
Marketing! equation! 1000!firm!
Culture ,!Marketing!Analytics!Skills,!Data!and!
Analytics! Adapted!RBV! modeling! respondents!! Germann!!et#
IT ,!Deployment!of!Analytics,!Firm!Perfor5 al.![97]!
deployment! (SEM),!
mance.! !
MPlus!! !

task5oriented!dimension!(job!relevance,!
Data!mining! TAM3!(Ven5 output!quality,!result!demonstrability,!re5 Structural!
206!DMT!
tools!adop5 katesh!&! sponse!time,!and!format),!control!beliefs! equation!
users!! Huang!et#al.!!
tion! Bala,!2008)!! (computer!self5efficacy!and!perceptions!of! modeling!!
[98]!
external!control),!emotion!(computer!anxie5
! !
! ! ty),!and!intrinsic!motivation!(computer!play5 !
fulness).!!

Integration! KMS!characteristics!(KMSC)!Task!interde5 Lin et#al.!!!

Knowledge! ! Survey!of!
of!social! pendence!(TI) Task!tacitness!
management! 192!KMS!
cognitive! (TT) Perceived!task!technology!fit!(TTF)! [99]!

" 110"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

system!usage!! theory!and! KMS!self5efficacy!(KMSE)!Personal!outcome! users!! !

task!technol5 expectation!(OEPR)!Performance!outcome!
! ogy!fit!! expectation!(OEPF)!KMS!usage!(USA)!! !

Task!Structuredness!!
Users'!atti5
Individuals!difference!Field!independence! Group!1:!39!
tude!to!DSS!
Group!2:!35!! Liu!et#al.!
model!! TTF! ANOVA!!
DSS!models!Rationality!! [103]!
! !
!
ANOVA!for!the!two!groups!with!decision!
agreement!as!the!dependent!variable!

The!subjects!
User!Ac5
are!300!
ceptance!of! Technology! Perceived!Task!Complexity,!Attitude!Toward!
business!
Decision! Acceptance! DSS,!Perceived!Ease!of!Use,!Perceived!Useful5 na! Liu!et#al.!!
students!at!
Support! model! ness,!Attitude!Toward!Behavior!,!Intention!!
a!mid5west!
Systems!!
university!!

Perceived!Usefulness!(PU) Perceived!Ease!of!
Technology! Use!to!Read!(PEOUR)!!
confirma5 A!survey!of!
Usage!inten5 Acceptance!
tory!factor! 271!manag5
tion!in!BI!! model! Perceived!Ease!of!Use!to!Create!(PEOUC)! Chang!et#
analysis!! ers!!
Dholakia!and! Intention!to!Read!Information!(IR)!Intention! al.[104]!
! Bagozzi! to!Create!Reports!(IC)!! !
! !
model!!
!

Big!data!
impact!on! Technology! Pozzi!et#al.!
IT!and!organizational!change! ! Conceptual!
healthcare! Affordance! [24]!
organizations! !

Value!from!
Resource5
Business! Organizational!structure,!Dynamic!Business!
Based!View!!
Analytics! Capabilities,!Business!Analytics!Technology! Qualitative! Case!study! Sharma!et#al.!
quality!and!strategy! [68]!
!
!

Knowledge!
KMS:!explicit!knowledge!exchange!type,!tacit!
management! Knowledge! Baloh!et#al.!
knowledge!exchange!type,!connectivity! Samsung!
systems!! needs!tech5 Conceptual!
knowledge!needs:!task!domain,!type!of! electronics!
nology!fit!! !
knowledge!and!volatility!of!knowledge.!
!

eight!semi5
structured!
Adapted!TTF! Level'of'fitness'between'task'and'decision' interviews!!
Godé2
Decisional!Fit!! Decisional! support'system'!
Sanchez!et#al.!!
Fit!Model!! Qualitative! Secondary!
' Level!of!Fitness!between!Decision!Maker!and! data!collec5
!
! Decision!Support!System!! tion!inter5
viewed!9!
pilots!!

Business! BIS!Ac5 4!interview5 Grublješ ič !et#

Individual,!technological,!Organizational,!
Intelligence! ceptance! Qualitative! ee!and!2! al.!!!
Social!
Acceptance!! Model!! case!study!
[105]!

" 111"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

KMS!characteristics,!Task!interdependence,!
Knowledge! Partial!
Social!Cogni5 A!survey!
Management! least!
tive!Theory! Task!tacitness,!Perceived!task5technology!fit!! 192!KMS!
System!Usage! squares! Huang!et#al.!!
and!Task! users!!
Antecedents!! (PLS)!!
Technology! KMS!self5efficacy,!Personal!outcome!expecta5
[98]!
Fit!! tion,!Expectations!associated!with!improve5 !
! !
ments!in!job!performance,!KMS!usage!!

Accurate,!Secure!Governance!Compliance!
Service5
Collaborative,!Intra5!and!Inter5!organizational!!
oriented!
decision! n/a! Conceptual! n/a! Demirkan!
Synchronous,!Agile!Commoditization,!Adap5
support! [106]!
tive,!Reuse and!Integration,!Virtual!Service5
systems!!
oriented!!

KMS!Characteristics!Flexibility;!Integration;!
Effects!of!!
Ease!of!Use!
KMS!on! Task5
individual! technology!
Task5KMS!Fit!Knowledge!Acquisition;!
and!organiza5 fit,!Adaptive!
Maintenance;!Search/Retrieval! Conceptual! n/a! Im!et#al.!
tional!per5 Structu5
[107]!
formance!! ration!Theo5
KMS!Use;!Dependence!on!System!
ry!!
!
Performance!Productivity;!Effectiveness!

Task!characteristics!(Knowledge!tacitness!
Task!interdependence)!!
Use!
knowledge!
Task!Tech5 Technology!characteristics!(Output!quality:! 154!inter5
portals!in! SEM! Men!et#al.!!
nology!Fit! Completeness Relevance),!Compatibility.!! views!
consulting! [108]!
firms!
Performance!(Utilization!Output!quality,!
Completeness Relevance,!Compatibility)!

A!survey!of!
Competitiveness,!Systematic!Big!data!Use,! Structural!
1363!
Extensive!Big!data!Use,!Top!Management! equation!
Exploration! Kamioka !et#
ICT!Diffusion! Understanding,!Cross!Functional!Analyst,! modeling!
of!Big!data! Nikkei! al.!
Model! Utilize!ICT!Capabilities,!IS!for!Big!data,!Power! by!IBM!
antecedents! Business!
of!IS!division,!Proactive!Big!data!Use,!Big!Data! SPSS!
Online! [100]!
headcount,!Secured!Data!Management!! AMOS!
readers!!

3.11!Big!Data!Adoption!Advantages!

Adoption!advantages!for!Big!Data!can!be!assessed!both!from!the!business!and!end!
user! perspectives! and! should! be! evaluated! objectively! without! being! overly! influ5
enced! by! industry! hype.! Effective! Big! Data! adoption! can! improve! business! perfor5
mance!and!be!a!competitive!differentiator.!A!key!advantage!of!adopting!Big!Data!is!
the! resulting! ability! to! make! better! and! quicker! decisions.! Delen! and! Demirkan!

" 112"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

[106]!state!that!!the!job!of!management!is!becoming!increasingly!complex!and!mak5
ing!the!right!decisions!at!the!right!time!is!a!“matter!of!survival.”!Tijsen!et#al.![102]!
conclude,!“…end#users#simply#want#a#better#way#to#solve#data>related#business#prob>
lems.”!According!to!Hevner!et#al.![109]!the!goal!of!information!systems!research!is!to!
acquire!knowledge!and!understanding!in!order!to!develop!and!implement!technolo5
gy5based!solutions!to!solve!important!business!problems.!With!the!increasing!com5
plexity! of! the! business! world! comes! a! need! for! actionable! knowledge! that! can! be!
used!in!decision5making![42].!!

Adopting! Big! Data! solutions! gives! companies! the! opportunity! to! find! data5driven!
answers!to!their!most!complex!questions.!Companies!can!use!Big!Data!to!answer!a!
wide! range! of! business! questions,! such! as:! Who! are! our! customers?! What! do! they!
buy?!Where!do!they!live,!work!and!play?!How!will!new!products!impact!the!existing!
ones?! What! marketing! promotions! are! most! effective?! What! distribution! channels!
are!most!efficient?!The!meaningful!information!that!comes!from!Big!Data!can!help!
companies!innovate,!fine5tune!products!and!services,!increase!productivity,!improve!
customer! relations,! generate! sales! leads,! adjust! pricing! and! improve! business! pro5
cesses.!Big!Data!adoption!can!even!help!companies!provide!customers!products!and!
services!that!would!benefit!them!before!they!know!they!want!them.!

Another! important! advantage! of! Big! Data! adoption! that! has! not! been! researched!
sufficiently! is! competitive! advantage.! As! we! mentioned! earlier,! McAfee! and!
Brynjolfsson![43]!propose!that!companies!can!increase!their!agility!over!the!compe5
tition!by!effectively!using!real5time!or!near!real5time!data.!Researchers!Kamioka!and!
Tapanainen! [100]! conducted! a! survey! in! Japan! and! analyzed! the! responses! from!
1,363!Big!Data!users!in!private!companies.!Their!results!show!that!competitiveness!
is!influenced!by!systematic!and!extensive!use!of!Big!Data.!In!addition,!they!learned!
that! supportive! top! management! enables! Big! Data! adoption.! As! the! saying! goes,!
“success! begets! success;”! and! they! concluded! that! the! more! Big! Data! is! used,! the!
more! knowledge! is! created! that! in! turn! creates! value! and! ultimately! competitive!

" 113"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

advantage.!Therefore,!to!gain!the!most!competitive!advantage,!Big!Data!needs!to!be!
used!systematically!and!extensively!throughout!the!organization.!!

3.12!Big!Data!Adoption!Barriers!

As! with! cloud! computing,! several! barriers! have! the! potential! to! hamper! Big! Data!
adoption.!Big!Data!adoption!could!be!cost5prohibitive.!As!with!any!complex!techno5
logical!implementation,!cost!could!be!a!barrier!for!enterprises!that!are!not!willing!or!
able!to!make!the!requisite!investment!in!order!to!capitalize!on!the!value5generating!
opportunities!resulting!from!adopting!Big!Data.!In!their!study!on!marketing!analyt5
ics!adoption,!Germann!et#al.![97]!identify!some!other!potential!barriers!to!adoption,!
some!of!which!have!related!costs:!!requisite!analytical!skills,!sophisticated!IT!infra5
structure,!the!necessary!quality/quantity!of!data!and!a!corporate!culture!that!sup5
ports! analytics! so! that! insights! gained! can! be! deployed! effectively! throughout! the!
firm.! Kamioka! and! Tapanainen! [100]! agree! that! sufficient! IT! infrastructure! that! is!
able! to! process! Big! Data! effectively! is! essential! to! providing! an! environment! in!
which!Big!Data!can!thrive.!!

In!their!study!of!data!mining!technology!adoption,!Cheng!and!Huang![98]!identified!
the!lack!of!necessary!resources,!support!and!training!as!additional!barriers!to!adop5
tion.!Agreeing!with!Cheng!and!Huang![98],!Lin!and!Huang![99]!also!determined!that!
training!and!sufficient!resources!were!essential!in!establishing!user!confidence!and!
willingness! to! use! a! knowledge! management! system.! While! system! response! time!
could! be! a! factor! that! encourages! adoption,! lack! of! speed! could! have! the! opposite!
effect.!As!mentioned!earlier,!the!support!of!top!management!is!essential!in!Big!Data!
adoption;! therefore,! the! lack! of! management! support,! as! well! as! management! that!
does!not!understand!the!capabilities!and!value!of!Big!Data,!can!be!a!major!barrier.!
Kamioka!and!Tapanainen![100]!!determined!in!their!study!in!Japan!that!insufficient!
adoption!itself!is!a!barrier!to!gaining!the!full!advantage!of!the!potential!payoffs!from!
Big!Data.!

" 114"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

An!additional!Big!Data!adoption!barrier!is!the!fear!around!data!confidentiality!and!
security.!As!mentioned!earlier,!Chen!et#al.![53]!identify!significant!security!problems!
as! data! security! protection,! intellectual! property! protection,! personal! privacy! pro5
tection,!commercial!secrets!and!financial!information!protection.!Potential!security!
problems!related!to!Big!Data!applications!are!particularly!important!due!to!the!vol5
ume!of!data!being!secured.!!

3.13!Big!Data!Adoption!Models!

Scientists!have!developed!numerous!adoption!models!that!consider!various!criteria!
when!studying!the!adoption!of!innovation!and!technology.!Researchers!studying!Big!
Data!adoption!usually!use!one!or!a!combination!of!the!same!adoption!models!(or!a!
modified!version)!that!are!used!when!studying!cloud!computing!adoption.!!

Using!the!TAM3!adoption!model,!Cheng!and!Huang![98]!considered!the!variables!of!
computer!anxiety!and!playfulness!but!found!that!these!do!not!apply!when!consider5
ing!Big!Data!adoption!because!adopters!are!highly!skilled!and!the!solution!is!being!
used!for!business!purposes!and!not!for!pleasure.!!

Lin!and!Huang![99]!were!the!first!researchers!to!use!a!modified!TTF!adoption!model!
that! included! social! cognitive! theory! in! order! to! study! the! factors! affecting!
knowledge! management! system! usage! from! the! perspectives! of! information! tech5
nology,! organizational! task! and! personal! cognitions! ! and! behavior! [99].! Their! out5
comes! were! similar! to! perceived! usefulness,! relative! advantage,! image! and! behav5
ioral!beliefs,!or!those!similar!to!combining!TTF!with!TAM.!Also!using!TTF,!Tijsen!et#
al.![102]!propose!a!three5level!segmentation!model!taking!into!account!various!lev5
els! of! Big! Data! users! –! novice,! power! and! expert! user! –! and! show! that! the! fit! be5
tween!the!task!and!technology!are!key!to!successful!adoption.!!!

" 115"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

3.14!Conclusion!

In! this! chapter,! we! investigated! the! factors! influencing! Big! Data! technology! adop5
tion.!A!variety!of!Big!Data!definitions!from!leading!researchers!were!provided!and!
key! characteristics! were! identified! and! discussed.! The! hype! and! confusion! around!
data!science!and!the!term!Big!Data!was!addressed.!In!this!chapter,!we!illustrate!the!
data!value!chain!and!explain!what!each!step!entails!and!why!each!one!is!as!equally!
important!as!the!next.!Major!Big!Data!tools!–!such!as!Apache!Hadoop,!MapReduce,!
NoSQL,!streaming!platforms!and!Big!Data!programming!tools!–!are!defined!and!ex5
plained.!In!addition,!the!observation!is!made!that!due!to!the!elements!in!data!science!
changing!so!quickly,!the!optimum!tools!to!take!full!advantage!of!Big!Data!do!not!yet!
exist.!The!main!challenges!of!Big!Data!analysis!and!the!criticisms!based!on!previous!
research!were!detailed,!including!dealing!with!data!lineage!and!quality,!scale,!time5
liness!and!human!collaboration.!Further,!the!external!data!sources!from!where!da5
tasets! can! be! derived! were! explained! and! a! perspective! was! given! on! the! use! and!
misuse!of!Big!Data!in!terms!of!privacy/security,!governance,!ethical!use!of!Big!Data!
and! Analytics,! and! errors! and! subjectivity.! We! also! discussed! the! role! of! the! data!
scientist!as!it!relates!to!Big!Data!adoption!and!the!skillset!required!depending!on!the!
type! of! data! scientist.! The! theoretical! paradigms! at! the! organizational! level! were!
summarized.!Along!with!the!dependent!variable,!adoption!theory,!independent!var5
iable!and!the!structural!equation!model!used.!The!adoption!advantages!of!Big!Data!
both!from!the!business!and!user!perspectives!were!highlighted!along!with!the!adop5
tion! barriers.! In! addition,! a! brief! discussion! was! included! on! the! adoption! models!
(or!a!modified!version)!–!TAM,!TAM3!and!TTF!–!that!researchers!usually!use!when!
studying!Big!Data.!

The!definitions!of!Big!Data!are!wide5ranging.!Researchers!agree!that!Big!Data!is!a!
term!used!to!identify!very!large!datasets!–!with!a!wide!variety!of!types!–!that!cannot!
be!managed!with!traditional!methodologies!or!data!mining!software!tools!due!to!
their!large!size!and!complexity.!However,!some!researchers!complain!that!the!term!

" 116"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Big!Data!Technology!Adoption!

is!used!to!describe!datasets!that!can!be!analyzed!on!a!desktop!computer!with!stand5
ard!software.!

When!studying!the!determinants!of!Big!Data!adoption,!researchers!have!examined!
determinants!from!an!individual!and!an!organizational!standpoint.!They!determined!
that!a!person’s!expectation!of!the!outcome!and!self5efficacy!were!significant!influ5
encing!factors!on!adoption.!In!addition,!other!scientists!determined!that!user!satis5
faction!and!intentions!to!use!were!also!critical!determinants.!However,!some!re5
search!by!shows!no!affect!between!perceived!usefulness!and!attitude!toward!adop5
tion,!but!instead,!identifies!talent!scarcity!and!internal!capabilities!as!determinants.!

In! the! following! chapter,! we! will! begin! investigating! the! factors! influencing! cloud!
computing! technology! adoption.! We! will! explore! cloud! computing! characteristics!
and!trends,!cloud!service!models,!Big!Data!and!cloud!complementarity,!the!determi5
nants! of! cloud! computing! adoption,! barriers! to! adoption! as! well! as! some! popular!
cloud!computing!adoption!models.!
"

" 117"
 !

! Investigation!of!Factors!In5
fluencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!
Adoption!

The!investigation!of!factors!influencing!cloud!computing!technology!adoption!is!the!
critical!part!of!this!thesis.!By!looking!at!cloud!computing!characteristics!and!trends!
along! various! cloud! service! models,! Big! Data! and! cloud! complementarity,! the! de5
terminants!of!cloud!computing!adoption,!barriers!to!adoption!as!well!as!some!popu5
lar!cloud!computing!adoption!models.!In!this!chapter,!a!wide!variety!of!definitions,!
key! characteristics,! benefits,! determinants! and! trends! related! to! cloud! computing!
and!cloud!computing!adoption!are!reported!based!on!various!researchers,!including!
Vaquero! et# al.! [107]! in! 2008! and! more! recently! Optiz! et# al.! [22]! from! 2012.! The!
three!main!cloud!service!models!–!IaaS,!PaaS!and!SaaS!–!are!defined!and!explained.!
In!this!thesis,!the!complementarity!of!Big!Data!and!cloud!computing!is!discussed!in!
depth!and!illustrated.!We!show!that!when!working!together,!these!two!technologies!
are!exponentially!more!powerful!than!either!of!them!alone.!The!advantages!of!and!
barriers!to!cloud!computing!adoption!both!from!the!business!and!end!user!perspec5
tive!most!often!reported!by!researchers!are!identified.!Finally,!we!discuss!the!main!
theoretical! paradigms! for! cloud! computing! technology! adoption! at! the! organiza5
tion’s!level!–!Diffusion!of!Innovation,!Technology5Organization5Environment,!Tech5

119"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

nology! Acceptance! Model! and! Task5Technology! Fit.! Each! of! these! constructs! has!
something!in!common.!As!they!exist,!they!misrepresent!the!value!of!the!fit!by!only!
taking! into! account! a! single! technology! construct.! This! weakness! is! addressed! in!
Chapter! 7! when! we! introduce! a! new! conceptual! model,! the! task5Big! Data/cloud!
computing!technology!fit!model,!based!on!Goodhue’s!original!TTF.!In!this!proposed!
model,! we! address! the! two! technologies! together! for! the! first! time,! particularly! in!
the!context!of!mobile!service!providers.!

4.1! Overview!!

Cloud!computing!is!one!of!the!most!prevalent!trends!in!information!technology!to5
day.!In!October!2007,!IBM!and!Google!announced!a!cloud!computing!collaboration!
but! called! it! highly! parallel! computing13.! More! than! a! year! prior,! Eric! Schmidt,!
Chairman! and! CEO! of! Google,! had! already! used! the! term! “cloud! computing”! at! the!
Search!Engine!Strategies!Conference14.!Today!every!major!IT!company!has!numer5
ous! cloud! computing! offerings,! uses! cloud! computing! internally! and! is! looking! for!
ways!to!increase!adoption!across!their!internal!and!external!customer!bases.!In!ad5
dition,!individual!technology!consumers!use!services!made!possible!by!cloud!com5
puting!on!a!daily!basis.!Services!like!iCloud,!Dropbox,!Google’s!various!services!in5
cluding!Gmail!and!Amazon!are!cloud!computing!services!that!individuals!use!with5
out!thinking!or!caring!about!the!technology!that!makes!these!services!possible.!

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

13
"Google!and!IBM!Announce!University!Initiative!to!Address!Internet5Scale!Compu5
ting!Challenges:!https://www503.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/22414.wss"
14!Search!Engine!Strategies!Conference!Conversation!with!Eric!Schmidt!hosted!by!

Danny!Sullivan:!http://www.google.com/press/podium/ses2006.html!

" 120"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

4.2! Cloud!Computing!Trends!

Over! the! last! nine! years,! numerous! researchers! and! industry! leaders! have! created!
various!definitions!of!cloud!computing!and!have!outlined!what!they!see!as!the!key!
characteristics!of!cloud!computing.!As!Abadi![72]!states,!most!researchers!agree!that!
the!cloud!computing!vision!encompasses!a!shift!away!from!desktop!and!local!serv5
ers! to! next! generation! data! centers! hosted! by! large! infrastructure! companies.! In!
2008,! during! the! initial! hype! phase! of! cloud! computing,! Vaquero! et# al.! [110]! con5
ducted! extensive! research! studying! 20! different! definitions! of! cloud! computing.!
From! this! research,! they! created! a! consensus! definition! and! a! new! definition! that!
contains!what!they!viewed!as!all!of!the!essential!characteristics!of!cloud!computing:!!
user! friendliness,! virtualization,! Internet! centric,! variety! of! resources,! automatic!
adaptation,!scalability,!resource!optimization,!pay5per5use,!and!service!level!agree5
ments! for! both! service! and! infrastructure.! Even! after! the! extensive! research! of!
Vaquero,!et#al.#[110],!Gong!et#al.![111]created!their!own!list!of!key!characteristics!of!
cloud!computing:!!agility,!low!cost,!device!and!location!independence,!multi5tenancy,!
high!reliability,!high!scalability,!security!and!sustainability.!Also!in!2011,!Agrawal!et#
al.![112]!proposed!a!different!list!of!key!cloud!computing!characteristics:!!elasticity,!
pay5per5use,! low! upfront! investment,! low! time! to! market! and! transfer! of! risks.! In!
2012,!Opitz!et#al.![22]!proposed!their!own!definition!and!compiled!a!list!of!charac5
teristics!of!a!cloud!computing!definition!based!on!previous!research:!!service,!hard5
ware,!software,!abstraction,!on!demand,!scalability!and!public/private.!The!National!
Institute! of! Standards! and! Technology! (NIST)! Researchers! Mell! and! Grance! [113]!
identify!five!essential!characteristics!of!cloud!computing!–!on5demand!self5service,!
broad!network!access,!resource!pooling,!rapid!elasticity!and!measured!service!–!in!
its!2011!publication.!

" 121"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

Table!4!Definitions!of!Cloud!Computing:!a!perspective!from!key!researchers!!

Author!&!Year! Definition!
Wang!(2008)! “A#computing#Cloud#is#a#set#of#network#enabled#services,#
providing#scalable,#QoS#guaranteed,#normally#personalized,#
inexpensive#computing#platforms#on#demand,#which#could#be#
accessed#in#a#simple#and#pervasive#way.”#!

!
Armbrust!! •! The#illusion#of#infinite#computing#resources#available#on#
#et#al.!![114]! demand,#thereby#eliminating#the#need#for#Cloud#Computing#
(2009)! users#to#plan#far#ahead#for#provisioning.##
•! The#elimination#of#an#up>front#commitment#by#Cloud#users,#
thereby#allowing#companies#to#start#small#and#increase#
hardware#resources#only#when#there#is#an#increase#in#their#
needs.##
•! The#ability#to#pay#for#use#of#computing#resources#on#a#
short>term#basis#as#needed#(e.g.,#processors#by#the#hour#and#
storage#by#the#day)#and#release#them#as#needed,#thereby#
rewarding#conservation#by#letting#machines#and#storage#go#
when#they#are#no#longer#useful.##

!
Mell!and!Grance!! “…Cloud#computing#is#a#model#for#enabling#ubiquitous,#conven>
[115]!(2010)!! ient,#on>demand#network#access#to#a#shared#pool#of#configura>
ble#computing#resources#(e.g.,#networks,#servers,#storage,#appli>
cations,# and# services)# that# can# be# rapidly# provisioned# and# re>
leased# with# minimal# management# effort# or# service# provider#
interaction.# This# cloud# model# promotes# availability# and# is#
composed# of# five# essential# characteristics,# three# service+
models,#and#four#deployment+models”#
! "

Vaquero!et#al.![110]!
(2008)! “….Clouds#are#a#large#pool#of#easily#usable#and#accessible#virtu>
alized#resources#(such#as#hardware,#development#platforms#
and/or#services).#These#resources#can#be#dynamically#reconfig>
ured#to#adjust#to#a#variable#load#(scale),#allowing#also#for#an#
optimum#resource#utilization.#This#pool#of#re>#sources#is#typi>
cally#exploited#by#a#pay>per>use#model#in#which#guarantees#are#
offered#by#the#Infrastructure#Provider#by#means#of#customized#
SLAs.##

" 122"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

! "

Kaplan!15! a#broad#array#of#web>based#services#aimed#at#allowing#users#to#
obtain#a#wide#range#of#functional#capabilities#on#a#’pay>as>you>
(2008)! go’#basis#that#previously#required#tremendous#hard>#
ware/software#investments#and#professional#skills#to#acquire.#
! Cloud#computing#is#the#realization#of#the#earlier#ideals#of#utility#
computing#without#the#technical#complexities#or#complicated#
deployment#worries...##

#
Buyya!et#al.!![116]!! “#A#Cloud#is#a#type#of#parallel#and#distributed#system#consisting#
of#a#collection#of#interconnected#and#virtualized#computers#
(2008)! that#are#dynamically#provisioned#and#presented#as#one#or#more#
unified#computing#resources#based#on#service>level#agreements#
! established#through#negotiation#between#the#service#provider#
and#consumers#“#
!

In!addition!to!definitions!and!listing!characteristics!identified!in!Table!4,!Youseff!et#
al.#[117]!suggest!a!detailed!cloud!computing!ontology!in!an!attempt!to!further!define!
exactly! what! cloud! computing! entails.! These! researchers! dissected! the! cloud! into!
five!layers:!!applications,!software!environments,!software!infrastructure,!software!
kernel!and!hardware!([118],![117]).!Even!on!the!ontology!model,!researchers!do!not!
completely!agree.!In!an!ontology!model,!Weinhardt!et#al.![119]!argue!for!only!three!
layers:!!infrastructure,!platform!and!application!as!a!service.!!

4.3! Cloud!Service!Models!

In!general,!most!researchers!agree!that!there!are!generally!three!broad!models!that!
identify!cloud!computing!services:!!Infrastructure!as!a!Services!(IaaS),!Platform!as!a!
Service!(PaaS)!and!Software!as!a!Service!(SaaS).!The!National!Institute!of!Standards!
and!Technology!(NIST)!recognizes!IaaS,!PaaS!and!SaaS!as!the!three!cloud!computing!
service! models.! However,! Agrawal! et# al.# [112],! among! others,! suggest! that! the! list!
could!be!expanded!to!include!many!other!categories!such!as!Database!as!a!Service.!
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

15
@Cloudexpo by Jeremy Geelan, http://virtualization.sys-con.com/node/612375
" 123"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

IaaS,'PaaS'and'SaaS'Models'

Each!main!category!of!cloud!computing!services!has!special!characteristics!to!con5
sider.!

Distributed! provi5
sion!of!data!

Database! –! Serv5
ers!

Virtual!Infrastruc5
ture!Network!

Federation!Policies!

SLA!Management!
"
Figure! 10! Representation! of! Cloud! Computing! Delivery! models! developed! for! this!
research!

In! the! Infrastructure' as' a' Service! scenario,! huge! computing! resources! are! deliv5
ered!as!a!service,!including!capacity!for!processing,!storage!and!network.!Gupta!et!
al.![120]!describe!IaaS!as!a!model!in!which!physical!devices,!such!as!virtual!comput5
ers,! servers! and! storage! devices,! are! located! in! a! datacenter! and! can! be! accessed!
over!the!Internet!from!any!terminal!or!device!with!proper!authorization.!By!virtual5
izing!computing!resources!over!the!Internet,!companies!pay!for!only!the!computing!
power!and!storage!that!is!needed!at!any!point!in!time!without!ever!lacking!or!wast5
ing!resources.!Some!examples!of!IaaS!are!Amazon!Web!Service,!Microsoft!Azure!and!
Rackspace.!

" 124"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

In! the! second! scenario,! Platform' as' a' Service,! the! delivery! of! hardware! and! soft5
ware!tools!as!a!service,!businesses!can!depend!on!a!service!provider!to!provide!all!of!
the!underlying!computing!and!software!necessary!to!role!out!business!tools.!Using!
Platform! as! a! Service,! the! business! does! not! have! the! IT! burden! of! buying! and! in5
stalling! hardware,! buying! licenses! for! operating! systems,! databases! and! middle5
ware,!and!software!development!kits!and!tools.!Instead,!a!service!provider!will!sup5
port!everything!that!is!needed!as!a!service!and!end!users!will!access!the!platform!or!
tool!through!a!Web5based!interface.!A!main!use!for!Platform!as!a!Service!is!applica5
tion! development! including! collaboration! between! developers.! Examples! of! PaaS!
might!not!come!to!mind!as!readily,!but!some!are!Google!App!Engine,!Microsoft!Az5
ure.!

Finally,!Software'as'a'Service!is!the!most!prevalent!and!most!mature!cloud!model!
as!well!as!the!model!that!benefits!individuals!the!most.!Using!Software!as!a!Service,!
businesses!can!provide!the!latest!software!to!its!end!users!without!having!to!physi5
cally!install!software!on!the!user’s!computer!and!without!having!to!install!patches!or!
upgrades.!Business5critical!applications!can!be!hosted!on!the!Internet!and!accessed!
any!time,!from!any!device!and!any!location!through!a!thin!client!interface!or!a!pro5
gram! interface.! Some! well5known! examples! of! SaaS! are! Cisco! WebEx,! Dropbox,!
Google! Apps! and! Salesforce.! It! is! worth! noting! that! there! are! some! popular! cloud!
computing!offerings,!such!as!the!Apple!App!Store,!that!do!not!fit!neatly!into!one!of!
these!categories![111]).!

4.4! Big!Data!and!Cloud!Complementarity!

Cloud! computing! is! an! important! option! to! consider! when! discussing! the! Big! Data!
phenomenon.! With! the! vast! sources! of! data! in! various! formats,! the! growth! in! data!
traffic!and!the!volume!of!data!being!processed,!Tian!and!Zhao![121]!argue!that!tradi5
tional!IT!architecture!is!unable!to!adequately!manage!the!Big!Data!issue.!These!re5
searchers!highlight!what!they!call!the!“dialectical!relationship”!maintained!by!cloud!

" 125"
 Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

computing! and! Big! Data.! As! an! explanation,! they! propose! that! Big! Data! problems!
need! to! be! solved! by! cloud! computing! technology! and! that! will! result! in! Big! Data!
subsequently!promoting!the!practical!use!and!implementation!of!cloud!computing.!
Hashem! et# al.! [122]! describe! cloud! computing! and! Big! Data! as! conjoined! with! Big!
Data!providing!users!commodity!computing!and!cloud!computing!providing!the!en5
gine!and!illustrates!the!relationship!in!Figure!11!below.!
I.A.T. Hashem et al. / Information Systems 47 (2015) 98–115 103

Data sources Analytics/Reports

Decision making

Query Engine e.g. Hive, Mahout

Data visualization

Distributed configuration and

synchronization service
Programming model for processing large data
Storage sets with a parallel, distributed algorithm on a
cluster like MapReduce.

APIs
Distributed fault tolerant database for large
unstructured data sets like NOSQL.

Web
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS)

"
Fig. 3. Cloud computing usage in big data.

Figure!11!!Cloud!Computing!usage!in!Big!Data.!source!Hashem!et!al.![122]!
Table 3
Comparison of several big data cloud platforms.

Google Microsoft Amazon Cloudera

Big! Data! and!

Big data storage cloud!
Google complement!
cloud services each! other! in! several!
Azure S3 fundamental! ways.! With! the!
MapReduce AppEngine Hadoop on Azure Elastic MapReduce (Hadoop) MapReduce YARN
unfathomably!
Big data analytics
Relational database
large! amounts! of!
BigQuery
Cloud SQL
data!
Hadoop being! acquired,!
on Azure
SQL Azure
stored!
Elastic MapReduce
MySQL or Oracle
and! archived,!
(Hadoop) virtual!
Elastic MapReduce (Hadoop)
MySQL, Oracle, PostgreSQL
NoSQL database AppEngine Datastore Table storage DynamoDB Apache Accumulo
storage,!and!data!accessibility,!is!paramount.!Talia!agrees!that!cloud!computing!in5
Streaming processing
Search API Streaminsight Nothing prepackaged Apache Spark
Machine learning Prediction API Hadoop þMahout Hadoop þMahout Hadoop þOryx
frastructure!can!effectively!address!the!data!storage!requirement!of!Big!Data!analyt5
Data import
Data sources
Network
A few sample datasets
Network Network
Windows Azure marketplace Public Datasets
Network
Public Datasets
Availability Some services in private beta Some services in private beta Public production Industries
ics! [123].! As! described! by! Hashem! et# al.! [122],! Big! Data! uses! distributed! storage!
virtualized technologies. Therefore, cloud computing not communications. Likewise, Bollier and Firestone [44]
technology!based!on!cloud!computing!rather!than!local!storage.!In!addition,!compu5
only provides facilities for the computation and processing emphasized the ability of cluster computing to provide a
of big data but also serves as a service model. Table 3 shows hospitable context for data growth. However, Miller [45]
ting!power!on!demand!is!a!must5have!for!Big!Data!analytics,!and!cloud!computing!
the comparison of several big data cloud providers. argued that the lack of data availability is expensive
Talia [41] discussed the complexity and variety of data because users offload more decisions to analytical meth-
provides!the!needed!scaling/elasticity,!on!demand!processing!and!resource!optimi5
types and processing power to perform analysis on large ods; incorrect use of the methods or inherent weaknesses
datasets. The author stated that cloud computing infra- in the methods may produce wrong and costly decisions.
structure can serve as an effective platform to address DBMSs are considered a part of the current cloud comput-
the data storage required to perform big data analysis. ing architecture and play an important role to ensure the
"
Cloud computing is correlated with a new pattern for the
126"easy transition of applications from old enterprise infra-
provision of computing infrastructure and big data proces- structures to new cloud infrastructure architectures. The
sing method for all types of resources available in the pressure for organizations to quickly adopt and implement
cloud through data analysis. Several cloud-based technol- technologies, such as cloud computing, to address the
ogies have to cope with this new environment because challenge of big data storage and processing demands
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

zation! on! a! pay5per5use! basis! all! supported! by! performance5based! SLAs.! However,!
Assunção! et# al.! [17]! argue! that! there! are! challenges! that! need! to! be! overcome! to!
make! clouds! the! ideal! platform! for! Big! Data! analytics.! They! identify! data! manage5
ment,! integration,! processing! and! security! as! key! challenges! for! hosting! Big! Data!
analytics! on! public! clouds.! To! address! this! concern,! the! researchers! propose! that!
each! cloud! deployment! model! –! private,! public! and! hybrid! –! be! considered! when!
looking!for!complementarity!between!Big!Data!and!cloud.!However,!the!cloud!com5
puting! business! model! could! be! modified! and! adopted! by! Big! Data! to! enable! new!
offerings!around!cloud!and!Big!Data!analytics.!As!cloud!computing!and!Big!Data!con5
tinue! on! the! trajectory! toward! maturity,! the! next! big! thing! could! be! Big! Data! as! a!
Service!or!Analytics!as!a!Service.!

4.5! Cloud!Computing!Characteristics!and!Components!

The! key! characteristics! of! cloud! computing! –! scaling/elasticity,! on! demand! pro5
cessing,!performance!service!level!agreements!(SLAs),!federation/collaboration,!and!
security/privacy! –! effectively! support! Big! Data! analytics.! Abadi! [72]! proposes! that!
computing!power!is!elastic!if!the!workload!is!parallelizable.!!

Elasticity16'or'scalability!are!important!characteristics,!particularly!for!companies!
that!have!event5driven!or!seasonal!spikes!in!their!data,!are!launching!new!products,!
are! running! Big! Data! analytics! or! have! another! similar! need! for! periodic! spikes! in!
computing!and!processing!power!requirements.!According!to!Assunção!et#al.#[17],!to!
achieve!scale!and!elasticity!in!cloud5enabled!Big!Data!analytics,!the!specialized!hu5
man! resources,! such! as! data! scientists! and! domain! experts,! must! be! allocated! and!
used!appropriately.!!

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

16
In!cloud!computing,!elasticity!is!defined!as!"the!degree!to!which!a!system!is!able!to!adapt!to!work5
load!changes!by!provisioning!and!de5provisioning!resources!in!an!autonomic!manner,!such!that!at!
each!point!in!time!the!available!resources!match!the!current!demand!as!closely!as!possible",!Wikipe5
dia!definition,!https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elasticity_(cloud_computing).

" 127"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

On' demand' processing! is! another! key! characteristics! of! cloud! computing.! As! Ha5
shem!et#al.![122]!explain,!this!characteristic!correlates!with!scalability!in!that!in!or5
der!to!conduct!on!demand!processing,!the!computing!resources!need!to!be!able!to!
scale!on!demand,!particularly!during!peak!times.!Ji!et#al.![124]!argue!that!the!key!to!
improve!performance!when!processing!Big!Data!is!using!parallelization!techniques!
and!algorithms.!!

Performance' SLAs! guarantee! the! levels! of! performance,! uptime! and! vendor! re5
sponsiveness! and! are! an! important,! yet! uncertain,! cloud! computing! characteristic.!
As!opposed!to!marketing!SLAs!where!a!company!will!make!assurances!and!agree!to!
pay! a! penalty! if! expectations! are! not! met,! performance! SLAs! guarantee! the! actual!
performance!of!the!infrastructure!or!service!and!involve!measuring!against!specific!
performance!benchmarks.!Since!users!expect!cloud5based!services!to!be!available!at!
all!times,!reliability!is!critically!important.!Gupta!et#al.![120]!explain!that!since!data!
redundancy!is!built!in!by!cloud!storage!solutions,!files!are!always!available,!regard5
less!of!power!failures!or!network!downtime.!However,!Durkee![125],!an!IT!industry!
expert,! points! out! a! serious! issue! with! performance! SLAs! as! they! relate! to! cloud!
computing!performance.!Based!on!his!experience,!customers!do!not!understand!the!
complexity! of! performance! SLAs! as! they! relate! to! cloud! computing! and! therefore!
agree!to!SLAs!that!are!not!appropriate!for!their!business!or!are!not!in!their!best!in5
terest.!Additionally,!he!argues!that!lower!cost!should!not!equate!to!a!lower!level!or!
service.! Abdollahzadehgan! et# al.! [126]! found! in! their! research! that! service! level!
agreements! was! a! main! reason! that! SMEs! state! that! they! avoid! cloud! computing!
adoption.!!

Another!key!characteristic!of!cloud!computing!is!Cloud!Federation.!With!federated!
clouds,!local!infrastructure!is!connected!to!a!global!marketplace,!enabling!each!par5
ticipant!to!buy!and!sell!capacity!on!demand.!Federation!enables!unrestricted!choices!
for! businesses! that! choose! to! use! cloud! computing.! Jung! et# al.# [127]! explains! re5
searchers! have! considered! that! parallelization! of! Big! Data! analytics! over! a! federa5

" 128"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

tion!of!heterogeneous!clouds!improves!performance.!However,!research!by!Jung!et#
al.! found! that! there! is! a! performance! tradeoff! due! to! the! significant! delay! in! data!
transfer.!!

Lastly,!security'and'privacy!are!important!cloud!computing!characteristics!and!are!
viewed!differently!depending!on!the!industry!and!the!type!of!data!that!is!being!pro5
tected.!Hashem!et#al.![122]!confirm!that!privacy!concerns!are!affecting!the!uptake!of!
cloud! computing,! particularly! related! to! personalized! and! location5based! infor5
mation.! Abadi! [72],! [128]! ! explains! that! moving! data! to! a! third5party! location! in5
creases! the! potential! for! security! risks.! He! warns! against! companies! taking! on! the!
risk!of!storing!transactional!data!in!the!cloud!and!reports!that!he!is!unaware!of!any!
published!case!studies!of!companies!that!have!successfully!implemented!a!mission5
critical!transactional!database!using!the!public!cloud.!However,!he!explains!that!se5
curity!risks!can!be!alleviated!by!identifying!the!data!that!would!be!most!damaging!if!
there!was!a!breach!and!leaving!it!out,!anonymizing!it!or!encrypting!it.!

4.5.1! Taxonomy!of!Cloud!Computing!Benefits!

Table'5!Taxonomy!of!Cloud!Computing!Benefits!–!developed!for!this!research!
Strategic'Benefits' User'Bene2 Business'and' Operational' Technology'
fits' Organizational' Benefits' Benefits'
Benefits'
Asymmetric!competition! Collaboration! Business!agility!! Elasticity! Virtualization!
–!with!small,!startup! and!Multi5
Computing! Collaboration! Availability!
companies!able!to!lever5 tenancy!
Power!and!
age!the!technology!as!an!
Elasticity! !
advantage!over!large,!
established!companies! !
Control!over!Capex!and! Ease!of!Ac5 Improved!asset! Lower!operational! Data!Manage5
Opex!investment!in!IT! cess! utilization! costs!! ment!
infrastructure!ROI!
Low!barrier!to! !
entry!
Improve!times!to!mar5 Ease!of!use! Support!for!pay5 Agility!and!adapt5 Security!and!
ket! as5you5go!cost! ability:!simplified! Compliance!
structures! maintenance!and!
!
upgrading!of!sys5
tems!

" 129"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

Innovation,!and!learn5 ! Low!environmen5 SLAs,!Quality!of! Interfacing!

ing.! tal!impact.! Service! Applications!
and!Develop5
Better!quality!of!
ment!
service!and!relia5
bility.!

Due! to! the! lack! of! academic! references,! in! table! 5,! we! created! a! taxonomy! of! our!
research! on! Cloud! Computing! and! categorize! it! by! type! of! benefits! from! a! manag5
ment!perspective.!The!detailed!table!by!author!and!the!more!granular!description!is!
available!in!table!8.!In!cloud!computing,!elasticity!is!defined!as!the!degree!to!which!a!
system!(or!a!particular!cloud!layer)!autonomously!adapts!its!capacity!to!workload!
over!time.!

Scalability! is! the! ability! of! a! computer! application! or! product! (hardware! or! soft5
ware)!to!continue!to!function!well!when!it!(or!its!context)!is!changed!in!size!or!vol5
ume!in!order!to!meet!a!user!need.!Typically,!the!rescaling!is!to!a!larger!size!or!vol5
ume.!The!rescaling!can!be!of!the!product!itself!(for!example,!a!line!of!computer!sys5
tems!of!different!sizes!in!terms!of!storage,!RAM,!and!so!forth)!or!in!the!scalable!ob5
ject's!movement!to!a!new!context!(for!example,!a!new!operating!system).'

4.6! The!Determinants!of!Cloud!Computing!Adoption!

Identifying! the! determinants! of! cloud! computing! adoption! is! about! as! straightfor5
ward! as! defining! cloud! computing! and! identifying! its! key! characteristics.! The! de5
terminants! depend! greatly! on! which! researchers! are! proposing! them! and! vary!
based! on! industry! and! type! of! cloud! computing! that! is! being! proposed.! Hsu! et# al.!
[129]! identify! the! major! determinants! of! cloud! adoption! as:! ! perceived! benefits,!
business! concerns! and! IT! capability! within! the! Technology5Organization5
Environment.!They!conclude!that!external!pressure,!sometimes!called!image,!is!not!
a!significant!determinant.!However,!they!discovered!that!it!is!not!a!company’s!size!

" 130"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

but! its! IT! capability! that! significantly! affects! cloud! adoption.! On! the! other! hand,!
Opitz!et#al.#[22]!view!factors!such!as!image,!job!relevance!and!perceived!usefulness!
as!playing!a!key!role!in!the!cloud!computing!adoption!process.!In!addition,!Opitz!et#
al.![22]!agree!with!Koehler!et#al.![130]!that!cloud!adoption!is!not!driven!by!cost!sav5
ings.!Gupta!et#al.![120]!conducted!research!on!SMEs!and!concluded!the!same:!!con5
trary!to!popular!belief,!cost!reduction!and!cost!savings!are!not!key!drivers!to!cloud!
adoption.!Instead,!they!found!that!the!top!two!adoption!drivers!for!SMEs!are!“ease!
of!use!and!convenience”!and!“security!and!privacy.”!Research!by!Lin!and!Chen![131]!
based!on!interviews!with!IT!companies!in!Taiwan,!determined!the!same!when!their!
interviewees!argued!that!viable!cloud5based!business!models!were!more!important!
than!cost!reductions!made!possible!by!cloud!computing.!They!also!determined!that!
customer!need!was!a!significant!adoption!driver.!That!is,!companies!were!not!likely!
to!adopt!cloud!computing!solutions!if!customers!did!not!demand!it.!However,!Avram!
[132]! still! insists! that! cost! reduction! is! still! a! major! impetus! for! cloud! computing!
adoption.!!

Other! researchers! looked! beyond! perceived! benefits,! business! concerns! and! IT! ca5
pability! and! considered! other! determinants,! such! as! relative! advantage! along! with!
other! economic,! political,! social! and! technological! factors.! For! instance,! Misra! and!
Mondal! [133]! analyzed! various! economic! considerations! when! migrating! to! cloud!
architecture!with!a!particular!view!of!return!on!investment.!The!authors!created!a!
decision5making! model! that! companies! can! use! to! measure! suitability! for! cloud!
adoption! prior! to! calculating! ROI,! which! is! difficult! and! time! consuming.! Further,!
several!researchers!point!to!relative!advantage!on!two!levels!–!personal!and!organi5
zational!–!as!a!key!determinant!of!whether!cloud!computing!will!be!adopted!([131],!
[134],!![135].!From!a!personal!perspective,!users!can!assess!the!advantage!of!adopt5
ing!a!given!innovation,!such!as!cloud!computing,!based!on!their!personal!experience!
and! the! benefits! they! have! experienced.! From! an! organizational! perspective,! the!

" 131"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

benefits! might! not! be! as! obvious! without! having! had! prior! experience! with! enter5
prise5grade!cloud!computing!services.!

Table!6!Cloud!Computing!Determinants!of!Adoption!5!developed!for!this!research!
Identified'
Determinants' Description' Prior'Reasearch'
Impacts'
Availability:!It!includes!the!On5
line!Resources,!«!anywhere,!
anytime!»!or!Always!On!access!
to!Cloud!computing!!
Centralized!Data!:!Data!are!per5
cieved!to!be!all!in!one!place.! Abdollahzadehgan![126]!!
Application!leverage!data! Phaphoom!et!al.![136]!
beyond!the!company!premises! Gonzalez5Martı́nez!et!al.!!
Positive!De5 to!the!cloud!seamlessly!! [137]!
Availability' terminant! Cloud!SLAs!implies!high!quality! Alkhater!![138]!
service,!accessible!anytime,! Nkhoma!and!Dang![139]!
from!multiple!connected!plat5 Neves![140]!
forms!.! Bohm!![141];!!
Device!and!Location!Indepen5 Delen!and!Demirkan![42]!
dence!!
Location!independent!resource!
pooling!!
Remote!Access!!
Ubiquitous!network!access!!
Platform!designed!to!allow!
Positive!De5 Concurrent!users!! Abdollahzadehgan!![126]!
Collaboration'
terminant! Enable!Sharing!and!distributed! Gupta!et#al.![142]!
workload/collaboration!!
Compatibility!with!the!existing!
applications!!
Integration/Portability!of!Ap5 Oliveira!et#al.![143]!
plications!in!Virtualized!envi5 Nkhoma!and!Dang![139],!!
Negative!De5 ronment.! Alkhater![138]!
Compatibility'
terminant! Lockin/Proprietary!vendor! Phaphoom!et#al.![136]!
platforms/lack!of!IT!standards!! Neves!et#al.![140]!
Provides!a!certain!level!of!cus5 !
tomization!and!allows!an!effi5
cient!operation.!
Complexity!:!Difficulty!for!Or5
Chang!et#al.!![144]!
Negative!De5 ganizations!to!use!the!cloud!
Complexity' Alkhater!et#al.![138]!
terminant! technology!
Oliveira!et#al.![143]!
Relative!Advantage!Complexity!
Negative!De5 Need!to!meet!Regulatory!and!
Compliance' Nkhoma!and!Dang![139],!
terminant! governance!policies!!

" 132"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

Cost!flexibility!–!Allows!“pay!as!
you!go”!model! Sultan!et#al.![145]!!
! Cost!savings! Oliveira!et#al.![143]!
Cost'flexibility'(cost'
Cost!savings!in!hardware!! Abdollahzadehgan![126]!
saving'Hardware,'
Positive!De5 Cost!savings!in!software!! Gonzalez5Martı́nez!et#al.!!
Software)'
terminant! Cost!reduction!! [137]!
Minimize!licensing!new!soft5 Gupta!et#al.![142]!!
ware!!
Ease!of!use!and!convenience!!
Gupta!et#al.![142]!
Positive!De5 Easy!Implementation!!
Ease'of'Use' Abdollahzadehgan![126]!
terminant! Perceived!Ease!of!Use!!
Opitz!et#al.!![22]!
Perceived!Usefulness!!
Maintenance!!
Reliability!!
Reliability!is!improved!through!
the!use!of!redundant!sites.!
Abdollahzadehgan![126]!
·!Reliability:!Refers!to!the!abili5
Gupta!et#al.![142]!
ty!of!a!system!to!fulfil!its!in5
Positive!De5 [139],!Neves!!
SLA’s/Reliability' tended!function!!
terminant! Neves!et#al.![140]!
It!ensures!service!meet!per5
Sultan!et#al.![145]!
formance!requirements!as!de5
Alkhater!et#al.![138]!
fined!in!the!SLA’s!this!may!in5
clude!high!transmission!rate,!
minimum!rate!of!errors,!and!
fast!recovery.!!
Business!scalability,!Computing! Chebrolu![146]!
intensive!support!! Gupta!et#al.![142]!
On5demand!self!service!,!Pro5 Gupta!et#al.![120];!!
vides!flexible!response!to! Neves!et#al.!![140]!
change.! Delen!and!Demirkan![42]!!
Positive!De5 Rapid!elasticity!Pay!per!use!!! !Gonzalez5Martı́nez!et#al.!!
Scalability/Elasticity'
terminant! Scalability!is!offered!through! [137]!
dynamic!provisioning!of!re5 Khajeh5Hosseini!et!al.![147]!
sources.!Capacity!scaling!is! Kloch!et#al.!2011;!Sulistio!et#
done!in!the!cloud,!and!not!at! al.!2009]!
the!customer!premises.! Abdollahzadehgan![126]!
! !!
Cloud!security!!
Data!Privacy!:!confidentiality!of!
data,!It!is!the!main!concern!for!
organisations!thinking!about!
cloud!computing!!
Security!:!level!of!security!
Nkhoma!and!Dang![139]!
! procedures!in!place!to!protect!
Phaphoom!et#al.!![136]!
Security'&'Data'Pri2 information!or!the!system!from!
Gupta!et#al.![142]!
vacy' Depend!! unauthorised!access!or!any!
Oliveira!et#al.![143]!
! other!security!events.!
Alkhater!et#al.!!!![138]!
Trust:!Trust!in!the!cloud!envi5
ronment!include!level!of!au5
thenticity,!integrity!and!confi5
dentiality!in!regard!to!the!ser5
vice!and!the!stored!data.!!
!

" 133"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

4.7! Theoretical!Paradigms!for!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!
at!the!Organization’s!Level!

Scientists!have!developed!adoption!models!that!take!different!criteria!into!account!
when! studying! the! adoption! of! innovation.! Studies! of! cloud! computing! adoption!
generally!use!one!or!a!combination!of!these!four!adoption!models:!!Diffusion!of!In5
novation,! Technology5Organization5Environment,! Technology! Acceptance! Model!
and!Task5Technology!Fit.!Some!researchers!find!that!a!single!adoption!model!is!too!
restricting! and! they! combine! adoption! models! or! they! modify! a! model! to! include!
additional!determinants!or!factors!that!they!deem!critical!to!studying!cloud!compu5
ting!adoption.!!

Our!objective!at!this!stage!is!not!to!review!in!detail!the!mainstream!theories,!but!to!
emphasize! the! fact! that! most! of! the! studies! were! performed! at! the! organizational!
level! using! DOI! and! TOE! framework! and! disregarded! the! individual! determinants!
for! cloud! adoption.! In! the! next! section,! we! attempt! to! balance! views! between! the!
overwhelming!numbers!of!DOI,!TOE!studies!and!the!few!TAM!and!TTF!models!used!
to!study!cloud!computing!adoption.!!

4.7.1! Diffusion!of!Innovation!(DOI)!

According!to!Rogers![21],!the!Diffusion!of!Innovation!theory!comprises!five!charac5
teristics:! ! relative! advantage,! compatibility,! complexity,! trialability! and! observabil5
ity.!This!theory!has!been!used!since!1962!and!continues!to!evolve!as!more!innova5
tions! are! brought! to! market.! The! author! explains! that! even! with! obvious! benefits,!
innovation!adoption!can!take!many!years.!Particularly,!Rogers![21]!views!diffusion!
as!a!special!form!of!communication!in!which!information!regarding!an!innovation!is!
spread!through!an!ecosystem!–!both!in!a!managed!way!and!spontaneously.!It!can!be!

" 134"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

a!two5way!communication!in!that!in!some!cases!a!customer!(or!end!user)!will!have!a!
problem!and!will!go!to!a!change!agent!(or!service!provider)!to!try!to!solve!the!prob5
lem.!In!some!cases!an!innovation,!such!as!cloud!computing,!is!proposed!as!the!solu5
tion! to! the! problem.! A! major! challenge! for! cloud! computing! providers! is! to! deter5
mine!how!to!speed!up!the!rate!of!adoption.!Lin!and!Chen![131]!used!Rogers’!Diffu5
sion!of!Innovation!theory!to!study!cloud!computing!adoption!in!Taiwanese!IT!com5
panies.!They!consider!relative!advantage,!a!key!component!of!DoI,!but!conclude!that!
it!is!only!relevant!on!the!user!level!but!not!on!the!organizational!level.!Rogers’!theo5
ry!of!Diffusion!of!Innovation!states!that!trialability!can!increase!the!uptake!of!new!
innovation.! However,! in! Lin! and! Chen’s! research! [131],! they! found! that! all! inter5
viewees! had! used! cloud! computing! in! their! personal! lives,! but! the! organizational!
uptake!of!cloud!computing!was!not!affected.!!

4.7.2! Technology5Organization5Environment!(TOE)!

Proposed! by! Tornatzky! and! Fleischer! [95],! the! Technology5Organization5

Environment!(TOE)!framework!has!been!used!extensively!in!technological!innova5
tion! adoption! research! for! enterprises.! The! authors! propose! that! these! three! ele5
ments!present!both!“constraints!and!opportunities”!for!technological!innovation.!In!
the!technology!context,!the!technologies!already!being!used!internally!and!external5
ly!in!a!company!and!the!technologies!available!for!use!are!studied.!The!organization!
piece!describes!the!company!using!various!characteristics,!such!as!firm!size,!organi5
zational! structure! and! communication! process.! Finally,! environment! looks! at! the!
company’s! market,! competitors! and! regulatory! environment.! Low! et# al.! [148]! con5
ducted! a! study! of! the! determinants! of! cloud! computing! adoption! by! applying! the!
TOE!framework!to!data!from!a!sample!of!the!top!500!high5tech!firms!in!Taiwan.!The!
researchers! concluded! that! five! variables! (relative! advantage,! firm! size,! top! man5
agement!support,!competitive!pressure!and!trading!partner!pressure)!were!signifi5
cant!determinants!of!cloud!computing!adoption.!Interestingly,!they!found!that!trad5

" 135"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

ing! partner! pressure! was! the! most! influential! factor,! whereas! other! researchers,!
such!as!Hsu!et#al.![129]!found!that!external!pressures!were!not!significant!factors.!
Hsu! et# al.! conducted! a! study! of! a! sample! of! the! Top! 5000! company! list! in! Taiwan!
using!the!TOE!framework!focusing!on!perceived!benefits,!business!concerns!and!IT!
capability.! The! results! of! this! study! show! that! perceived! benefits! has! a! significant!
and!positive!affect!on!adoption!and!is!the!most!influential!factor.!Business!concerns!
was!also!significant!but!had!a!negative!correlation!with!cloud!computing!adoption.!
Again,!IT!capability!was!found!to!be!significant!and!positively!influenced!firms!in!the!
decision! to! adopt! cloud! computing! solutions.! In! fact,! the! study! showed! that! the!
higher!the!IT!capability,!the!more!likely!the!company!was!to!adopt!cloud!computing.!!
In!their!study!of!micro!and!small!businesses!in!Singapore!and!neighboring!countries,!
Gupta,!et#al.![120]!used!a!modified!framework!that!measured!the!simple!direct!rela5
tionship! of! the! following! core! variables:! ! cost! reduction,! ease! of! use! and! conven5
ience;! reliability;! sharing! and! collaboration;! and! security! and! privacy.! They! based!
their!findings!on!actual!decisions!made!and!not!intention!to!decide!to!adopt!cloud!
computing.!As!mentioned!earlier,!they!ultimately!concluded!that!the!top!two!adop5
tion!drivers!for!SMEs!are!ease!of!use!and!convenience!and!security!and!privacy.!

Oliveira!et#al.![143]!conducted!a!study!of!Portuguese!companies!in!which!they!com5
bined!the!DoI!and!the!TOE!frameworks!to!take!advantage!of!their!complementarity!
and!provided!a!holistic!evaluation!of!cloud!computing!adoption.!As!a!result,!the!re5
searchers! determined! that! relative! advantage! has! a! positive! influence! on! cloud!
computing! adoption.! Even! though! many! people! think! that! security! is! an! adoption!
barrier,! their! research! denies! this! claim.! Further,! complexity! is! an! inhibitor! while!
technological!readiness!is!a!facilitator!of!cloud!adoption.!Though!some!researchers,!
such!as!Misra!and!Mondal![133],!conclude!that!cloud!computing!is!better!suited!to!
SMEs,! Oliveira! et# al.! [143]! argues! that! larger! firms! are! more! likely! to! adopt! cloud.!
Phaphoom!et#al.![136]!point!out!that!the!five!DoI!characteristics!have!been!integrat5
ed!into!the!TOE!framework!by!numerous!researchers!in!order!to!provide!a!deeper!

" 136"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

explanation! of! the! technological! context.! They! report! that! within! the! technological!
context!of!TOE,!Espadanal!and!Oliviera![143],!!Hsu![129],!Lian!et#al.![159],!Lumsden!
and!Gutierrez![134]!and!Tehrani![149]!all!combine!the!first!three!characteristics!of!
DoI! –! relative! advantage,! compatibility! and! complexity! –! with! security! and! cost! in!
order!to!provide!a!clearer!view!of!adoption!factors.!

4.7.3! Technology!Acceptance!Model!(TAM)!and!Task5Technology!Fit!(TTF)!

Developed! by! Davis! [150]! in! 1986,! the! Technology! Acceptance! Model! (TAM)! is! a!
model!to!test!the!user!acceptance!of!computer5based!information!systems.!His!two!
objectives!were!to!improve!the!understanding!of!the!user!acceptance!processes!and!
to! provide! a! theoretical! basis! for! designers! and! implementers! to! conduct! user! ac5
ceptance! testing! prior! to! a! system! being! implemented.! The! two! main! factors! that!
influence! adoption! are,! according! to! Davis! [150]:! perceived! usefulness! defined! as!
“the#degree#to#which#a#person#believes#that#using#a#particular#system#would#enhance#
his# or# her# job# performance;”! and! perceived! ease5of5use! defined! as# “#the# degree# to#
which#a#person#believes#that#using#a#particular#system#would#be#free#from#effort#.”!

Researchers!studying!cloud!computing!adoption!sometimes!choose!to!use!the!Tech5
nology!Acceptance!Model!or!one!of!its!adaptations.!Opitz!et#al.![22]!use!a!modified!
version!of!the!expanded!Technology!Acceptance!Model!2!(TAM2)!for!their!study!in!
hopes!of!increasing!the!“expressiveness”!of!their!results.!In!TAM2,!the!original!vari5
ables!of!attitude!toward!using!and!behavioral!intention!to!use!are!combined!into!a!
variable!called!intention!to!use.!This!new!variable!measures!a!person’s!intention!to!
use! or! not! to! use! a! certain! technology.! In! the! second! iteration! of! TAM,! Venkatesh!
and!Davis![151]!explain!that!intention!to!use!can!be!divided!into!two!strands!–!social!
influence!process!and!cognitive!influence!process.!These!researchers!found!that!us5
er!acceptance!was!significantly!influenced!by!social!influenced!processes!(subjective!

" 137"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

norm,!voluntariness!and!image)!and!cognitive!influenced!processes!(job!relevance,!
output! quality! and! result! demonstrability).! Opitz! et# al.’s! [22]! research! question! is:!!
“Which! factors! explain! the! adoption! of! cloud! computing?”! They! modified! TAM2! to!
remove! subjective! norm! and! voluntariness! from! their! study! because! they! felt! that!
they!were!not!relevant.!They!conclude!that!cloud!computing!technology!acceptance!
can!be!described!well!by!TAM!and!TAM2.!They!liken!actual!system!use!to!intention!
to! use,! which! can! in! turn! is! similar! to! perceived! usefulness! and! perceived! ease! of!
use.!Among!the!two,!perceived!ease!of!use!is!the!stronger!determinant.!Finally,!per5
ceived! usefulness! can! be! accurately! described! by! output! quality.! Opitz! et# al.! [22]!
propose! that! IT! decision! makers! equate! good! output! with! usefulness.! They! also!
found! that! high! output! quality! results! were! most! determined! by! image,! job! rele5
vance! and! result! demonstrability.! Like! many! other! researchers,! Opitz! et# al.! [22]!
found!that!decisions!related!to!using!cloud!computing!are!not!based!on!price!or!cost!
savings.! Instead,! social! influences! from! the! processes! behind! image! and! subjective!
norm! are! significant.! The! researchers! concluded! that! cloud! computing! providers!
need!to!focus!on!designing!communications!campaigns!to!raise!the!prestige!and!im5
age! of! their! cloud! computing! services.! ! Furthermore,! they! propose! that! cloud! ser5
vices!should!be!developed!to!meet!specific!job!requirements.

Some!researchers!argue!against!TAM!and!its!multiple!variations,!including!Dishaw!
and! Strong,! Stieninger! et# al.# [135],! Udoh! [152]! and! Wu! et# al# [153].! ! Dishaw! and!
Strong![154]!criticize!TAM!for!its!lack!of!task!focus!and!propose!a!new!model!com5
bining!factors!from!TAM!and!the!Technology5Task!Fit!model!will!be!better.!The!re5
searchers!argue:!!“While#each#of#these#models#offers#significant#explanatory#power,#a#
model#that#integrates#constructs#from#both#may#offer#a#significant#improvement#over#
either#model#alone.” Stieninger!et#al.!#[135]!point!out!that!TAM!and!its!modified!ver5
sions!fail!to!address!important!issues!such!as!security!and!trust.!Wu!et#al.#[153]#con5
sidered! using! the! Technology! Acceptance! Model! in! their! SaaS! adoption! study! but!
chose!to!use!a!modified!version!of!the!Decision!Making!Trial!and!Evaluation!Labora5

" 138"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

tory!(DEMATEL)!model!because!the!TAM!did!not!take!trust!into!account.!!Since!trust!
is! considered! a! critical! factor! in! e5commerce! adoption,! and! SaaS! and! e5commerce!
are!correlated,!they!argued!that!it!was!important!to!be!included.!In!Wu!et#al.’s!study,!
several!factors!not!included!in!TAM!are!considered:!!media!and!social!influence,!flex5
ibility,! perceived! status! benefits,! attitude! toward! mobile! innovation,! security,! trust!
and!marketing.!They!found!that!marketing!has!a!positive!impact!on!social!influence,!
including:!!perceived!ease!of!use,!perceived!usefulness,!security!and!trust.!The!study!
results! highlight! the! importance! between! perceived! benefits! and! perceived! risks.!
Simply! put,! decision! makers! can! be! categorized! in! two! ways:! ! those! that! perceive!
that!the!benefits!of!adoption!are!greater!than!the!risks!and!those!that!perceive!the!
risks!are!greater!than!the!benefits.!

Task5Technology! Fit! (TTF)! is! another! model! used! by! researchers! when! studying!
cloud! computing! adoption.! TTF! comprises! technology! characteristics,! task! charac5
teristics!and!individual!abilities.!Chen!et#al.![155]!conducted!research!on!data!gath5
ered!from!the!Top!2000!firms!in!Taiwan!and!constructed!a!research!structure!relat5
ed! to! SaaS! adoption! based! on! task/technology! fit! (TTF).! According! to! Chen,! TTF!
provides! greater! insight! on! a! repeated! use! of! a! technology! than! its! counterparts.!
Primarily,!they!wanted!to!determine!if!adopting!SaaS!would!reduce!users’!efficiency!
due!to!the!technology!not!being!a!good!fit!for!the!task!or!requiring!more!individual!
ability! than! exists.! They! hypothesized! that! individual! abilities! can! positively! influ5
ence!the!degree!of!technology!and!task!fit!and!further!hypothesized!that!the!inten5
tion!for!SaaS!adoption!was!directly!related!to!the!degree!of!TTF.!!

4.8! Cloud!Computing!Adoption!Advantages!

Adoption! advantages! for! cloud! computing! can! be! assessed! both! from! the! business!
and! end! user! perspective! and! should! be! studied! objectively! without! being! unduly!

" 139"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

influenced! by! marketed! advantages.! The! main! advantages! reported! most! often! by!
researchers!are:!!lower!cost!of!entry!for!smaller!companies;!near5immediate!access!
to!resources;!lower!IT!barriers!to!innovation;!ease!of!scalability;!enables!new!classes!
of!applications!and!services;!ease!of!use.!

Lower!cost!of!entry!for!smaller!companies!is!considered!by!researchers,!and!is!tout5
ed!by!cloud!providers,!as!an!advantage!of!cloud!adoption.!Misra!and!Mondal![133]!
highlight! benefits! particularly! attractive! to! start5ups! as! no! upfront! capital! invest5
ment,!which!remove!barriers!to!market!entry,!and!scalability,!where!the!company’s!
resources! can! increase! with! the! growth! of! the! company.! Lin! and! Chen! [131]! point!
out!that!cloud!adoption!can!speed!up!the!development!cycle!and!save!costs!by!tak5
ing!advantage!of!tools!and!platforms!provided!by!cloud!providers!and!not!having!to!
create!them.!However,!a!2012!KPMG!study!of!cloud!consumers!found!that!there!was!
a!shift!on!the!organizational!level!away!from!cost!savings!as!a!primary!cloud!compu5
ting! adoption! driver! to! the! overall! transformational! benefits! of! cloud! adoption!
[136].!

In! a! 2014! MISQuarterly! publication,!Stamas! et# al.! [156]! identify! “tangible! business!
payoffs”!from!cloud!services!in!three!categories:!!economic!(increased!profitability;!
reduced! operating! costs),! business! (expanded! market! reach)! and! transformative!
(expanded! value! network;! new! selling! model;! launch! of! new! ventures! and! prod5
ucts).! In! a! Mohawk! case! study,! the! author! shows! that! a! full! array! of! tangible! busi5
ness!payoffs!take!precedence!over!purely!operational!cost!savings.!To!substantiate!
the!claim!of!enabling!new!classes!of!applications!and!services,!the!Mohawk!case!by!
Stamas!et#al.![156]!demonstrate!that!cloud!services!can!become!a!business!technol5
ogy! platform! to! support! new! business! models,! as! opposed! to! merely! providing! a!
new! operating! platform.! In! addition,! the! Mohawk! case! exemplifies! cloud! services!
providing! near5immediate! access! to! resources! and! lowering! IT! barriers! to! innova5
tion.!

" 140"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

Neves! et# al.! [140]! argues! that! SMEs! can! gain! competitiveness! and! efficiency! by!
adopting!cloud!computing.!Further,!they!consider!key!advantages!as:!!user!friendli5
ness,!ubiquitous!systems,!being!available!off!the!shelf!and!having!options.!Some!of!
these!advantages!are!similar!to!those!for!end!users,!particularly!related!to!SaaS.!Lin!
and! Chen! [131]! identify! some! key! adoption! advantages! for! individuals! centered!
around!ease!of!use:!!access!to!applications!and!data!from!any!device!and!any!time;!
better!performance!speed!and!storage!space;!sharing!and!collaboration!at!any!time!
and!from!any!place;!and!not!having!to!perform!upgrades!or!having!applications!tak5
ing!precious!resources!on!devices.!

'

Table!7!!!Studies!investigating!dominant!factors!of!enterprise!cloud!adoption.!
Adapted!and!Augmented!from!Oliveira!et#al.![143],!Phaphoom!et#al.![136]!!
IT'Adoption'
Model' (Dependent)'Variables'
(dependent' Methods' Context' Authors'
used' used'
Variable)!
Subjective!Norm,!Job!
TAM!by!
Relevance,!Image,!Output!
Davis!and!
Cloud!Com5 Quality,!Result!Demon5
TAM!based! Factor!Anal5 96!CIOs!and!It!
puting!Adop5 strability,!Experience,! Opitz!et#al.![22]!
on!Ven5 ysis! manager!
tion! Perceived!Usefulness,!
katesh!&!
Perceived!Ease!of!Use,!
Davis!
Intention!to!Use!
Technology!(relative!
advantage,!complexity,!
compatibility),!organiza5 111!IT!staff!or!
Cloud!Com5
tion!(top!management! Principal! managers!of!
puting!Adop5
TOE! support,!firm!size,!tech5 Component! the!high5tech! Low!et#al.![148]!
tion!for!High!
nology!readiness)!and! Analysis! firms!!
tech!firms!
environment!(competi5 !
tive!pressure,!trading!
partner!pressure)!!
Technology!(relative!
advantage,!complexity,!
compatibility),!organiza5
Cloud!com5 tion!(top!management!
Abdollahzadehgan!
puting!adop5 TOE! support,!firm!size,!tech5 n/a! n/a!
et#al.!![126]!
tion!in!SMEs! nology!readiness)!and!
environment!(competi5
tive!pressure,!trading!
partner!pressure)!
Cloud!com5 DOI!and! Business!process!com5
puting!adop5 Information! plexity,!entrepreneurial! Confirmatory! 289!Manufac5
tion!tech5 Processing! culture,!compatibility,! Factor!Anal5 turing!and! Wu!et#al.![157]!!
nologies!in! View! application!functionality!! ysis! retail!firms!
support!of! ! !

" 141"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

its!supply!
chain!opera5
tions!
Adopter’s!style!as!moder5
Cloud!Com5 ator!of!perceived!tech5 Secondary!
Partial!Least! Nkhoma!et#al.!
puting!Adop5 TOE ! nology!barriers,!per5 Data!IBM!
Square! [139]!
tion! ceived!environment!bar5 survey!
riers,!perceived!benefits !
Relative!advantage,!com5
Perception,!
patibility,!complexity,!
Attitude!and! DOI ! Qualitative!
ease!of!maintenance! 19!Interviews! Lin!et#al.![131]!
Adoption!of! ! Exploratory!
trialability,!observability!!
Cloud!!
!
Cloud!com5
Cloud! qualitative!
puting!! Regulative,!Normative,! 94!SMEs!in! Trigueros!et#al.!
adoption!! and!quantita5
Adoption!in! Cognitive! Spain! [158]!!
! tive!analysis!
SMEs!
Cloud#Adoption#Elements.#
The!three!elements!are!
connectivity!,!modularity!
and!compatibility!The!
research!instrument!
Cloud!adop5 questions!to!assess!IT!
Chebrolu!et#al.!
tion!and!IT! 5!! flexibility!Strategic# Conceptual' n/a!
[146]!!
Effectiveness! Alignment#Elements.#!
#IT#Effectiveness#Elements#!
are!‘overall!quality!of!
service’,!‘user!satisfaction!
with!IT’!and!‘helpfulness!
of!IT!staff!to!users’!!
Cost!savings Ease!of!
SEM!(Struc5
No!specific! use Reliability Security!
Cloud!com5 tural!Equa5
theory!is! and!privacy Sharing!and! Gupta!et#al.![142]!
puting!adop5 tion(s)!Mod5 211!SMEs!
used.!! collaboration Usage!and! !
tion!in!SMEs! eling)!!
! adoption!of!cloud!compu5
Smart!PLS!
ting!!
Perceived!Benefits!(PB)!
Cloud!com5
Business!Concerns!(BC)!
puting!adop5 Descriptive! 200!Taiwan5 Hsu!et#al.![129]!
TOE! IT!Capability!(IC)!External!
tion!inten5 Analysis! ese!firms! !
Pressure!(EP)!!
tion!
!
Decision
Making Trial
SaaS!adop5 Perceived!Benefits,!Per5
and Evalua- Case!study,!9!
tion!! DEMATEL ceived!Risk,!Cause5effect! Wu!et#al.![153]!
tion Laborato- persons!
! factors!of!PB!and!PR,!!
ry (DE-
MATEL!
perceived!usefulness,!
Adoption!of!
perceived!ease!of!use,!
Grid!and! Multi5 242!respond5
TAM! attitude!competition!from! Udoh![152]!
Cloud!Tech5 Regression! ents!!
alternative!technology5
nology!
clouds!and!trust!security.!
The!study!stipulated!that!
the!following!factors!
Sample!of!257!
influence!cloud!compu5
Cloud!com5 Principal! business!and!
ting!adoption:!technologi5 Lumsden!et#al.!
puting!adop5 TOE! Component! IT!profession5
cal!context!(relative!ad5 [134]!!
tion!in!UK! Analysis' als!!
vantage,!complexity!and!
'
compatibility),!organisa5
tional!context!(top!man5

" 142"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

agement!support,!firm!
size!and!technology!read5
iness)!and!environmental!
context!(competitive!and!
trading!partner!pres5
sures).!!
!
Availability!(AV)!Portabil5
Cloud!Com5 ity!(PO)!Integration!with! Bivariate!
352!individu5
puting!Adop5 current!! multivariate! Phaphoom!et#al.!
als!!
tion!and! 5!! systems!(IN) Migration! analysis!! [136]!
technical! complexity!(MI)!! !
!
barriers! Data!privacy!(DP)!Securi5 !
ty!(SE)!!
PLS5based!
349!responses!
Theory!of! Perceived!Risk,!Perceived! structural!
SaaS!adop5 142!SaaS! Benlian!et#al.!
Reasoned! Opportunities,!Intention! equation!
tion! adopter!207! [159]!
Action!! to!Increase!adoption! modeling!!
non5adopter!!
!
Human!(CIO!innovative5
ness,!Perceived!technical!
competence.!Technolo5
gy!!(Data!security,!Com5
Cloud!Adop5 plexity,!Compatibility,! ANOVA,!
tion!in!Tai5 HTOE! Costs!).!Organization! Principal!
60!Hospitals! Lian!et#al.![160]!
wanese! ! (Relative!advantage!,!Top! Component!
Hospitals! manager’s!support,!Ade5 Analysis!
quate!resource,!Benefits!).!
Environment!(Govern5
ment!policy,!Perceived!
industry!pressure)!

4.9! Cloud!Computing!Adoption!Barriers! !

Like!adoption!advantages,!adoption!barriers!can!be!assessed!both!from!the!perspec5
tive!of!organizations!and!individuals!and!in!relation!to!some!standard!assumptions.!
The! main! barriers,! or! disadvantages,! to! cloud! computing! adoption! reported! most!
often!by!researchers!are:!stability!and!reliability;!compatibility!with!existing!prod5
ucts!and!services;!complexity;!security!and!data!integrity!and!privacy;!and!sunk!cost!
consideration![131].!Lin!and!Chen![131]!focus!primarily!on!barriers!to!cloud!adop5
tion! against! the! backdrop! assumption! that! computational! power! and! cost! savings!
are!the!most!touted!benefits.!Of!these!barriers,!the!authors!concluded!that!security,!
particularly! privacy! and! data! confidentiality,! is! one! of! the! most! cited! objections! to!
cloud! computing! stems! mainly! from! the! idea! that! a! lack! control! of! physical! infra5
structure!increases!the!likelihood!of!security!and!privacy!breaches.!Low!et#al.![148]!

" 143"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

found!that!relative!advantage!was!the!main!barrier!to!cloud!computing!adoption!in!
the!high5tech!industry!when!they!studied!Taiwanese!companies.!

According!to!Khajeh5Hosseini!et#al.#[161],!concerns!around!cloud!computing!adop5
tion!can!be!summarized!as:##suitability!for!cloud!is!unknown;!cost!calculations!are!
complicated!due!to!the!vast!number!of!variables;!organizational!change!is!required!
that!will!significantly!affect!the!way!people!work;!and!corporate!governance!is!not!
understood.#For!example,!Khajeh5Hosseini!et#al.![147]!perform!a!feasibility!analysis!
of! a! proposed! cloud5! based! IT! system! at! an! SME! in! the! oil! and! gas! industry.! After!
performing!the!study,!they!determined!that!the!benefits!–!lowering!costs,!freeing!up!
IT!staff!from!tedious!work!and!potentially!being!able!to!enter!new!markets!–!did!not!
outweigh!the!concerns!related!to!organizational!change,!relying!on!a!third!party!and!
potential!negative!implications!related!to!customer!service!and!support.!!

Phaphoom!et#al.![136]!study!the!impact!of!technical!and!security5related!barriers!to!
adoption! and! defines! the! main! adoption! barriers! as:! ! availability,! portability,! inte5
gration! with! current! enterprise! systems,! migration! complexity,! data! privacy! and!
security.! Security! and! integration! issues! were! perceived! to! be! the! two! most! im5
portant!barriers!to!adoption.!Misra!and!Mondal![133]!agree!that!security!is!a!reason!
that! cloud! computing! is! not! a! huge! success.! They! report! that! huge! advancements!
have!been!made!in!cloud!computing!security,!but!the!technology!is!still!too!new!to!
conclude!that!security!is!not!an!issue.!

However,! according! research! conducted! by! González5Martin! et# al.# [137],! some! re5
searchers! argue! that! cloud! computing! is! actually! more! secure! than! traditional! dis5
tributed! systems.! These! researchers! conclude! that! the! data! is! safer! because! it! is!
stored!in!an!unknown!location!where!thieves!would!have!a!hard!time!finding!it.!In!
addition,! compromised! services! can! be! restored! more! quickly,! which! minimizes!
damage.!Finally,!security!and!data!monitoring!through!a!cloud!services!provider!are!

" 144"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

more!effective,!are!conducted!centrally!and!oftentimes!are!provided!at!a!higher!level!
and!with!more!expertise!than!would!be!provided!internally.!

Another!adoption!barrier!is!the!size!of!a!company’s!existing!IT!resources.!Misra!and!
Mondal! [133]! argue! that! a! company! that! has! a! large! datacenter! will! probably! not!
benefit,! particularly! from! a! cost! standpoint,! by! migrating! to! cloud! infrastructure.!
The!authors!conclude!that!cloud!computing!solutions!are!probably!better!suited!to!
small!and!medium!size!businesses.!Lin!and!Chen![131]!and!Neves!et#al.![140]!con5
clude!that!SMEs!adoption!barriers!center!around!a!general!lack!of!understanding!of!
cloud! computing! technology,! unclear! benefits,! not! enough! success! stories,! lack! of!
standards,! fear! of! hidden! costs! and! concerns! around! loss! of! control! and! security.!
Abdollahzadehgan!et#al.![126]!argue!that!SMEs!are!in!a!highly5competitive!environ5
ment,!are!focused!on!short5range!planning!and!suffer!from!“resource!poverty.”!!That!
is!they!simply!lack!the!resources!–!skills,!time!and!staff!–!needed!for!cloud!adoption.!
!

4.10!!!!Conclusion!

In!Chapter!4,!a!complete!background!of!previous!related!research!was!provided!in5
cluding! the! applicable! definitions,! key! characteristics,! benefits,! determinants! and!
trends! related! to! cloud! computing! and! cloud! computing! adoption.! The! three! main!
cloud! service! models! –! IaaS,! PaaS! and! SaaS! –! were! defined! and! explained.! We! dis5
cussed! the! complementarity! of! Big! Data! and! cloud! computing! and! showed! that!
when! working! together,! these! two! technologies! are! exponentially! more! powerful!
than!either!of!them!alone.!The!advantages!of!and!barriers!to!cloud!computing!adop5
tion! both! from! the! business! and! end! user! perspective! were! identified.! In! addition,!
we!discussed!the!main!theoretical!paradigms!for!cloud!computing!technology!adop5
tion!at!the!organization’s!level!–!Diffusion!of!Innovation,!Technology5Organization5
Environment,! Technology! Acceptance! Model! and! Task5Technology! Fit! –! including!
their!weaknesses.!!

" 145"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

5!Researchers!describe!cloud!computing!in!many!different!ways.!However,!they!all!
agree!that!the!cloud!computing!vision!encompasses!a!shift!away!from!desktop!and!
local!servers!to!next!generation!data!centers!hosted!by!large!infrastructure!compa5
nies.!

5!Most!of!the!studies!focused!on!the!organizational!determinants!–!such!as!availabil5
ity!and!scalability!–!and!while!disregarding!the!individual!determinants!for!cloud!
adoption.!The!determinants!most!noted:!!availability,!compatibility,!complexity,!
compliance,!cost!flexibility,!SLAs/reliability,!scalability!and!security/data!privacy.!

5!The!main!barriers,!or!disadvantages,!to!cloud!computing!adoption!reported!most!
often!by!researchers!are:!stability!and!reliability;!compatibility!with!existing!prod5
ucts!and!services;!complexity;!security!and!data!integrity!and!privacy;!and!sunk!cost!
consideration.!Of!those,!security!and!cost!are!the!most!cited!barriers.!For!SMEs,!
adoption!barriers!center!around!a!general!lack!of!understanding!of!cloud!computing!
technology,!unclear!benefits,!not!enough!success!stories,!lack!of!standards,!fear!of!
hidden!costs!and!concerns!around!loss!of!control!and!security.!With!SMEs,!the!bar5
riers!to!cloud!adoption!are!more!related!to!the!lack!of!resources!–!skills,!time!and!
staff.!

5! Most! of! the! studies! examining! cloud! computing! adoption! were! performed! at! the!
organizational!level!using!DOI!and!TOE!frameworks.!

In! Chapter! 5,! we! will! explain! the! theoretical! background! for! our! research.! We! will!
explain!the!outcomes!based!on!a!concise!literature!review!conducted!to!gain!a!bet5
ter! understanding! of! the! key! IT! adoption! theories! and! frameworks! used.! We! will!
provide!a!history!and!description!for!each!model!along!with!the!respective!research!
objectives! and! the! main! results.! We! will! describe! any! model! extensions! that! were!
developed!through!additional!research.!In!instances!where!a!theory!has!come!under!
substantial! scrutiny,! the! main! critics! of! the! adoption! theory! will! be! revealed! along!

" 146"
Investigation!of!Factors!Influencing!Cloud!Computing!Technology!Adoption!

with!the!weaknesses!that!they!see!in!the!theory.!In!addition,!we!will!identify!the!val5
ue!and!limitations!of!each!model.!
#

" 147"
 !

Table&8&Cloud&Computing&in&the&literature,&developed&for&this&research&
De-
Innova- Service Organ- Busi- Busi- Busi- Busi- Eco-
Models Re- ploy- adop-
tion models Strate- Strate- Strate- Strate- ization- ness ness ness ness Opera- Opera- Opera- Opera- Opera- nomic
and search Bench ment tion Users Tech- Tech- Tech- Tech- Tech- case
Author topic date Value SaaS, gic gic gic gic al focus focus focus focus delivery tional tional tional tional tional per-
Defini- Chal- mark Public deci- Focus nology nology nology nology nology study
Crea- IaaS, focus focus focus focus Chang Enter- Enter- Enter- Enter- focus focus focus focus focus sppec-
tion lenges /Private sion
tion PaaS e prise prise prise prise tives
/Hyb

Scala-
Virtual-
Innova- bility IT
Asym- Capex Agility SLAs, Data iza- Pro-
tion Asset /Elastici Integra- Cloud Securi-
metric vs Collab- Pay as Ava- and Quality Man- tion/Mu gram-
TTM and Agility utliza- ty tion & Fed- ty and
Com- Opex oration you go laibility adapt- of age- lti- ming
learn- tion Per- Sourc- eration privacy
petition control ability Service ment tenan- API
ing for- ing
cy
mance

Chou [162] BVC 2014 Y Y Y Y

Maurer [163] BVC 2012 Y Y Public Y Y
Brebner [164] BVC 2010 Y Y Y Y Y
Greenberg [165] BVC 2008 Iaas Y Y
Balasubramanian [166] BVC 2011 Y Y Y
Zhai [167] BVC 2011 Y Y Y Y
Dave [168] BVC 2014
Kossman [169] BVC 2010 Y cloud Iass , Y Y
Misra [170] BVC 2011 provid- PaaS Y Y Y Y Y
Kim [171] BDC 2014 models Y ers Y Y Y Y Y Y
Karlsson [172] BDC 2012 Y Y Y Y
Jung [127] BDC 2012 Y Y Y Y
Changqing [173] BDC 2012 big Y
Abadi [72] BDC 2009 Y
data Y Y
Shekhar [174] BDC 2012 Y
chal- Y
Kossman [175] BDC 2010 Y
lenges Y Y
Hashem [122] BDC 2014 Y Y Y
Chaudhuri [176] BDC 2012 Y IaaS Y Y Y Y Y
Assuncao [17] BDC 2013 Y SaaS, Y Y Y Y
Fox [25] BDC 2012 Y IaaS, Y Y
Agrawal [16] BDC 2011 Y PaaS Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Bennett [177] BDC 2010 Y SaaS Y Y testing
Morales [178] BDC 2010 Y mul-
Tsuchiya [179] BDC 2012 Y tite-
Grossman [180] BDC 2009 Y Y nancy
Gupta [120] BDC 2012
ap-
Reda [58] BDC 2013 Y Y Y
Ercan [181] CS 2010 model praoch
Y
visuali-
Rosenthal [182] CS 2010 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y with
Y
zation
Khajeh-Hosseini [161] CS 2010 Y Iaas Hybrid Y Y Y Y Y mul- DB,
Klems [183] CMOP 2009 models cost IaaS Y Y tite- Y
Xu [184] CMOP 2012 Y Y model Saas Y Y nancy
Ferrer [185] CMOP 2012 Y Y Y Y
Nathani [186] CMOP 2012 Y Iaas Y Y Y
Andrzejak [187] CMOP 2010 Y Iaas Y Y
re- Y Y
Celesti [188] CMOP 2010 Y IaaS source Y Y
Voith [189] CMOP 2012 IaaS s Y
Celesti [190] CMOP 2012 IaaS alloca- Y Y Y
Ghanbari [191] CMOP 2012 Y Y Y Y
tion

148$
 Investigation&of&Factors&Influencing&Cloud&Computing&Technology&Adoption&

Dougherty [192] CMOP 2012 Iaas Y Y Y Y

Calheiros [193] CMOP 2012 Y Iaas Y
Gupta [120] CMOP 2012 Private Y Y Y Y
Villegas [194] CMOP 2012 Iaas,Pa Y Y
Buyya [195] CMOP 2011 Y as, Y
Dikaiakos CMOP 2009 SaaS
Koslovski [196]
Dikaiakos:2009bi} CMOP 2012
Katz [197] CMOP 2012 Y Y Y
Chen [155] CMOP 2012 Y IaaS Y Y Y
Guazzelli [198] CMOP 2009 Y Y Y
Tiers [199] RC 2012 models Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y compli-
Venters [200] RC 2012 Y Y Y Y Y Y ance
Armbrust [201] RC 2009 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Plummer [202] RC 2008 Y Y SaaS, Y Y
Vaquero [110] RC 2010 Y Y Y grid IaaS,
Zhang [203] RC 2010 Y Y Y
vs PaaS
Dillon [204] RC 2010 Y Y (cloud
cloud Y Y
Weinhardt [119] RC 2009 Y Y Y grid
provid-
Heilig [205] RC 2014 Y Y vs
ers)
Mell [115] RC 2011 Y cloud
Buyya [116] RC 2009 Y Y Iaas Y Y Y
Francis [206] RC 2011 Y
Khajeh-Hosseini [147] RC 2010 Y Y Y Y
McAfee [207] RC 2011 Y Y Y Y Y Y
Grossman [208] RC 2009 Y Y Y Y Y
Kaganer [209] RC 2012 Y Y Y Y Y Y
Bohm [141] RC 2009 Y IaaS Y Y
Xie [210] RC 2011 Y Iaas, Y Y Y
Etro [211] RC 2010 Paas, Y Y Y Y
Rimal [212] RC 2009 Y SaaS,
SaaS
Youseff [117] RC 2008 IaaS,
Subashini [213] SPC 2011 Y SaaS
PaaS Y Y
Shahzad [214] SPC 2014 Y Y Y
Zissis [215] SPC 2010
Varadi [216] SPC 2012 Y IaaS\ Y Y
Bisong [217] SPC 2011 Y Y Y
Khajeh-Hosseini [218] TAA 2010 tool kit Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Opitz [22] TAA 2011 Y Y Y Y
Sultan [145] TAA 2011 Y Y Y Y
Marston [219] TAA 2011 Y Y SaaS, Y Y Y Y
Avram [132] TAA 2014 Y Y IaaS,
Mohammed [220] TAA 2010 Y Y Y PaaS Y Y Y Y
Greenwood [221] TAA 2010 Y (cloud Y Y Y Y Y
Sobotta [222] TAA 2009 Y provid- SaaS Y Y Y
Cacciola [223] TAA 2012 Y Y
ers) Y Y Y Y
Neves [140] TAA 2011 Y Y Y Y Y, SME Y
Susarla [224] TAA 2003 ASP Y
Muhleman [225] TAA 2012 Y
Welten [226] TAA 2009 Y Y

Legend&

TAA:&Technology&Acceptance/Adoption,&SPC:&Security/Privacy/Compliance,&RC:&Research&Challenges,&CMOP:&Cloud&Model/Optimization/Provisioning,&
BVC:&Benchmark/Value/Cost&,&CS&Case&Stud

$ 149$
 !

150$
 !

! Theoretical+Background++

After+reviewing+the+literature,+there+is+an+obvious+lack+of+research+addressing+the+adop:
tion+of+technology+for+mobile+service+providers+for+the+purpose+of+mobile+traffic+analysis.+
While+ we+ found+ evidence+ that+ data:driven+ decisions+ [227],[228]+ can+ improve+ firm+ per:
formance+at+the+macroeconomic+level,+the+effects+of+new+technology,+such+as+Big+Data+and+
cloud+computing,+still+need+to+be+refined+and+formalized.+Previous+works,+such+as+Zhu+et+
al.+ [229]+ also+ point+ to+ the+ fact+ that+ IT+ infrastructure+ and+ IT+ capability+ complementarity+
can+contribute+to+improving+business+value.+

This+chapter+proposes+a+concise+literature+review+to+gain+a+better+understanding+of+the+
key+ IT+ adoption+ theories+ and+ frameworks+ used,+ including:+ + resource:based+ view;+ diffu:
sion+of+innovation+theory;+DeLone+and+McLean+IS+success+model;+technology+acceptance+
model;+and+task:technology+fit+model.+The+models+are+described+and+the+main+critics+and+
contributions+ are+ identified+ for+ each+ one.+ The+ lack+ of+ literature+ on+ the+ adoption+ of+ Big+
Data+ and+ cloud+ computing+ as+ it+ relates+ to+ mobile+ data+ analysis+ is+ expected+ since+ both+
technologies+are+quite+recent.+However,+there+is+a+vast+amount+of+literature+dealing+with+
possible+theoretical+frameworks+that+can+help+us+position+our+research+with+a+manage:
ment+perspective.++

151$
Theoretical+Background+

Table+9+Summary+Table+of+Key+Theories+Developed+in+this+Chapter+

Theory Author(s) Used in individual Used in organizational

adoption studies adoption studies

Innovation Diffusion Rogers (1983, 1995) x x

Theory (IDT)
Perceived Characteristics Moore and Benbasat x
of Innovations (1991)
Social Cognitive Theory Bandura (1986) x
(SCT)
Technology Acceptance Model 1Davis (1989) x
Model 1 and 2 (TAM) Model 2 Venkatesh et al.
(2000)
Theory of Planned Be- Ajzen (1991) x
haviour (TPB)
Task-Technology Fit Goodhue and Thompson x x
(TTF)* (1995)
Theory of Reasoned Fishbein and Ajzen x
Action (TRA) (1975)
Unified Theory of Ac- Venkatesh et al. (2003) X
ceptance and Use of
Technology (UTAUT)
Edith Penrose (1959) X
Resource Base View
(RBV) X
Tornatzky and Fleisher
Technology Organiza- (1990)
tion Environment (TOE)

Adapted+from+D’Ambra+and+Wilson+[230]+

5.1! Resource+Base+View+theory+

The+origin+of+the+resource:based+view+theory+is+Edith+Penrose’s+book+published+in+1959+
titled+“The+Theory+of+the+Growth+of+the+Firm.”+[230].+In+this+book,+Penrose+argued+that+a+
firm+was+not+only+an+administrative+unit,+but+also+a+collection+of+productive+resources.+In+
1984,+Birger+Wernerfelt+[231]+revisited+Penrose’s+theory+of+firm+growth+and+coined+the+
term+ resource:based+ view+ in+ his+ book+ titled+ “A+ Resource:based+ View+ of+ the+ Firm.”+ In+
Wernerfelt’s+ book,+ he+ addresses+ technological+ leadership+ as+ it+ relates+ to+ the+ concept+ of+
attractive+resources.+He+explains+that+technological+leads+allow+a+firm+to+achieve+higher+

$ 152$
Theoretical+Background+

returns+but+requires+that+the+firm+continue+to+grow+its+technological+capability+in+order+
to+protect+its+leadership+position.++

5.1.1! Research+Objectives+

The+objective+of+Wernerfelt’s+research+[231]+was+to+determine+the+relationship+between+
profitability+ and+ resources+ by+ developing+ some+ simple+ economic+ tools+ for+ analyzing+ a+
firm’s+resource+position+and+looking+at+some+strategic+options+that+are+suggested+by+the+
analysis.+Oredo+and+Njihia+[232]+conducted+a+thorough+IS+literature+search+and+identified+
many+researchers+who+used+RBV+theory+to+investigate+how+IS+resources+and+capabilities+
contribute+ to+ a+ firm’s+ strategy+ and+ performance.+ Oredo+ and+ Nijihia+ use+ RBV+ to+ propose+
specific+competencies+that+companies+need+to+develop+in+order+to+attain+competitive+ad:
vantage+ with+ cloud+ computing.+ Barney+ [233]+ evaluated+ whether+ or+ not+ particular+ firm+
resources+can+be+sources+of+sustained+competitive+advantage+and+described+the+relation:
ship+ between+ a+ resource:based+ model+ of+ sustained+ competitive+ advantage+ and+ other+
business+disciplines.+

5.1.2! Resource+Based+View+Model+

According+to+Barney+[233],+the+resource:based+view+model+makes+two+assumptions:++that+
firms+within+an+industry+(or+group)+may+be+heterogeneous+with+respect+to+strategic+re:
sources+they+control+and+that+these+resources+may+not+be+perfectly+mobile+across+firms.+
Barney+ classifies+ firm+ resources+ with+ the+ potential+ to+ hold+ sustained+ competitive+ ad:
vantage+ as+ having+ four+ attributes:+ valuable,+ rare,+ imperfectly+ imitable+ and+ there+ cannot+
be+strategically+equivalent+substitutes+for+the+resource+that+are+valuable+but+neither+rare+
nor+imperfectly+imitable.+Barney+agrees+with+Howell+and+Fleishman+[234]+and+does+not+
include+complex+physical+technology+as+a+category+of+resources+that+is+imperfectly+imita:
ble+because+technology+is+by+nature+typically+imitable+(Barney,+110,+Howell+and+Fleish:
man).+So,+in+the+case+of+cloud+computing+adoption,+cloud+computing+services+would+not+
be+ considered+ an+ imperfectly+ imitable+ resource+ in+ the+ RBV+ framework+ but+ social+ com:

$ 153$
Theoretical+Background+

plexity+ would.+ In+ a+ case+ where+ there+ is+ a+ unique+ relationship+ between+ the+ firm+ and+ its+
cloud+computing+services+provider,+for+instance,+this+relationship+could+be+an+imperfectly+
imitable+resource.++

5.1.3! Main+Critics+

Priem+and+Butler+[235]+wrote+a+critique+of+Barney’s+article+on+the+resource:based+view+in+
2001+on+the+premise+that+RBV+was+being+widely+promulgated+within+strategic+manage:
ment+research+with+little+critical+evaluation.+In+their+article,+they+raised+questions+about+
the+ validity+ of+ RBV+ as+ more+ than+ a+ view+ including+ if+ it+ satisfies+ key+ requirements+ to+ be+
considered+a+theoretical+system+or+if+it+could+in+the+future.+The+researchers+identify+con:
text+and+value+as+two+components+that+are+too+simplified+in+RBV+to+be+effective.+In+addi:
tion,+ they+ argue+ that+ RBV+ does+ not+ meet+ the+ operational+ validity+ criterion+ set+ forth+ by+
Thomas+and+Tymon,+when+they+addressed+research+relevance,+because+virtually+anything+
can+ be+ considered+ a+ resource;+ RBV+ does+ not+ generate+ prescriptions+ for+ strategy+ practi:
tioners;+and+managers+have+no+way+of+practically+manipulating+the+key+independent+var:
iables.+ However,+ the+ researchers+ concede+ that+ RBV+ could+ be+ valuable+ to+ strategic+ man:
agement+research+if+it+is+combined+with+other+complementary+perspectives+[235].+Simi:
larly,+Taher+[236]+points+out+that+many+researchers+have+used+the+RBV+model+along+with+
various+ extensions+ and+ elaborations+ of+ the+ model+ to+ study+ IS+ resources,+ but+ there+ is+ a+
need+to+research+the+relationship+between+the+“orchestration+of+resources”+and+organiza:
tional+performance+[237].+The+researchers+propose+the+new+concept+of+resource+orches:
tration+referring+to+“an+arrangement+of+organizational+resources+with+lead+the+organiza:
tion+to+perform+an+IT+project”+[237].+They+believe+that+there+is+a+gap+in+the+RBV+model+
that+can+be+filled+by+studying+the+interaction+between+IS+resources+and+non:IS+resources+
and+how+they+influence+competitive+advantage+[237].++

$ 154$
Theoretical+Background+

5.2! Diffusion+of+Innovation+Theory++

Rogers’+ [21]+ diffusion+ of+ innovation+ (DoI)+ theory+ is+ a+ dominant+ model+ of+ technology+
adoption.+Although+several+researchers+preceded+him,+Rogers+is+the+pioneer+of+technolo:
gy+adoption+research.+

5.2.1! Rogers+Model+

The+origin+of+Roger’s+diffusion+of+innovation+theory+was+from+his+doctoral+dissertation+in+
which+ he+ studied+ rural+ and+ agricultural+ sociology.+ He+ reviewed+ studies+ of+ how+ groups+
adopt+new+technology+or+ideas+–+in+various+areas+like+medicine,+agriculture+and+market:
ing+–+as+part+of+his+study+of+related+work.+According+to+Rogers,+the+diffusion+of+innovation+
theory+ comprises+ five+ characteristics:+ + relative+ advantage,+ compatibility,+ complexity,+
trialability+and+observability+[21].+Rogers+[21]+views+diffusion+as+a+special+form+of+com:
munication+ in+ which+ information+ regarding+ an+ innovation+ is+ spread+ through+ an+ ecosys:
tem+–+both+in+a+managed+way+and+spontaneously.++

5.2.2! Model+Description+

Rogers+ formulated+ an+ overarching,+ theoretical+ framework+ in+ which+ he+ defines+ the+ con:
cept+of+innovation+as+any+object,+idea,+technology+or+practice+that+is+new+with+its+newness+
being+relative+to+both+place+and+population.+In+this+way,+something+is+considered+an+in:
novation+if+it+is+new+to+a+certain+geography+or+to+a+certain+age+group+even+if+people+in+an:
other+ place+ or+ age+ group+ are+ already+ very+ familiar+ with+ the+ object,+ idea,+ technology+ or+
practice.+The+DoI+model+comprises+the+innovation:decision+process,+or+the+steps+taken+by+
an+ individual+ or+ a+ group+ to+ decide+ whether+ to+ adopt+ an+ innovation,+ including:++
knowledge,+ persuasion,+ decision,+ implementation,+ confirmation+ and+ discontinuance.+ In+
addition,+Rogers+[21]+identifies+five+adopter+categories:+innovators,+early+adopters,+early+
majority,+later+majority+and+laggards.++

Knowledge+or+awareness+of+an+innovation+is+key+to+adoption+since+people+cannot+adopt+
what+ they+ do+ not+ know+ exists.+ Knowledge+ can+ be+ gained+ from+ a+ variety+ of+ communica:
$ 155$
Theoretical+Background+

tions+channels+such+as+advertising,+marketing,+the+Internet+or+word+of+mouth.+In+the+per:
suasion+stage,+the+individual+becomes+interested+in+the+technology+and+searches+for+addi:
tional+information+to+learn+about+the+benefits,+costs+and+features+as+well+as+what+others+
are+saying+about+the+innovation.+The+individual+also+begins+to+consider+if+he+is+a+potential+
user+ of+ the+ technology+ and+ begins+ to+ consider+ the+ day:to:day+ ramifications+ of+ adopting+
the+technology.+As+the+name+suggests,+the+decision+process+is+the+stage+where+the+indi:
vidual+chooses+to+adopt+the+technology+or+not+based+on+knowledge+and+persuasion+and+
taking+into+account+the+advantages,+disadvantages,+costs,+benefits+and+tradeoffs+of+adop:
tion.+ During+ the+ implementation+ phase,+ the+ individual+ is+ simultaneously+ integrating+ the+
innovation+into+regular+use+and+evaluating+the+technology+to+see+if+it+meets+his+expecta:
tions.+An+important+aspect+of+implementation+is+re:invention+that+is+defined+by+Rogers+as+
“the$ degree$ to$ which$ an$ innovation$ is$ changed$ or$ modified$ by$ a$ user$ in$ the$ process$ of$ its$
adoption$ and$ implementation.”+ Rogers+ admits+ that+ researchers,+ including+ him,+ did+ not+
recognize+that+re:invention+existed+for+the+first+35+years+of+their+research+[21].+Now+re:
searchers+ recognize+ that+ innovations+ are+ not+ “perfect”+ and+ can+ be+ perceived+ differently+
by+ each+ individual.+ Furthermore,+ innovations+ may+ be+ modified+ to+ meet+ the+ individual’s+
needs+and+solve+adopter:specific+problems.+

5.2.3! Main+Results+

Lin+and+Chen+[130]+used+the+diffusion+of+innovation+theory+to+study+perceptions+and+atti:
tudes+toward+cloud+computing+adoption+in+Taiwanese+companies.+They+took+the+factors+
that+affect+IT+professionals’+intention+of+using+cloud+computing+to+provide+products+and+
services+for+their+customers+from+Rogers’+diffusion+of+innovation+theory+[130].+Specifical:
ly,+they+identified+their+findings+under+the+attributes+of+innovation+identified+in+Rogers’+
research:++compatibility,+relative+advantage,+complexity,+trialability+and+observability.+Lin+
and+Chen+[130]+found+that+interviewees+were+concerned+if+cloud+computing+would+meet+
their+ customers’+ needs.+ They+ stated+ that+ they+ would+ not+ adopt+ cloud+ unless+ customers+
request+ it.+ They+ also+ were+ concerned+ with+ stability+ and+ reliability,+ learning+ curves+ and+
the+time+it+would+take+to+implement+a+cloud+solution.+The+interviewees+in+Lin+and+Chen’s+
$ 156$
Theoretical+Background+

study+could+not+see+relative+advantage+of+cloud+adoption+and+claimed+that+their+compa:
nies+would+not+adopt+new+technologies+unless+the+technology+can+demonstrate+a+relative+
advantage+in+comparison+to+existing+technologies+and+commercial+benefits.+Furthermore,+
they+confirmed+Rogers’+premise+that+observability+is+relative+to+the+visibility+of+successful+
cases+and+practices.+That+is,+visibility+of+an+innovation+to+others+will+help+raise+the+adop:
tion+rate+[21].++

5.2.4! Contribution+Value+and+Limitations+of+Model+

Rogers’+model+is+well+regarded+and+has+been+used+by+researchers+for+many+years+across+
numerous+fields.+In+studies+such+as+Lin+and+Chen’s,+the+outcome+enables+academics+and+
practitioners+ to+ assess+ the+ actual+ uses+ of+ a+ technological+ innovation,+ in+ this+ case+ cloud+
computing,+and+evaluate+the+business+benefits+and+challenges+in+adopting+it.++

Rogers+ addresses+ four+ limitations+ of+ the+ DoI+ theory:+ + pro:innovation+ bias,+ individual:
blame+bias,+the+recall+problem+and+the+issue+of+equality.+Rogers+argues+that+most+diffu:
sion+ research+ operates+ under+ the+ premise+ that+ an+ innovation+ should+ be+ diffused+ and+
adopted+by+all+members+of+a+social+system,+that+it+should+be+diffused+more+rapidly+and+
that+ it+ should+ not+ be+ re:invented+ or+ rejected+ [21].+ The+ individual:blame+ bias+ describes+
the+tendency+to+hold+an+individual+responsible+for+his+or+her+problems.+The+problem+with+
asking+survey+respondents+to+recall+when+they+adopted+a+new+idea+is+flaw+because+it+is+
likely+that+people+will+not+be+able+to+accurately+answer+that+question.+Finally,+socioeco:
nomic+gaps+between+members+of+a+social+system+are+often+widened+by+the+spread+of+new+
ideas.+Rogers+observes+that+a+lot+of+diffusion+research+is+design+using+a+one:shot+survey.+
He+ argues+ that+ diffusion+ studies+ would+ be+ benefit+ from+ using+ “moving+ pictures”+ as+ op:
posed+to+“snapshots”+because+the+adoption+of+innovation+is+patterned+in+a+sequential+flow+
as+it+spreads+through+society.+Because+DoI+is+a+correlational+analysis+approach,+causality+
is+a+weakness.+DoI+does+not+address+why+a+particular+independent+variable+covaries+with+
innovativeness.+

$ 157$
Theoretical+Background+

5.3! DeLone+and+McLean+IS+Success+Model+

DeLone+and+McLean+[238]+wrote+a+“theory”+paper+in+1992+titled+“DeLone+and+McLean+IS+
Success+Model”+that+was,+according+to+McLean,+suspiciously+lacking+in+theory+[237].+The+
goal+of+the+paper+was+to+try+to+structuralize+the+dependent+variable+–+IS+success+–+in+IS+
research+ in+ the+ form+ of+ a+ taxonomy+ and+ an+ interactive+ model.+ They+ had+ a+ difficult+ time+
finding+ a+ publisher,+ but+ eventually,+ the+ paper+ became+ the+ most+ cited+ IS+ research+ paper+
published+in+the+world.+Since+then,+the+model+has+been+expanded+and+extended+countless+
times+and+is+used+regularly+by+researchers+studying+information+systems+success.+

5.3.1! Research+Objectives+

According+ to+ DeLone+ and+ McLean,+ measuring+ the+ success+ (or+ effectiveness)+ of+ infor:
mation+systems+is+“critical$to$understanding$the$value$and$efficacy$of$IS$management$ac9
tions$and$IS$investments”+[238].+The+DeLone+and+McLean+IS+Success+Model+was+primarily+
created+ for+ synthesizing+ previous+ research+ of+ IS+ success+ into+ a+ coherent+ body+ of+ work+
and+to+provide+guidance+on+conducting+related+research+[237].+

5.3.2! DeLone+and+McLean’s+Model+

System$$$$$$$$$$$$ Use$
Quality$
$ Individual$$$$$$$ Organizational$
Impact$ Impact$
Information$$$$ User$Sat$
Quality$
$

Figure+12+DeLone+and+Mclean+IS+Success+Model+–+1992++
$

DeLone+and+McLean+created+their+model+based+on+communications+research+framework+
created+by+Shannon+and+Weaver+in+1949+[239].+The+original+DeLone+and+McLean+IS+Suc:
cess+ Model+ comprised+ six+ dimensions:+ + systems+ quality+ measures+ technical+ success;+ in:
$ 158$
Theoretical+Background+

formation+ quality+ measures+ semantic+ success;+ use,+ user+ satisfaction,+ individual+ impacts+
and+ organizational+ impacts+ measure+ effectiveness+ success.+ After+ a+ decade+ of+ study,+ the+
model+was+reevaluated+[100]+and+refined+to+add+a+third+dimension+of+service+quality+to+
the+ previously+ mentioned+ dimensions+ of+ systems+ quality+ and+ information+ quality.+ Also,+
individual+impacts+and+organizational+impacts+were+recast+into+a+single+dimension+of+net+
benefits+in+the+modified+version.+After+taking+both+process+and+causal+considerations+into+
account,+the+researchers+define+these+dimensions+of+success+as+interrelated+rather+than+
independent.+The+authors+argue+that+IS+success+is+a+“multidimensional$and$interdependent$
construct$–$and$that$it$is$therefore$necessary$to$study$the$interrelationships$among,$or$to$
control,$for,$those$dimensions.”+[100]+

Here,+ Quality+ has+ a+ pragmatic+ interpretation+ as+ the+ non:inferiority+ or+ superiority+ of+
something;+ it+ is+ also+ defined+ as+ fitness+ for+ purpose.+ Here+ Quality+ is+ applied+ to+ the+ user+
information+ systems+ and+ therefore+ perceptual,+ conditional,+ and+ somewhat+ subjective+
attribute+and+may+be+understood+differently+by+different+people.+

As+can+be+seen+from+the+model+diagram+in+Figure+12,+the+DeLone+and+McLean+[239]+suc:
cess+ model+ studies+ the+ success+ dimensions+ to+ determine+ if+ a+ causal+ relationship+ exists+
between+them.+Considering+this+model+in+a+cloud+computing+context,+if+a+cloud+computing+
services+enables+a+system+to+operate+at+a+higher+level+than+a+previous+system,+we+would+
expect+use+and+user+satisfaction+related+to+that+system+to+increase+which+would+lead+to+a+
positive+ impact+ on+ individual+ performance+ and+ result+ in+ overall+ productivity+ improve:
ments+at+an+organizational+level.+

+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

$ 159$
Theoretical+Background+

In+their+paper,+DeLone+and+McLean+actively+called+for+other+researchers+to+further+devel:
op+and+validate+their+IS+success+model.+In+doing+so,+some+researchers,+including+Seddon+
[240],+argue+that+the+paper+lacked+theoretical+support+and+that+combining+variance+and+
process+models+leads+to+confusion.+Particularly,+Seddon+[240]+argues+that+these+models+
are+quite+different+and+cannot+be+combined+in+a+meaningful+way.++Further,+he+argues+that+
the+original+researchers+create+“muddled+thinking”+by+using+arrows+and+boxes+with+dif:
ferent+meanings+in+the+model+diagram.+That+is,+some+of+the+arrows+and+boxes+have+both+a+
variance+and+a+process+event+interpretation.+As+a+result,+when+a+reader+looks+at+the+dia:
gram,+ as+ seen+ in+ Figure+ 13,+ it+ is+ nearly+ impossible+ to+ interpret+ it+ correctly+ due+ to+ the+
combination+ of+ these+ disparate+ models+ –+ variance+ and+ process+ –+ into+ a+ single+ figure.+ In+
particular,+the+definition+of+IS+use+is+seen+by+Seddon+as+a+barrier+to+interpreting+the+mod:
el+ correctly.+ He+ identifies+ three+ possible+ meanings+ for+ use+ in+ this+ context+ and+ identifies+
their+inaccuracies.+The+first+possible+meaning+of++“IS+use”+is+a+variable+that+substitutes+for+
“benefits+from+use.”+Seddon+[240]+agrees+with+Szajna+[241]+it+is+incorrect+to+assume+that+

Information$$$$$$$$$$$$
Intention$ Use$
Quality$
to$use$
Net$
System$$$ Benefit$
Quality$
User$Satisfaction$

Service$$$
Quality$

Figure+13+Updated+DeLone+and+McLean+IS+Success+Model+2003+

heavily+used+systems+are+successful+and+seldom+or+unused+systems+are+failures.+Instead,+
Seddon+ [240]+ explains+ that+ a+ successful+ system+ will+ provide+ benefits;+ for+ example,+ the+
system+could+help+a+user+do+more+or+better+work+in+the+same+or+less+time+than+could+have+
been+accomplished+previously.+The+second+possible+meaning+of+IS+use+is+the+dependent+
variable+in+a+variance+model+of+future+IS+use+[240].+In+this+instance,+IS+use+is+describing+a+
behavior+ and+ not+ measuring+ IS+ success;+ therefore,+ this+ new+ definition+ does+ not+ fit+ with+
the+DeLone+and+McLean+model.+The+final+possible+definition+is+that+IS+use+is+an+event+in+a+
$ 160$
Theoretical+Background+

process+ leading+ to+ an+ individual+ or+ organizational+ impact.+ Again,+ as+ in+ the+ second+ pro:
posed+definition,+it+is+the+consequences+of+IS+use,+not+the+use+itself,+that+is+a+measure+of+IS+
success.+As+a+result,+Seddon+[240]+concludes+that+only+the+first+proposed+meaning+–+IS+use+
as+a+proxy+for+the+benefits+from+use+–+is+valid+in+the+DeLone+and+McLean+model.+

DeLone+ and+ McLean+ admitted+ that+ many+ researchers+ had+ found+ the+ model+ difficult+ to+
apply+in+specific+research+contexts+[100].+Researchers+such+as+Jiang+and+Klein+[242]+and+
Whyte+et$al.++[243]+agree+that+users+prefer+that+success+is+measured+using+different+crite:
ria+depending+on+the+system+being+evaluated.+Some+researchers+have+argued+that+service+
quality+should+be+measured+as+a+part+of+IS+success+[100].+Additionally,+Hu+[244]+used+a+
modified+version+of+the+DeLone+and+McLean+model+to+study+the+effectiveness+and+success+
of+telemedicine+systems.+The+author+tailored+the+model+to+include+a+new+systems+success+
dimension+related+to+data+input.+The+original+model+was+insufficient+because+it+only+con:
siders+the+quality+of+the+system+output+and+not+the+data+quality+going+into+the+system.+Hu+
also+added+service+impact+related+to+the+service+being+delivered+to+recipients+as+opposed+
to+ only+ evaluating+ service+ information+ being+ produced+ by+ the+ system.+ He+ also+ included+
several+feedback+loops+that+reinforce+or+discourage+continued+system+use+that+were+lack:
ing+ in+ the+ original+ model.+ Further,+ Hu+ agrees+ with+ Seddon’s+ criticism+ of+ DeLone+ and+
McLean+regarding+system+use+as+a+behavior+[244]+but+instead+views+system+use+as+a+di:
mension+that+can+be+assessed+objectively+by+evaluating+the+amount,+intensity,+frequency+
and+purpose+of+use.+

5.4! Technology+Acceptance+Model++

The+ technology+ acceptance+ model+ created+ by+ Davis+ [245]+ is+ one+ of+ the+ most+ common+
models+ that+ IS+ researchers+ use+ to+ explain+ and+ predict+ motivational+ factors+ underlying+
user+ acceptance+ of+ technology.+ Some+ researchers+ specifically+ studying+ cloud+ computing+
adoption+also+use+the+Technology+Acceptance+Model+or+one+of+its+adaptations.+

$ 161$
Theoretical+Background+

5.4.1! Davis+Model+

Developed+by+Davis+[245]+in+1986+,+the+technology+acceptance+model+(TAM)+is+a+model+to+
test+the+user+acceptance+of+computer:based+information+systems.+Davis+used+Fishbein’s+
1967+ model+ as+ a+ reference+ paradigm+ within+ which+ to+ develop+ his+ model.+ Fishbein+
worked+with+Ajzen+[246]++to+modify+his+original+theory+and+developed+the+Theory+of+Rea:
soned+ Action+ that+ states:+ + “…as$ a$ person$ forms$ beliefs$ about$ an$ object,$ he$ automatically$
and$simultaneously$acquires$an$attitude$toward$that$object.”+The+original+TAM+comprises+
the+following+components:++perceived+usefulness;+perceived+ease+of+use;+attitude+toward+
use;+behavioral+intention+to+use;+and+actual+use.++
$

5.4.2! Model+Description+

Perceived$UseJ
fulness$
Behavioral$
External$VariaJ Attitude$ Actual$System$
Intention$to$
bles$ Toward$using$ use$
use$
Perceived$ease$
of$use$
+

+ Figure+14+Davis+Technology+Acceptance+Model+

Davis’+ two+ objectives+ were+ to+ improve+ the+ understanding+ of+ the+ user+ acceptance+ pro:
cesses+and+to+provide+a+theoretical+basis+for+designers+and+implementers+to+conduct+user+
acceptance+testing+prior+to+a+system+being+implemented.+According+to+Davis’+model,+the+
overall+ attitude+ of+ a+ potential+ user+ is+ a+ major+ determinant+ of+ whether+ the+ user+ actually+
uses+the+system+or+not.+The+two+main+factors+that+influence+adoption+are+defined+as:++per:
ceived+ usefulness+ “the$ degree$ to$ which$ a$ person$ believes$ that$ using$ a$ particular$ system$

$ 162$
Theoretical+Background+

would$enhance$his$or$her$job$performance;”+and+perceived+ease:of:use+defined+as+“the$de9
gree$ to$ which$ a$ person$ believes$ that$ using$ a$ particular$ system$ would$ be$ free$ from$ effort+
(Davis,+1986).”$$

Perceived+ ease:of:use+ has+ a+ causal+ effect+ and+ significant+ direct+ effect+ on+ perceived+ use:
fulness.+Further,+since+Davis+is+measuring+a+non:trivial+fraction+of+the+user’s+job,+it+can+be+
said+ that+ if+ the+ user+ becomes+ more+ productive+ in+ the+ portion+ of+ the+ user’s+ job+ that+ in:
volves+ using+ the+ new+ system,+ then+ the+ user+ becomes+ more+ productive+ overall.+ In+ his+
model,+Davis+[149]+deviates+from+the+Fishbein+[246]+approach+when+it+comes+to+specify:
ing,+modeling+and+measuring+beliefs.+Also,+he+does+not+include+subjective+norm+and+be:
havioral+intervention+in+TAM+while+they+are+central+to+the+Fishbein+model.+

5.4.3! Main+Results+

Hundreds+of+researchers+have+used+TAM+or+one+of+its+modifications+to+study+technology+
adoption.+ Subramanian+ [247]+ used+ TAM+ to+ research+ voicemail+ and+ a+ customer+ dial:up+
system;+ Mathieson+ and+ Keil+ [248]+ analyzed+ work:related+ software;+ and+ Igbaria+ et$ al.+
[249]+ studied+ acceptance+ factors+ related+ to+ small+ enterprise+ PC+ usage.+ Opitz+ et$ al.+ [22]+
use+a+modified+version+of+the+expanded+Technology+Acceptance+Model+2+(TAM2)+for+their+
study+in+hopes+of+increasing+the+“expressiveness”+of+their+results+[22].+For+their+research+
model,+ Yi+ et$ al.+ [250]+ combined+ key+ variables+ of+ TAM+ (perceived+ usefulness+ and+ per:
ceived+ease+of+use)+with+variables+from+the+theory+of+planned+behavior+(TPB)+(subjective+
norm+ and+ perceived+ behavioral+ control)+ and+ variables+ from+ the+ diffusion+ of+ innovation+
theory+(DoI)+(result+demonstrability+and+image)+plus+personal+innovativeness+in+the+do:
main+of+IT,+another+variable+derived+from+diffusion+of+innovation.+This+is+an+interesting+
explanation+of+the+chosen+variables+since+subjective+norm,+image+and+result+demonstra:
bility+are+all+part+of+TAM2.+They+used+their+integrated+model+to+study+the+intention+to+use+
PDAs+for+work+among+224+resident+and+faculty+physicians+in+seven+family+practice+resi:
dency+programs.+They+used+intention+to+use+as+a+dependent+variable+as+opposed+to+actual+
$ 163$
Theoretical+Background+

use+and+found+that+perceived+usefulness+was+the+most+significant+determinant+of+a+physi:
cian’s+intention+to+use+a+PDA+for+work+[250].+Klopping+et$al.+[251]+studied+online+shipping+
using+ a+ combination+ of+ TAM+ with+ a+ task:technology+ fit+ model.+ Their+ research+ supports+
the+use+of+TAM+to+predict+online+shopping+activity,+both+the+intention+to+shop+online+and+
actual+ purchases.+ They+ also+ find+ TTF+ a+ valuable+ addition+ to+ TAM+ when+ studying+ online+
shopping+tasks.+Wu+et$al.+[152]+proposed+a+revised+TAM+and+integrated+it+with+the+TTF+
theory,+ network+ externality,+ subjective+ norm,+ computer+ self:efficacy+ and+ computer+ en:
joyment+ variables+ to+ investigate+ what+ determined+ end+ user+ computing+ acceptance.+++
Their+results+show+perceived+usefulness,+perceived+ease+of+use+and+computer+enjoyment+
all+directly+influence+actual+use.+Network+externality+has+a+direct+effect+on+perceived+ease+
of+use.+Additionally,+the+task:technology+fit+has+a+direct+influence+on+the+perceived+ease+of+
use.+Dishaw+and+Strong+[153]+proposed+an+integrated+model+combining+TAM+and+TTF+to+
explore+the+factors+that+explain+software+utilization+and+its+link+with+user+performance.+
The+ results+ indicate+ that+ the+ integrated+ model+ provides+ more+ explanatory+ power+ than+
either+model+alone+and+that+research+using+the+integrated+model+should+lead+to+a+better+
understanding+of+choices+about+using+IT.+Like+Dishaw+and+Strong+[153],+Yen+et$al.++inte:
grated+TAM+with+TTF+using+the+core+of+each+model+–+beliefs+in+TAM+and+task+and+tech:
nology+characteristics+in+TTF.+In+the+Yen+et$al.+study,+they+reported+the+results+of+a+survey+
study+and+empirically+tested+the+TAM:TTF+model+in+order+to+understand+users’+intention+
to+use+wireless+technology.+

5.4.4! Main+critics+

Perhaps+ one+ of+ the+ most+ significant+ findings+ is+ that+ researchers+ regularly+ criticize+ TAM+
for+being+insufficient.+They+are+compelled+to+combine+TAM+with+another+complementary+
model+in+order+to+cover+all+of+the+variables+that+they+deem+critical+to+their+research.+Some+
researchers+that+argue+against+TAM+and+its+multiple+variations,+include:++Bagozzi+[252],+
Dishaw+and+Strong+[153],+Legris+et$al.+,+Stieninger+et$al.,$Wu+et$al.,+and+Yi+et$al.+In+2007,+
Bagozzi+ [252]+ wrote+ a+ paper+ to+ outline+ the+ limitations+ of+ TAM.+ + He+ wrote+ some+ strong+
words+then+stating+that+there+were+fundamental+problems+with+TAM+and+the+field+was+at+
$ 164$
Theoretical+Background+

the+“threshold+of+crisis,+if+not+chaos,+in+regard+to+explaining+technology+acceptance.”+Ba:
gozzi+[252]+pointed+out+two+major+gaps+within+the+TAM+framework:++the+linkage+between+
intention+ and+ behavior+ and+ the+ linkage+ between+ individual+ reactions+ to+ using+ infor:
mation+ and+ intentions.+ Dishaw+ and+ Strong+ [153]+ criticize+ TAM+ for+ its+ lack+ of+ task+ focus+
and+ propose+ a+ new+ model+ combining+ factors+ from+ TAM+ and+ the+ Technology:Task+ Fit+
model+will+be+better.+The+researchers+argue:++“While$each$of$these$models$offers$significant$
explanatory$ power,$ a$ model$ that$ integrates$ constructs$ from$ both$ may$ offer$ a$ significant$
improvement$over$either$model$alone.”+Legris+et$al.+[253]+agree+with+other+critics+and+con:
clude+that+the+TAM+model+is+useful+but+should+be+integrated+into+a+complementary+model+
that+includes+addition+variables+related+to+both+human+and+social+change+processes+and+
to+the+adoption+of+the+innovation+model.+Additionally,+Legris+et$al.+[253]+point+out+three+
primary+shortcomings+of+TAM+research+to+date:+nine+of+the+studies+involved+students+and+
should+have+been+performed+in+a+business+environment;+most+studies+examined+the+in:
troduction+ of+ office+ automation+ software+ or+ systems+ development+ applications+ and+ is+
would+ be+ beneficial+ to+ examine+ the+ introduction+ of+ business+ process+ applications;+ and+
finally,+ most+ studies+ do+ not+ measure+ system+ use+ and+ instead+ measures+ the+ variance+ in+
self+reported+use+which+is+not+at+all+reliable.+Stieninger+et$al.+[23]+point+out+that+TAM+and+
its+modified+versions+fail+to+address+important+issues+such+as+security+and+trust.+Wu+et$al.+
[152]+ considered+ using+ the+ Technology+ Acceptance+ Model+ in+ their+ SaaS+ adoption+ study+
but+chose+to+use+a+modified+version+of+the+Decision+Making+Trial+and+Evaluation+Labora:
tory+(DEMATEL)+model+because+the+TAM+did+not+take+trust+into+account.++Since+trust+is+
considered+a+critical+factor+in+e:commerce+adoption,+and+SaaS+and+e:commerce+are+corre:
lated,+they+argued+that+it+was+important+to+be+included.+In+Wu+et$al.’s+[152]++study,+several+
factors+not+included+in+TAM+are+considered:++media+and+social+influence,+flexibility,+per:
ceived+status+benefits,+attitude+toward+mobile+innovation,+security,+trust+and+marketing.+
They+ found+ that+ marketing+ has+ a+ positive+ impact+ on+ social+ influence,+ including:+ + per:
ceived+ ease+ of+ use,+ perceived+ usefulness,+ security+ and+ trust.+ The+ study+ results+ highlight+
the+ importance+ between+ perceived+ benefits+ and+ perceived+ risks.+ Simply+ put,+ decision+
makers+can+be+categorized+in+two+ways:++those+that+perceive+that+the+benefits+of+adoption+

$ 165$
Theoretical+Background+

are+greater+than+the+risks+and+those+that+perceive+the+risks+are+greater+than+the+benefits.+
Like+others,+Yi+et$al.+[250]+found+TAM+to+be+a+useful+model+but+insufficient+on+its+own+and+
integrated+it+with+two+other+models+in+order+to+complete+their+study.+
$

5.4.5! Model+Extensions+

Venkatesh+et$al.+[20]+attempted+to+solve+the+issue+illustrated+in+the+previous+section+by+
creating+the+Unified+Theory+of+Acceptance+and+Use+of+Technology+(UTAUT).+The+UTAUT+
is+a+unified+model+formulated+with+four+core+determinants+of+intention+and+usage+and+up+
to+four+moderators+of+key+relationships.+This+new+model+is+formulated+by+combining+sim:
ilarities+ gathered+ from+ an+ array+ of+ eight+ model+ and+ theories+ of+ individual+ user+ ac:
ceptance.+Venkatesh+et$al.+[20]+claim+that+the+UTAUT+model+explains+around+70+percent+
of+ the+ variance+ in+ intention,+ and+ they+ believe+ this+ could+ be+ the+ practical+ limit+ to+ which+
individual+acceptance+and+usage+decisions+in+an+organization+can+be+explained.+However,+
even+ with+ its+ noble+ intentions,+ UTAUT+ has+ been+ criticized+ by+ researchers+ like+ Bagozzi+
[252]+and+van+Raaij+and+Schepers+[254].+As+Bagozzi+notes+“the$exposition$of$UTAUT$is$a$
well9meaning$and$thoughtful$presentation.$But$in$the$end$we$are$left$with$a$model$with$41$
independent$variables$for$predicting$intentions$and$at$least$eight$independent$variables$for$
predicting$behavior$».$He+proposes+a+different+unified+model+that+will+explain+how+all+of+
the+ information+ fits+ together+ coherently+ and+ explains+ decision+ making.+ In+ addition,+ van+
Raaij+and+Schepers+[254]+considered+using+UTAUT+in+their+study+of+the+acceptance+of+e:
learning+ systems+ by+ 45+ MBA+ students+ in+ a+ Chinese+ program.+ However,+ the+ most+ im:
portant+issue+they+found+with+the+system+was+problems+with+the+grouping+and+labeling+of+
disparate+ items+ and+ constructs,+ particularly+ facilitating+ conditions+ and+ social+ influence+
(van+Raaij,+840:841).+On+top+of+that,+the+high+variance+explained+(R2)+in+UTAUT+is+only+
achieved+when+moderating+the+key+relationships+with+up+to+four+variables+(gender,+age,+
experience+and+voluntariness)+in+order+to+yield+more+significant+coefficients.+

$ 166$
Theoretical+Background+

5.4.6! Value+and+limit+of+TAM+models+

Many+researchers+have+found+value+in+Davis’+two+TAM+objectives:++to+improve+the+under:
standing+of+the+user+acceptance+processes+and+to+provide+a+theoretical+basis+for+design:
ers+and+implementers+to+conduct+user+acceptance+testing+prior+to+a+system+being+imple:
mented.+As+previously+noted,+hundreds+of+researchers+have+used+TAM+or+one+of+its+modi:
fications+to+study+technology+adoption.+They+have+also+been+able+to+confirm+TAM+findings+
through+empirical+research.+However,+TAM+models+do+have+limitations+mostly+related+to+
being+insufficient+in+comprehensively+researching+technology+acceptance.+With+the+limi:
tations+of+variables,+researchers+repeatedly+choose+to+combine+TAM+with+another+com:
plementary+ model+ in+ order+ to+ include+ all+ of+ the+ necessary+ variables+ for+ their+ study.+ In+
addition,+researchers+such+as+Bagozzi+[252]+argue+that+TAM+has+weak+linkages+between+
intention+ and+ behavior+ and+ individual+ reactions+ to+ using+ information+ and+ intentions.+
Dishaw+and+Strong+point+out+TAM’s+lack+of+focus,+while+Legris+et$al.+[253]+highlights+the+
model’s+ lack+ of+ use+ in+ the+ business+ environment,+ among+ other+ shortcomings+ previous+
mentioned.+ Stieninger+ et$ al.+ [23]+ and+ Wu+ et$ al.+ [152]+ both+ point+ out+ that+ TAM+ does+ not+
consider+ security+ or+ trust+ in+ its+ variables+ and+ therefore+ did+ not+ fit+ their+ research+ re:
quirements.+$

5.5! Task:Technology+Fit++

Task:technology+fit+(TTF)+is+another+user+adoption+model+used+regularly+by+researchers+
when+ studying+ the+ linkage+ between+ information+ technology+ usage+ and+ individual+ per:
formance.+TTF+comprises+technology+characteristics,+task+characteristics+and+individual+
abilities.++The+most+relevant+research+are+presented+in+a+summary+table+10+at+the+end+of+
this+chapter.+

5.5.1! Goodhue+Model+

In+1995,+Goodhue+proposed+to+use+task:technology+fit+as+a+user+evaluation+construct.+The+
TTF+ model+ enables+ researchers+ to+ better+ understand+ the+ linkage+ between+ information+

$ 167$
Theoretical+Background+

systems+and+individual+performance.+He+argued+that+what+is+needed+for+effective+meas:
urement+of+IS+success+was+“some$specific$user$evaluation$construct,$defined$within$a$theo9
retical$ perspective$ that$ can$ usefully$ link$ underlying$ systems$ to$ their$ relevant$ impacts.”+
[255]+

Goodhue+ [255]+ approached+ his+ research+ with+ two+ assumptions:+ that+ higher+ task:
technology+fit+will+result+in+better+performance+and+that+users+can+successfully+evaluate+
task:technology+ fit+ and+ choose+ technologies+ on+ that+ basis.+ With+ his+ model,+ Goodhue+
wanted+ to+ address+ the+ lack+ of+ consideration+ for+ task+ in+ the+ assumption+ previous+ re:
searchers+ were+ making+ regarding+ “better”+ information+ systems+ and+ services+ leading+ to+
higher+user+evaluations.+

5.5.2! Model+description+

The+Goodhue+model+of+task:technology+fit+has+two+main+objectives:++first,+“to+propose+a+
comprehensive+ theoretical+ model+ that+ incorporates+ valuable+ insights+ from+ to+ comple:
mentary+streams+of+research”+and+the+second+objective+is+“to+empirically+test+the+core+of+
the+model.”+[18].+In+this+model,+the+assertion+is+for+information+systems+and+services+to+
have+a+positive+impact,+technology+must+be+used+and+must+be+a+good+fit+for+the+tasks+it+
supports.+
$

Task$Characteristics$
+

+ Technology$CharacterisJ Task$
tics$ Perceived$impacts$
Technology$Fit$
+

+
Individual$Characteristics$ Utilization$$
+

Figure+15+Goodhue's+Task:Technology+Fit+Model+
$ 168$
Theoretical+Background+

5.5.3! Main+Results+

In+Goodhue’s+survey+of+259+IS+users+in+nine+companies,+he+found+general+empirical+sup:
port+ for+ four+ TTF+ propositions+ related+ to+ the+ determinants+ of+ user+ evaluations+ of+ TTF.+
First,+user+evaluations+were+directly+influenced+by+characteristics+(such+as+size+of+infor:
mation+system,+number+of+terminals,+availability+of+assistance)+of+the+information+system+
or+ service,+ task+ and+ individual.+ Secondly,+ he+ proposed+ that+ task+ characteristics+ would+
affect+user+evaluations+of+TTF.+Users+that+engaged+in+non:routine+or+difficult+tasks+gave+
lower+evaluations+on+every+dimension+measured+except+uptime+and+freedom+from+crash:
es.+ Thirdly,+ he+ proposed+ that+ individual+ skills+ and+ abilities+ affected+ user+ evaluations+ of+
TTF.+The+main+conclusion+he+found+was+that+it+seems+that+more+literate+users+engage+in+
more+ demanding+ tasks;+ therefore,+ the+ study+ found+ that+ they+ had+ a+ harder+ time+ finding+
data+and+the+mean+of+data+elements.+Finally,+Goodhue+found+that+the+interaction+between+
task+ and+ technology+ (and+ individual)+ were+ a+ significant+ predictor+ of+ user+ evaluations+
[18].++

Since+its+inception,+hundreds+of+researchers+have+referred+to+Goodhue’s+TTF+in+their+re:
search.+Parkes++[256]+deconstructed+the+Goodhue+model+in+an+interesting+way+in+order+to+
more+ carefully+ study+ three+ sets+ of+ two:way+ fit+ dimensions:+ fit+ between+ individual+ and+
technology;+ fit+ between+ task+ and+ individual;+ and+ fit+ between+ task+ and+ technology.+ She+
found+that+studying+the+model+in+this+way+enables+a+researcher+to+observe+the+effects+of+
user+variance+from+different+perspectives.+Parkes’+findings+show+that+“fitting$technology$
to$ a$ task$ improves$ technology$ performance;$ fitting$ technology$ to$ an$ individual$ changes$
attitude.”++Aljukhadar+et$al.+[257]+employed+TTF+to+study+13,315+online+users.+Their+com:
parison+between+French+and+English+users+is+interesting+as+results+show+that+the+quality+
of+website+information+and+its+ease+of+use+were+the+only+technology+factors+that+signifi:
cantly+influenced+task+completion.+The+study+also+found+that+security+and+privacy+were+
only+ significant+ concerns+ when+ users+ were+ completing+ transactional+ tasks.+ Chen+ et$ al.+
[154]+conducted+research+on+data+gathered+from+the+Top+2000+firms+in+Taiwan+and+con:
structed+ a+ research+ structure+ related+ to+ SaaS+ adoption+ based+ on+ Task:Technology+ Fit+

$ 169$
Theoretical+Background+

(TTF).+According+to+Chen,+TTF+provides+greater+insight+on+a+repeated+use+of+a+technology+
than+its+counterparts.+Primarily,+they+wanted+to+determine+if+adopting+SaaS+would+reduce+
users’+efficiency+due+to+the+technology+not+being+a+good+fit+for+the+task+or+requiring+more+
individual+ ability+ than+ exists.+ They+ hypothesized+ that+ individual+ abilities+ can+ positively+
influence+the+degree+of+technology+and+task+fit+and+further+hypothesized+that+the+inten:
tion+for+SaaS+adoption+was+directly+related+to+the+degree+of+TTF.+Gebauer+et$al.+[258]+in:
tegrates+research+from+organizational+tasks,+mobile+technology+and+task:technology+fit+to+
create+a+profile+of+TTF+for+mobile+IS+to+support+managerial+tasks.+By+studying+216+mobile+
users,+the+researchers+use+the+TTF+model+to+try+to+match+mobile+technologies+with+user+
tasks+and+a+mobile+use+context.+However,+the+results+fail+to+show+little+direct+support+of+a+
three:way+ match+ between+ these+ dimensions.+ Jarupathirun+ and+ Zahedi+ [259]+ synthesize+
the+influence+of+perceptual+factors+(task–technology,+goal+setting,+and+self:efficacy+theo:
ries)+ in+ developing+ a+ conceptual+ model+ and+ exploring+ these+ factors+ impacting+ the+ per:
ceived+ performance+ of+ Web:based+ spatial+ decision+ support+ system+ (SDSS).! The+ results+
indicate+that+perceived+task:technology+fit+and+perceived+goal+commitment+have+a+major+
role+to+play+in+the+perceived+performance+of+SDSS.+Further,+self:efficacy+has+a+strong+posi:
tive+impact+on+TTF+as+well+as+on+the+expected+benefits+of+using+SDSS.++

5.5.4! Contribution+Value+and+limitations+of+TTF+models+

As+Goodhue+stated,+“The+TTF+perspective+views+technology+as+a+means+by+which+a+goal:
oriented+individual+performs+tasks.+TTF+focuses+on+the+degree+to+which+systems+charac:
teristics+match+user+task+need.”+[18].++A+major+contribution+of+TTF+is+the+idea+of+having+
users+with+business+task+knowledge+contribute+to+the+design+of+IS+systems+and+services+
in+ order+ to+ create+ systems+ or+ services+ that+ will+ fit+ the+ task+ need+ [18].+ Hundreds+ of+ re:
searchers+ have+ used+ the+ TTF+ adoption+ model+ across+ many+ industries+ to+ better+ under:
standing+the+linkages+between+tasks,+technology+and+individuals.++

On+ the+ other+ hand,+ several+ researchers+ have+ found+ the+ TTF+ model+ to+ be+ useful+ but+ in+
some+aspects+lacking.+They+have+modified+the+TTF+model+or+integrated+it+with+other+ac:

$ 170$
Theoretical+Background+

ceptance+models+to+better+suit+their+specific+needs.+Ammenwerth+et$al.+[260]+studied+IT+
adoption+in+a+German+university+hospital+and+used+a+modified+TTF+model+that+they+called+
FITT+ (fit+ between+ individuals+ task+ and+ technology).+ They+ chose+ to+ use+ FITT+ instead+ of+
TAM+or+TTF+because+they+argued+that+the+other+models+did+not+properly+account+for+the+
interaction+between+the+user+and+the+task.+In+studying+intelligent+agent+software+used+for+
online+ auctions,+ Chang+ [103]+ found+ that+ intelligent+ agent+ technology+ can+ be+ perceived+
positively+by+users+and+concluded+that+acceptance+is+dependent+from+the+perception+and+
the+nature+of+the+task.+He+found+that+perceived+ease+of+use,+perceived+usefulness+and+in:
tention+to+use+the+tool+were+significantly+influenced+by+task:technology+fit.+Kankanhalli+et$
al.+ [261]+ proposed+ an+ integrated+ sociotechnical+ model,+ the+ theory+ of+ planned+ behavior+
(TPB)+ and+ the+ theory+ of+ task:technology+ fit,+ to+ investigate+ the+ potential+ antecedents+ to+
usage+ of+ electronic+ knowledge+ repositories+ (EKR)+ for+ knowledge+ contribution+ and+
knowledge+seeking.+Results+reveal+that+perceived+output+quality+directly+affects+EKR+us:
age+ for+ knowledge+ seeking.+ Further,+ resource+ availability+ affects+ EKR+ usage+ for+
knowledge+seeking+particularly+when+task+tacitness+is+low+and+incentives+affect+EKR+us:
age+particularly+when+task+interdependence+is+high.++

In+ Hangzhou,+ China,+ Lam+ et$ al.+ explore+ the+ influence+ of+ perceived+ IT+ beliefs,+ task:
technology+ fit,+ attitude,+ self:efficacy,+ and+ subjective+ norm+ on+ behavioral+ intention+ of+
adopting+information+technology+in+hotels.+They+find+that+attitude,+self:efficacy+and+sub:
jective+norm+are+positively+related+to+behavioral+intention,+and+perceived+IT+beliefs+have+
influence+ on+ the+ intention+ through+ attitude+ formation.+ They+ conclude+ that+ task:
technology+ fit+ appears+ to+ interact+ with+ perceived+ IT+ beliefs+ toward+ attitude+ formation.+
Lee+et$al.+[262]+propose+and+validate+a+modified+task:technology+fit+model+that+focuses+on+
individual+ differences+ to+ explore+ the+ factors+ affecting+ the+ effective+ adoption+ of+ mobile+
commerce+ in+ the+ insurance+ industry.+ They+ discover+ that+ position+ experience,+ cognitive+
style,+and+computer+self:efficacy+are+major+factors+that+can+predict+the+fit+of+applying+PDA+
technology+for+insurance+tasks.+Counter+to+conventional+wisdom,+other+demographic+var:
iables+such+as+gender+and+age+are+found+to+be+insignificant.+As+mentioned+earlier,+Wu+et$
al.+ proposed+ a+ revised+ technology+ acceptance+ model+ and+ integrated+ it+ with+ the+ task:
$ 171$
Theoretical+Background+

technology+fit+theory,+network+externality,+subject+norm,+computer+self+efficacy+and+com:
puter+ enjoyment+ variables+ to+ investigate+ what+ determines+ end+ user+ computing+ ac:
ceptance.+ Results+ show+ that+ perceived+ usefulness,+ perceived+ ease+ of+ use,+ and+ computer+
enjoyment+all+directly+influence+actual+usage.+Additionally,+network+externality+has+a+di:
rect+ effect+ on+ perceived+ ease+ of+ use.+ The+ researchers+ conclude+ that+ task:technology+ fit+
has+a+direct+influence+on+the+perceived+ease+of+use.+In+their+study+on+virtual+work,+Zigurs+
and+Khazanchi+[263]+acknowledge+the+“great+value+and+significance”+of+previous+TTF+re:
search+but+argue+for+a+new+view+that+is+based+on+the+theoretical+frame+of+patterns+to+fill+
the+gaps+in+the+original+model.+Within+the+context+of+TTF,+they+state+“patterns$would$be$
representations$of$specific$management$and$team$member$practices$that$contribute$to$the$
effectiveness$and$ineffectiveness$of$virtual$teams.$These$practices$would$include$individual$
behaviors,$processes,$technologies$and$tools.”+

Goodhue+et$al.$[18]+conclude++the+TTF+model+is+better+positioned+to+predict+the+perfor:
mance+while+the+TAM+model+look+more+at+predicting+the+utilization.++

5.6! Conclusion++

Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ computing+ have+ been+ at+ the+ forefront+ of+ academic+ research+ for+ the+
past+decade.+Most+researchers+have+been+addressing+technical+challenges+and+suggesting+
areas+of+improvements+in+various+contexts.+As+it+occurs+with+new+technology,+even+defi:
nitions+ have+ been+ subject+ to+ different+ interpretations.+ Researchers+ struggle+ to+ bring+ a+
clear+ and+ homogeneous+ definition+ (comprising+ a+ tool+ and+ a+ process)+ or+ argue+ that+ the+
mixture+of+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+is+just+“old+wine+in+new+bottles.”+

As+a+result,+unsurprisingly+practitioners+are+struggling+to+integrate,+assimilate+and+ingest+
technology+ benefits+ into+ their+ IT+ organizations.+ Moreover,+ there+ is+ a+ significant+ talent+
shift;+data+scientist+skills+require+a+deep+knowledge+of+both+science+and+industry+with+a+
mix+of+technical+and+social+skills,+such+as:++statistics,+computing,+programming,+business+

$ 172$
Theoretical+Background+

acumen,+ visualization+ and+ communication.+ To+ add+ value,+ it+ is+ key+ that+ adopted+ IT+ inte:
grate+ effectively+ with+ business+and+ analytical+ processes.+ To+ answer+ that+ challenge,+ the+
approach+used+by+Brynjolfsson+[227]+at+the+macroeconomic+level+is+insufficient.+The+na:
ture+of+Big+Data+and+cloud+make+assessing+the+impact+on+the+organization+difficult.+Adop:
tion+theories+such+as+TAM+and+TTF+point+to+users’+perceptions+to+determine+the+use+and+
acceptance+of+technology.+Therefore,+investigating+the+functional+fit+of+technology+along+
with+the+users+perspective+is+an+important+aspect+of+this+study.+We+summarized+key+re:
search+below+in+table+10.+

IT+adoption+theories+are+laying+the+groundwork+to+capture+the+value+and+fit+of+technolo:
gy.+ For+ example,+ DOI+ and+ TOE+ have+ been+ extensively+ used+ to+ analyze+ cloud+ computing+
determinants+ but+ do+ not+ contribute+ to+ understanding+ users’+ needs.+ The+ TOE+ theory+ as:
sumes+that+the+cloud+system+enables+improvements+at+the+organizational+level+but+fails+
to+outline+collaboration+and+ease+of+use+factors+at+an+individual+level.+

In+ our+ review,+ we+ have+ identified+ gaps+ from+ the+ literature.+ Overall,+ a+ clear+ theoretical+
framework+ for+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ computing+ adoption+ is+ lacking.+ The+ amount+ of+ man:
agement+literature+addressing+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+is+increasing,+yet+the+com:
bined+ assessment+ is+ very+ weak.+ In+ particular,+ limited+ research+ has+ been+ conducted+ to+
identify+ contextual+ and+ functional+ perspective+ factors+ influencing+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+
adoption.$Additionally,+very+limited+Big+Data+and+cloud+adoption+literature+exists+in+the+
context+of+mobile+traffic+analysis.+

:+Hundreds+of+researchers+have+used+TAM+or+one+of+its+modifications+to+study+technology+
adoption.+However,+the+TAM+model+is+too+focused+on+the+end+user’s+behavior,+which+is+
not+what+we+want+to+measure.+

:+DOI+and+RBV:++These+two+models+address+technology+adoption+at+an+organizational+level+
and+don’t+capture+the+link+between+the+data+scientist+and+technology+usage.+The+diffusion+
of+innovation+theory+is+a+dominant+model+of+technology+adoption,+but+because+DoI+is+a+
correlational+analysis+approach,+causality+is+a+weakness.+DoI+does+not+address+why+a+par:

$ 173$
Theoretical+Background+

ticular+independent+variable+covaries+with+innovativeness.+In+addition,+researchers+
raised+questions+about+the+validity+of+RBV+as+more+than+a+view+including+if+it+satisfies+key+
requirements+to+be+considered+a+theoretical+system+or+if+it+could+in+the+future.+The+re:
searchers+identify+context+and+value+as+two+components+that+are+too+simplified+in+RBV+to+
be+effective.+

:+The+TTF+model+is+focused+on+fit.+However,+this+user+adoption+model+see+technology+as+
only+a+big+construct+and+lacks+the+nuances+required+to+fully+understand+the+affects+of+Big+
Data+and+cloud+computing+adoption+together.+

The+following+chapter+builds+on+the+gaps+identified+develops+a+conceptual+framework+for+
Big+Data+and+cloud+adoption+inspired+by+existing+models.+Factors+of+Big+Data+and+cloud+
adoption+from+task,+technology+fit+are+proposed+and+presented+in+a+framework+to+be+em:
pirically+validated+in+the+next+chapter.++

$ 174$
 !

Table&10&Summary&of&Relevant&Studies&on&Task&Technology&Fit&<&developed&for&this&research&
$
Author'' Topic' Key'Constructs' Sample' Major'Findings'
Smith&et&al.&&[264]& Forecasting&Support& Procedure,&Complex&system& 216&practitioners! Authors&demonstrate&that&forecasting&support&system&characteristics,&which&are&the&hard<
system&,&&FTTF&model& (HW+SW)&technology,&Fit& Enterprise.! ware,&software&and&network&features&and&capabilities&of&the&system,&are&positively&related&to&
Profile,&Performance! user&perception&of&the&quality&and&access.&The&quality&and&access&are&also&positively&correlat<
ed&to&performance&dependent&variables.&Authors&excluded&users&from&the&model.!
&Ammenwerth&et&al.&[260]& IT&adoption&& IT&adoption,&Individuals,& Pediatrics&ward&13& IT&adoption&and&the&interaction&of&task,&technology&and&individuals:&a&case&study:&A&comput<
German&university& Technology,&Task& nurses&dermato< er<based&nursing&process&documentation&system.!
hospital&(FITT&model)& logical&ward&had&
12&nurses&
Chang&[265]& online&auction& Intelligent&Agent’s&Technolo< 478&online&users! The&author&found&that&the&Intelligent&Agent&Technology&can&be&perceived&positively&by&users&
& gy,&TTF&Perceived&ease&of&use,& Consumers! and&concluded&that&the&acceptance&is&dependent&from&the&perception&and&the&nature&of&the&
Perceived&Usefulness,&Inten< task.&&!
tion&to&use&tool!
Liu&et&al.&[266]& multi<DSS&models& Technology,&Task,&Individual& 230&subjects.& Authors&consider&the&structured&and&unstructured&tasks.&This&is&interesting&as&the&results&
& Difference,&User&attitude&to& Enterprise.! validate&that&in&structured&tasks&the&individual&characteristics&are&less&important,&but&must&be&
Technology,&Performance&! taken&into&account&when&decision&support&system&tasks&are&complex.&Conclusions&also&chal<
lenge&the&need&for&a&high&degree&of&fit&as&it&may&be&detrimental&to&attitude&toward&the&tech<
nology.&!
Aljukhadar&et&al.&[257]& Online&user&context& TTF,&task! 13315&online& The&comparison&between&French&and&English&users&is&interesting&as&results&show&that&alt<
& users.! hough&users’&profiles&influence&the&task&results,&the&website&(technology)&characteristics&still&
Consumers! show&stronger&influence&in&task&completion.&The&TTF&variables&are&not&as&clearly&defined.!
Parkes&[256]& Use&of&DSS& TTF,&User&attitude&and&Per< 94&subjects! Parkes&uses&Liu’s&study&as&a&basis&and&further&confirms&and&validates&that&the&technology&
formance! Enterprise! fitting&to&users&and&to&the&task&are&strongly&tied&and&may&as&a&result&affect&the&performance.!
Bhattacherjee& Information&systems& Job&Relevance,&User&exper< 81&administrators& Bhattacherjee&proposed&an&Elaboration&Model&to&better&understand&information&technology&
[267]& acceptance& tise,&Perceived&Usefulness,&IT& <&staff! acceptance.&The&author&argues&that&influence&on&users&can&be&defined&as&either&central&or&
& usage&Intention,&Source& peripheral&and&are&moderated&by&3&factors:&&IT&Expertise,&Perceived&Job&Relevance,&and&Sta<
Credibility! bility.&The&conclusion&is&that&the&moderating&variables&can&help&customize&and&enhance&IT&
acceptance&for&individuals.&The&model&improves&granularity&of&broader&UTAUT,&TAM&models.!
Staples&et&al.&[268]& Technology<to< Precursors&of&Utilization,& 140&Librarians! Staples&et&al.&are&essentially&reusing&Goodhue’s&approach&as&a&support&for&predictive&model&
performance&chain& TTF,&Utilization,&Performance& and&an&AB&(voluntary,&mandatory)&sample&approach&to&demonstrate&the&link&between&TTF&
model& Impacts! and&performance.&The&authors&found&that&both&mandatory&and&voluntary&tasks&increase&
performance.!
Zigurs&et&al.&[263]& A&New&View&of&Task< Fit&contingency,&Collabora< none! Zigurs&et&al.&propose&a&new&fit&approach&as&current&models&have&difficulties&integrating&virtual&
Technology&Fit& tion! environments&and&thus&the&collaboration&aspects.&He&notes&that&in&highly&virtual&environ<
Pattern&theory& ments,&the&task&and&technology&are&tightly&linked.&Using&the&pattern&(context–problem<
solution)&theory,&the&authors&propose&an&integrative&approach&where&technology&choice&is&
contingent&to&problem&and&collaboration&needs.&Zigurs&et&al.&acknowledge&the&“great&value&
and&significance”&of&previous&TTF&research&but&argue&for&a&new&view&that&is&based&on&the&
theoretical&frame&of&patterns&to&fill&the&gaps&in&the&original&model.!
&

175$
Theoretical&Background&

Davern&[269]& Unified&Theory&of&Fit& User,&Technology&as&repre< none! The&author&aims&at&simplifying&behavioral&constructs&by&proposing&taxonomy&of&fits.&The&

& sentation,&technology&as&tool! approach&can&help&researchers&to&anticipate&weakness&or&potential&strength&of&constructs&
such&as&technology.&&
Gribbins&et&al.&[270]& TTF&to&assess&Enter< Process&features,&IT&features,& None&! Gribbins&considers&that&process&can&replace&individual&task&in&the&context&of&the&organization.&
prise&IT& Process&Tech&Fit,&IT&use& Enterprise& The&assumption&is&that&the&underlying&processes&address&users’&needs.&The&author&further&
context,&Performance! argues&that&this&approach&is&a&more&systemic&approach.&What&is&unclear&is&how&the&author&
addresses&effectively&complex&task,&knowledge<based&tasks.&We&can&draw&a&connection&with&
Liu’s&approach&where&he&differentiates&structured&and&unstructured&tasks.!
Majchrzak&et&al.&[271]& Perceived&Individual& Perceived&collaboration,& 263&individuals&in& The&authors&demonstrate&a&link&between&the&IT&support&for&contextualization&and&collabora<
Collaboration& Perceived&IT&support,&Per< 53&distributed& tion&know<how&development&in&the&case&of&non<routine&tasks.&This&is&a&particularly&interest<
ceived&task&routineness! teams! ing&result&as&data&scientists&may&access&and&process&data&remotely.&Collaboration&may&be<
come&a&moderating&variable.&&
Zhang&et&al.&[272]& Task&in&Human&comput< Task&characteristic&! 43&task&articles! Results&show&that&tasks&related&to&HCI&can&be&sorted&in&4&categories:&&decision&making,&end&
er&Interaction& user&training/learning,&IS&development&and&office&tasks.&More&interestingly,&IS&development&
includes&tasks&related&to&db&design,&db&queries&and&creating&conceptual&schema&and&data&
analysis.&Typical&studied&characteristics&include&task&ambiguity,&uncertainty,&equivocality&and&
ill<structured&task&context.!
Im&et&al.&[106]& Fit&and&Social&Construc< KMS,&TTF,&Performance! none! The&authors&did&not&operationalized&their&theoretical&research.&&&&
& tion&in&KMS& KMS&Characteristics:&Flexibility;&Integration;&Ease&of&Use!
& & Task<KMS&Fit:!
Knowledge&Acquisition;&Maintenance;&Search/Retrieval!
KMS&Use:&Dependence&on&System!
Performance:&Productivity;&Effectiveness!
Lin&et&al.&[98]& Integration&of&Social& KMS&characteristics&! 192&individuals! Results&show&that&tacit&knowledge&is&difficult&to&transfer&and&less&sensitive&to&technology,&
Cognitive&Theory&and& Task&interdependence&! which&implies&that&other&means&need&to&be&used&to&improve&the&fit.&The&authors&suggest&that&
TTF& Task&tacitness&! social&capital&improvement,&hence&improved&communication,&may&help&to&capture&knowledge&
& Perceived&TTF&! into&the&system.&&!
KMS&self<efficacy&!
Gebauer&et&al.&[258]& Theory&of'TTF&for&Mo< Task:&difficulty,&Interdepend< 216&mobile&users! Gebauer&et&al.&define&the&fit&as&the&difference&between&technology&requirements&and&technol<
bile&IS& ence,&Time&criticality.! ogy&performance.&For&both&constructs,&the&functional&and&operational&requirements&are&
& Technology:&Functionality,& identified.&The&formative&model&was&adopted&for&all&the&constructs&including&the&fit.&Results&
form&factors,&Location! show&that&mobility&acts&as&a&moderator&for&task&difficulty&and&user&perceived&importance.!
Individual&use:&Distraction,&
quality&of&Network,&Mobility,&
Experience!
Strong&and&Volkoff&&[273]& Grounded&Theory& Misfits&in&six&domains:&func< One&organization& The&authors&focus&on&potential&misfit&type&when&enterprises&are&using&generic&systems.&Two&
tionality,&data,&usability,& 60&people! new&types&of&fit&are&identified:&&fit&as&coverage&and&enablement&and&compared&with&Venka<
roles,&control,&and&culture&& traman&fit&taxonomy.&&
linked&to&systems&deficiencies&
and&Imposition&
&
Devaraj&et&al.&[274]& IT&Payoff.& Usage&(Report/Processing/& Hospitals&of&a& Devaraj&et&al.&study&the&relationship&between&IT&(DSS&in&this&study)&and&organizational&per<
Numbers&or&records&ac< private&health& formance.&The&authors&posit&that&IT&impact&is&driven&by&usage&and&not&the&investment.&
cessed)&& system&(20,000&
employees)&!
&

$ 176$
Theoretical&Background&

D’Ambra&et&al.&[275]& &TTF&to&assess&Ebooks& Task,&Technology,&TTF,&Indi< 361&Students& The&authors&establish&a&strong&relationship&between&utilization&and&perceived&performance.&

adoption& vidual,&Performance&and& On&the&other&hand,&thefFit&explained&variance&is&low&indicating&that&ebook&usage&is&not&de<
Utilization& pendent&from&the&fit.&Task,&individuals&and&technology&characteristics&influence&positively&the&
TTF.&
Lee&et&al.&[276]& Integration&of&DE< Subjective&norm,&Job&Rele< Ten&professionals&! Lee&et&al.&propose&and&validate&a&modified&task<technology&fit&model&that&focuses&on&individu<
MATEL&inot&Technology& vance,&Output&quality,&Per< & al&differences&to&explore&the&factors&affecting&the&effective&adoption&of&mobile&commerce&in&
Acceptance&model& ceived&Usefulness,&Perceived& the&insurance&industry.&The&authors&evaluate&users’&behavioral&intention&to&use&technology&
(TAM2)& ease&of&use,&Intention&to&use,& and&identified&experience,&perceived&ease&of&use&and&subjective&norm&as&the&key&factors&of&
Experience,&Voluntariness,& adoption.&!
Usage&Behavior! &
Nance&et&al.&[277]& TTF&as&an&antecedent&to& Technology,&Task,&TTF,&Per< 53&participants& Nance&et&al.&demonstrate&that&IT&knowledge&and&training&factors&affect&the&decision&to&adopt&
Individuals’&Usage& ceived&usefulness,&Volume&of& from&auditing& IT.&The&authors&make&the&distinction&between&IT&Usage&and&IT&choices&Learning&effort&is&
Data,&IT&learning&costs& industry& defined&as&an&antecedent&of&IT&choices&and&affect&the&individual&willingness&to&adopt&a&differ<
ent&technology.&&
Junglas&et&al.&([278]& Task<technology&fit&for& Task,&Technology,&Individual,& 112&Subjects& Junglas&et&al.&use&mobility&and&locatability&services&as&technology&antecedents.&Results&indi<
mobile&locatable&infor< TTTF,&Impact&(Organizational& cate&that&mobile&devices&are&not&better&suited&to&perform&location&insensitive&tasks&than&
mation&systems&& and&Individual&level)& wired&desktop.&On&the&other&hand,&location<based&tasks&affect&users’&perception&of&the&tech<
& nology&fit.&
Dishaw&and&Strong&[153]& TAM&and&TTF&Integrat< Task,&TTF,&Tool&functionality& 60&maintenance& Result&indicates&TTF<TAM&model&combined&has&a&higher&explanatory&power&than&either&
ed&Model&to&assess&the& and&experience,&tool&use,& projects&collected& model&alone.&TAM&is&demonstrating&higher&results&than&TTF&(41%&vs&36%)&when&used&alone.&
link&between&utilization& Perceived&Ease&of&use&and& from&the&three& Research&using&the&integrated&model&should&lead&to&a&better&understanding&of&choices&about&
and&user&performance.& Usefulness&Attitude&towards& organizations&& using&IT.&
use,&Intention&to&Use,&Actual&
tool&use.&
Basoglu&et&al.&[279]& Analysis&of&Task&Infor< Task,&Tool&Functionality,&TTF,& 12&interviews&from& The&authors&suggest&that&the&task&information&fit&model&can&be&use&to&evaluate&the&fit&be<
mation&Fit&Model&&ap< Individual&Performance,& 2&different&univer< tween&IS&and&task&requirements.&The&study&relies&on&a&low&sample.&
plied&to&Student&Regis< Actual&Tool&use.& sities&&
tration&systems.&
Klopping&et&al.&[251]& TTF&and&TAM&adoption& TTF,&Perceived&Usefulness,& 263&Undergradu< Klopping&and&McKinney&extend&Chen’s&prior&research&on&e<commerce.&The&authors&demon<
model&&for&consumer&e< Perceived&Ease&of&use,&Inten< ates&web&survey& strate&that&Technology&Acceptance&Model&(TAM)&predicts&intention&to&shop&online&and&actual&
commerce.& tion&to&Use&and&Actual&Usage& purchases.&The&Task<Technology&Fit&(TTF)&model&affects&the&perceptions&of&ease&of&use&and&
complements&the&TAM&model&for&online&shopping&tasks.&
Lane&Heine&et&al.&[280]& Meta<analysis&of&techno< TAM,&TTF,&FMC,&Technologi< 14&models&ana< Authors&analyze&fourteen&technology&models&applicable&to&manufacturing&environment&and&
logy&models&& cal&Change&Model,&AMT,&….& lyzed.& compare&them&to&the&MIT&Framework.&As&a&result,&Lane&Heine&et&al.&propose&a&general&model&
& of&technology&and&performance&based&on&four&dimensions&(structure,&management&process<
es,&individuals&and&roles,&technology).&
Davis&et&al.&[245]& TAM&model,&User&Ac< System,&Perceived&Useful< 112&Users&of& Davis&et&al.&propose&the&TAM&model&to&explain&the&link&between&the&system&and&individual&
ceptance&of&Information& ness,&Perceived&Ease&of&Use,& Software&systems& acceptance&of&technology.&The&authors&differentiate&ease&of&use&and&usefulness&to&help&practi<
Technology& Attitude&toward&using,&Actual& (Email&and&text& tioners&improve&user&technology&acceptance.&
System&use.& editor)&
Perceived&Output&Quality,& Perceived&output&quality&directly&affects&usage&for&knowledge&seeking.&Further,&resource&
160&knowledge&
Perceived&Ease&of&use,& availability&affects&usage&particularly&when&task&tacitness&is&low&and&incentives&affect&Elec<
Sociotechnical&model&of& professionals&in&
Knowledge&sharing&norms,& tronic&Knowledge&Repository&usage,&particularly&when&task&interdependence&is&high.&
the&theory&of&planned& public&sector&
Kankanhalli&et&al.&[261]& Resource&Availability,&Incen< Incentive&availability&and&quality&of&the&content&are&also&key&to&increase&Electronic&
behavior&and&the&theory& organizations&in&
tive&Availability,&&EKR&usage& Knowledge&Repository&usage.&&
of&task<technology&fit&& Singapore&!
for&knowledge&seeking,&Task&
&
Interdependence&and&tacit<

$ 177$
Theoretical&Background&
ness&
Lee&et&al&[276]&& TTF&applied&to&PDA& Task,&PDA&technology,&Indi<
mobile&commerce& vidual&differences,&TTF,&Task&
Performance!
Benslimane&et&al.&[281]& Task<Technology&Fit& Task,&Technology,&technology&
Model&for&WWW<based& utilization&,&TTF,&Performance&
Procurement&! Impacts!
&
Mathieson&et&al.&[248]& Db&SQL&EOU&and& Task,&System,&&Performance,&&
task/technology&fit& Ease&of&use.!
Gebauer&et&al.&[282]& mobile&technology& Task<Related&Fit,&User<
products& Perceived&Technology&Per<
formance,&Use&Context<&
Related&Fit&,&Overall&Techno<
logy&Evaluation&,&Extent&of&
Use,&Performance,&Task&
Characteristics,&Technology&
Specifications.&Use<Context&
Characteristics&&
Goodhue&et&al.&[18]& &Task&Technology&Fit& Task,&Technology,&Individual,&
Model& TTF,&User&evaluation,&Per<
formance.!
Ciganek&et&al.&[283]& spatial&decision& Task,&Technology,&Individual,&
support&system&(SDSS& TTF,&Utilization,&Perfor<
mance.&Impacts!
D’Ambra&and&Rice&[275]& performance&of&the& Infliuences,&TTF,&Perfor<
World&Wide&Web& mance!
Chen&et&al.&[154]& &TTF&Adoption&model& Technology,&Task,&Individual&
for&Software&as&a&ser< Abilities,&TTF,&Benefit&Con<
vice.& sideration,&Relation&Consid<
eration,&Adoption&Intention.!
Dishaw&et&al.&&[153]& &Combined&Computer& Perceived&Ease&of&Use,&Tool&
Self&Efficacy&and& Experience,&TTF,&Computer&
$ 178$
238&samples& The&authors&find&that&individual&characteristics&(education,&position,&experience&and&cogni<
Insurance&Cies! tive&style)&have&an&impact&on&the&task&technology&fit.&Computer&self<efficacy&is&a&major&factor&
limiting&technology&adoption.&
110&corporate& Results&show&a&strong&fit&between&the&tasks&(procurement&process)&and&website’s&functionali<
buyers&from&over& ties.&As&a&result,&the&authors&suggest&the&fit&leads&to&a&higher&level&of&Internet&usage&and&to&an&
100&organizations! improved&performance&for&its&users&&
271&subjects& The&authors&find&that&design&choices&affect&task&and&technology&as&well&as&the&perceived&ease&
participated! of&use.&The&user&role&affect&the&user&interface&requirements&and&therefore&this&may&not&be&
transferable&to&another&user.&As&a&result,&the&perceived&ease&of&use&might&be&affected.&In&short,&
one&size&does&not&fit&all&and&ease&of&use&and&its&effect&should&be&taken&into&account&when&
evaluating&the&task&technology&fit&model.&
N=143! Research&aims&at&identifying&the&tasks,&usage&and&mobile&technology&antecedents.&The&model&
is&an&interesting&departure&from&the&traditional&TTF&model.&Gebauer&et&al.&tie&the&technology&
specifications&directly&to&the&user&perceived&technology&performance&and&create&two&fit&
constructs&(task&related&fit&and&use&context&fit&as&antecedents&of&the&overall&technology&evalu<
ation).&Interestingly,&the&authors&find&a&significant&interdependence&of&usage,&task&and&tech<
nology&factors.&&!
357&individuals& &Results&indicate&that&user&evaluation&is&influenced&directly&by&the&task,&individual&and&system&
from&10&compa< characteristics.&A&major&contribution&of&TTF&is&the&idea&of&having&users&with&business&task&
nies! knowledge&contribute&to&the&design&of&IS&systems&and&services&in&order&to&create&systems&or&
services&that&will&fit&the&task&need.&Hundreds&of&researchers&have&used&the&TTF&adoption&
model&across&many&industries&to&better&understanding&the&linkages&between&tasks,&technolo<
gy&and&individuals.&!
&1case&study! Ciganek&et&al.&developed&a&SDSS&prototype&to&improve&truck&driver&navigation.&The&authors&
use&TTF&model&to&ensure&task&and&technology&fit.&In&this&specific&case,&the&application&is&de<
signed&to&meet&the&task&requirements.!
N=217! Results&indicate&that&TTF&factors&are&dependent&of&the&usage&and&experience,&&in&addition,&
performance&is&closely&related&to&usage&and&not&dependent&on&the&task&technology&fit.&&This&
finding&is&consistent&with&D’Ambra&and&Wilson&results&regarding&EBooks&Adoption.!
113&copies& Results&show&that&factors&such&as&close&relationships&with&vendors&and&data&security&risks&
Top2000&cies! may&reduce&the&intention&to&adopt&a&software&as&a&service&solution.&On&the&other&hand,&the&
low&cost&of&SaaS&solutions&may&influence&management’s&decision&to&adopt.&TTF&provides&
greater&insight&on&a&repeated&use&of&a&technology&than&its&counterparts.&Primarily,&they&want<
ed&to&determine&if&adopting&SaaS&would&reduce&users’&efficiency&due&to&the&technology&not&
being&a&good&fit&for&the&task&or&requiring&more&individual&ability&than&exists.&This&study&is&
quite&interesting&as&it&reflects&both&software&and&hardware<cloud&components&complementa<
rity.&In&this&case,&&cost&is&tied&to&both&components.&SaaS&is&cost&competitive&thanks&to&the&
platform.&On&the&other&hand,&the&platform’s&security&is&negatively&impacting&the&adoption&of&
the&software&solution.!
100&entry&points! Dishaw&and&Strong&expand&on&their&previous&work&and&add&computer&self&efficacy&to&the&
TAM/TTF&model.&They&previously&demonstrated&that&TTF/TAM&combination&predicts&utiliza<
Theoretical&Background&

TTF/TAM&model& Self&Efficacy,&Perceived&Use< tion&better&when&combined.&This&research&focuses&more&specifically&on&the&antecedents&of&

fulness! software&use&as&they&believe&this&could&improve&the&utlization&and&value&to&the&organization.&!
Suryaningrum&[284]& Assessing&individual& Task,&Technology,&TTF,&Indi< &n/a! The&author&proposes&the&HTTIP,&a&combined&model&of&Decomposed&Theory&of&Planned&Be<
performance&on&IT& vidual&Performance,&Actual& havior&and&Task<technology&Fit&in&order&to&provide&a&better&understanding&of&behavioral&
adoption:&a&DTPB&and& Usage,&Behavior&Intention,& antecedents.&He&argues&that&DTPB&predicts&human&behavior&of&IT&usage&more&comprehensi<
TTF&Model&&&& Attitude,&Subjective&norm,& vely&than&the&Technology&Acceptance&Model.&&
& Perceived&Behavior&Control.! &
&Ammenwerth&et&al.&[260]& Use&of&the&FITT&model& Task,&Individual&and&Tech< 56&Nurses,&20& Ammenwerth&et&al.&present&a&rather&novel&approach&to&IT&adoption&using&the&FITT&Model&
for&IT&adoption&& nology! patients&per&ward& (Framework&of&the&Interaction&of&Individuals,&Task&and&Technology.&Results&show&that&users&
In&German&university& at&three&points&of& could&not&easily&distinguish&between&the&various&fit&dimensions.&For&example,&misfit&prob<
hospital& time),&and&focus& lems&between&user&and&task&vs.&misfit&between&user&and&technology.!
group&interviews&!
McGill&et&al.&[285]& TTF&Model&for&Learning& Task,&Technology,&Individual,& A&total&of&267& Results&indicate&task–technology&fit&influence&indirectly&LMS&utilization&and&directly&influ<
Management&System& Utilization,&Performance& students! ences&learning&impacts.&In&addition,&utilization&directly&influences&perceived&learning&im<
impacts,&Precursors&of&Utili< pacts.&The&task–technology&fit&impact&positively&attitude&towards&LMS&use.&Model&essentially&
zation& aims&at&filling&the&gap&between&the&Goodhue&model&and&Staples&and&Seldon’s&findings.&

$ 179$
 !
$

180$
Conceptual+Model+for+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+Adoption+

! Conceptual+Model+for+Big+Data+
and+Cloud+Technology+Adoption++

The+previous+chapters+provided+research+background+and+introduced+investigation+fac<
tors+influencing+both+Big+Data+and+cloud+technology+adoption.+We+defined+and+explained+
the+ main+ constructs+ of+ adoption+ as+ well+ as+ their+ key+ determinants+ of+ technologies+ and+
their+ impacts+ on+ individuals+ and+ organizations,+ as+ well+ as+ the+ key+ underlying+ adoption+
theories.+This+theoretical+groundwork+supports+our+conceptual+framework+and+hypothe<
ses+for+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+adoption+and+use.++

In+ this+ chapter,+ we+ explain+ the+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ computing+ adoption+ framework+ and+
describe+the+proposed+framework+along+with+the+proposed+factors+and+characteristics+for+
Big+Data+and+cloud+computing,+task,+technology,+individual,+TTF+and+utilization.+A+major+
weakness+in+the+original+TTF+model+is+that+it+does+not+integrate+the+interaction+between+
the+user+and+the+task+[286]+nor+does+it+consider+the+fit+between+attributes+of+users,+tasks+
or+processes+and+technology+[252].+Unlike+previous+research,+we+propose+seven+hypoth<
eses+that+specifically+address+these+weaknesses.+In+the+hypotheses,+we+address+the+cur<
rent+research+gaps+by+seeking+to+evaluate+the+TTF+in+relation+to+the+mobile+traffic+analyt<

$ 181$
Conceptual+Model+for+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+Adoption+

ics+process,+Big+Data+applications,+cloud+infrastructure,+the+individual+characteristics+re<
lated+to+the+data+scientist,+perceived+impact/results+and+the+perceived+impact+of+Big+Data+
variables+–+velocity,+variety+and+volume.+In+addition,+we+illustrate+the+proposed+concep<
tual+model,+the+task<Big+Data/cloud+computing+technology+fit+model,+based+on+Goodhue’s+
original+ TTF.+ In+ the+ proposed+ model,+ we+ address+ the+ two+ technologies+ together+ for+ the+
first+ time,+ particularly+ in+ the+ context+ of+ mobile+ service+ providers.+ Additionally,+ we+ ad<
dress+ the+ tasks+ data+ scientists+ undertake+ to+ take+ full+ advantage+ of+ the+ benefits+ of+ using+
the+two+technologies+together+to+affect+data<driven+decision+making+in+enterprises.++

6.1! Big+Data+and+Cloud+Computing+Adoption+Framework++

According+to+Davenport+[3],+“Enterprise)IT)has)shifted)its)focus)from)supporting)activities)
to) supporting) processes) that) can) lower) costs,) improve) productivity) and) performance,) in:
crease)user)satisfaction,)and)improve)communications)and)coordination)of)the)entire)pro:
cess.”+As+a+result+many+researchers+are+assessing+the+linkages+between+task,+technology+
and+individuals.+This+section+provides+an+overview+of+the+proposed+framework,+the+TTF+
factors+ related+ to+ adopting+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ computing.+ In+ addition,+ proposed+ data+
process+ task+ characteristics+ are+ defined+ along+ with+ individual+ and+ perceived+ benefits+
characteristics.+ Additionally,+ a+ figure+ of+ the+ proposed+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ technology+
adoption+framework+is+provided.+

$ 182$
Conceptual+Model+for+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+Adoption+

Factors(Related(to(the(adoption(and(use(of(Big(Data(
and(Cloud(Computing(

Cloud+Computing+ Big+Data+
• Agility+ • Data+Sources/Variety+
• Availability+ • Timeliness/Velocity+
• Scalability/Elasticity+ • Scalability/Volume+
• Security+&+Data+Privacy/Trust+
• Data+Acquisition+
• Compatibility+
• Complexity+
• Programming+
• Cost+flexibility+(cost+saving+Hardware,+ • Data+analysis+
Software)+ • Data+Representation+
• Migration/Portability+ • Data+Privacy+and+Security+
• Customization+ • Experience+
• Reliability+ • Competency+
• Sharing+and+collaboration+
• Centralization+
• Remote+Access+
• Location+Independence+
• Maintenance+
• Ease+of+Use+

Figure+16+Overview+of+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Adoption+factors+identified+for+this+re<
+
search++

6.2! Proposed+Framework++

The+adoption+framework+chosen+for+this+thesis+is+based+on+Goodhue’s+task<technology+fit+
model.+Goodhue+et)al.+defines+task<technology+fit+as+“the)extent)that)technology)function:
ality)matches)task)requirements)and)individual)abilities.”+This+model+establishes+the+rela<
tionship+ between+ higher+ fit+ between+ task+ and+ technology+ and+ better+ individual+ perfor<
mance.+Though+the+TTF+model+does+not+include+the+word+“individual”+in+its+name,+Good<
hue+concedes+that+the+decision+not+to+include+it+was+based+on+simplicity+and+that+individ<
ual<task<technology+fit+is+perhaps+a+more+accurate+label.+Nance+and+Straub+[277]+evaluat<
ed+the+effect+of+task<technology+fit+as+an+antecedent+to+individuals’+IT+usage+choices+and+
argue+that+the+usefulness,+or+fit,+of+IT,+compared+to+manually+completing+tasks,+increases+
as+ the+ amount+ of+ data+ to+ be+ processed+ increases.+ They+ suggest+ that+ if+ an+ individual’s+
choice+ to+ use+ or+ not+ use+ technology+ is+ based+ on+ task<technology+ fit+ then+ the+ amount+ of+
data+being+processed+will+influence+this+choice.+Through+their+research,+Nance+and+Straub+
[277]++prove+the+hypothesis:++“For)data:intensive)tasks,)the)volume)of)data)to)be)processed)

$ 183$
Conceptual+Model+for+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+Adoption+

affects) the) choice) of) manual) versus) IT:supported) task) approaches.”+ However,+ their+ re<
search+also+suggests+that+immediate+learning+effort+is+another+major+antecedent+to+tech<
nology+adoption.+That+is,+inadequate+staff+capabilities+and+having+to+learn+how+to+use+the+
technology+to+complete+a+task+could+be+a+barrier+to+adoption.+Furthermore,+they+find+that+
another+factor+that+impacts+adoption+is+the+users’+level+of+personal+experience+with+the+
technology.+This+adoption+barrier+could+be+minimized+by+companies+using+data+scientists+
and+ related+ data+ analytic+ functions+ as+ opposed+ to+ asking+ other+ individuals+ to+ perform+
tasks+related+to+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing.+However,+as+long+as+perceived+usefulness+
matches+the+objective+assessment+of+TTF,+the+TTF+may+influence+the+individual’s+choice+
of+whether+or+not+to+use+IT.+Bleich+and+Slack+[286]+found+that,+contrary+to+common+belief,+
doctors+would+enthusiastically+adopt+new+technology+if+it+was+easy+to+use+and+helpful+to+
them+and+other+medical+professionals+in+caring+for+their+patients+

The+ pure+ task<technology+ fit+ model+ has+ some+ weaknesses.+ For+ instance,+ Tsiknakis+ and+
Kouroubali+[287]+found+that+TTF+does+not+clearly+integrate+the+interaction+between+the+
user+ and+ the+ task.+ Ammenwerth+ et) al.+ [260]+ addressed+ this+ limitation+ when+ they+ pro<
posed+the+fit+between+individuals,+task+and+technology+model+(FITT).+Similarly,+Lin+and+
Huang+[98]+proposed+a+modified+TTF+model+that+includes+social+cognitive+theory+in+order+
to+take+into+account+if+the+user+feels+like+he+has+the+skills+to+perform+the+task+using+the+
technology+and+therefore+will+expect+a+positive+outcome.+To+address+the+gaps+in+the+tra<
ditional+TTF+model,+we+propose+to+use+a+modified+TTF+model+with+the+addition+of+indi<
vidual+characteristics+as+shown+below.+

6.2.1! Proposed+ Factors+ for+ Big+ Data+ and+ Cloud+ Adoption+ TTF+ factors+ influencing+
Adoption+

There+are+several+main+factors+to+consider+when+assessing+TTF+as+it+relates+to+Big+Data+
and+cloud+computing+technology+adoption.+In+this+section,+the+main+factors+of+task,+indi<
vidual,+ technology,+ task<technology+ fit,+ utilization+ and+ performance+ impact+ are+ defined+
and+explained.+Additionally,+we+propose+six+hypotheses.++

$ 184$
Conceptual+Model+for+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+Adoption+

6.2.2! Proposed+Data+Analysis+Task+Characteristics++

Gribbins+ et) al.+ [270]+ adapted+ the+ traditional+ TTF+ to+ the+ process<technology+ fit+ (PTF).+
Their+goal+was+to+expand+their+ability+to+explain+and+predict+enterprise+technology+usage+
by+using+a+process+context.+The+use+of+process+features+as+technology+fit+eliminates+fea<
tures+specific+to+the+individual+performing+the+task.+Gribbins+et)al.)argues+that+an+individ<
ual’s+technology+needs+are+determined+more+by+the+underlying+process+that+by+his+or+her+
choices+ in+ an+ organizational+ context.+ Based+ on+ their+ literature+ review,+ they+ determine+
that+there+are+three+main+components+of+processes:++activities+(or+tasks),+resources+and+
actors+(or+people+responsible+for+executing+the+process+and+resources+used).+They+agree+
with+ Sawyer+ and+ Crowston+ [288]+ and+ argue+ that+ “by) placing) the) process) as) the) unit) of)
analysis)of)a)research)framework,)researchers)can)capture)both)how)IT)alters)the)way)indi:
viduals)work)and)participate)in)an)organization,)as)well)as)how)organizational)forces)affect)
individuals’)use)of)IT)to)do)their)work.”)Furthermore,+Sawyer+and+Crowston+make+an+addi<
tional+ argument+ that+ focusing+ on+ activities+ provides+ more+ insight+ since+ individuals+ and+
groups+can+change+over+time.+As+part+of+the+PTF+model,+Gribbins+et)al.+identify+four+main+
process+characteristics.+

Task(Type+–+Gribbins+et)al.+[270]++adopts+the+Zigurs+and+Buckland+[289]+classification+of+
tasks+and+use+five+categories:+simple+tasks,+problem+tasks,+decision+tasks,+judgment+tasks,+
and+fuzzy+tasks.+

Routineness(–+The+PTF+model+considers+routineness,+one+of+the+original+Goodhue+model+
task+characteristics.+The+level+of+repetitiveness,+structure,+programmability,+and+analyza<
bility+of+the+task+determine+routineness.++

Complexity(–+Process+complexity+is+determined+by+the+communication+and+coordination+
efforts+required+to+execute+the+process.+Additionally,+complexity+can+be+measured+by+the+
number+of+actors,+activities,+and+resources+involved+in+a+process.++

Interdependency+–+Gribbins+et)al.+[270]++define+interdependency+differently+than+Good<
hue+and+Thompson+[18].+Rather+than+having+an+individual<focused+definition+of+interde<

$ 185$
Conceptual+Model+for+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+Adoption+

pendency,+Gribbins+et)al.+focus+on+the+process+and+its+activities.+They+argue+“process)in:
terdependency)can)be)a)function)of)the)type)or)the)level)of)interdependency)among)activi:
ties)within)a)process.”+

According+to+Goodhue,+“Tasks)are)broadly)defined)as)the)actions)carried)out)by)individuals)
in)turning)inputs)into)outputs.”+In+creating+the+TTF+model,+Goodhue+[18]+defined+four+di<
mensions+ of+ task+ to+ consider:+ + routine,+ non<routine,+ interdependence+ and+ “hands<on”+
tasks.+In+our+study,+measures+of+task+characteristics+were+adopted+from+Goodhue+based+
on+ non<routineness+ (sometimes+ called+ task+ equivocality)+ and+ interdependence+ as+ they+
relate+ to+ Big+ Data+ processing.+ By+ non<routine,+ Goodhue+ meant+ that+ users+ were+ dealing+
with+an+ill<defined+business+problem+or+with+a+large+variety+of+ad+hoc+situations+that+re<
quired+the+acquisition+of+new+data+from+information+systems+and+for+that+data+to+be+ana<
lyzed+in+new+ways.+He+argued+that+these+users+would+be+regularly+frustrated+by+the+diffi<
culty+of+the+task.+Interdependence+is+another+task+dimension+that+can+influence+Big+Data+
and+ cloud+ computing+ adoption.+ As+ Goodhue+ explained,+ users+ engaged+ in+ tasks+ that+ are+
interdependent+with+other+organizational+units+will+need+to+identify,+access+and+integrate+
data+from+a+variety+of+systems.+And,+the+more+interdependent+the+tasks+are+the+more+like<
ly+the+user+will+be+frustrated+by+the+incompatibilities.+We+hypothesize+that++

H1:( The(characteristics(of(the(task(the(subjects(performed(–(mobile(traffic(analyC
tics(–(will(have(a(positive(impact(on(determining(the(task(technology(fit.((

6.2.3! Proposed+Factors+of+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology++

Goodhue+and+Thompson+[18]+explain+that+technologies+are+viewed+as+tools+for+carrying+
out+tasks+and+include+computer+systems,+such+as+hardware,+software+and+data,+as+well+as+
support+systems,+such+as+training+and+help+lines,+that+are+intended+to+help+users+perform+
their+tasks.+D’Ambra+and+Wilson+[229]+argue+that+technology+has+both+the+characteristics+
Goodhue+ defines+ and+ other+ attributes+ such+ as+ accessibility+ and+ response+ time+ that+ can+
affect+both+technology+usage+and+users’+perceptions+of+the+technology.+In+our+study,+we+
are+ considering+ technology+ characteristics+ related+ to+ Big+ Data+ (tools+ related+ to+ pro<
$ 186$
Conceptual+Model+for+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+Adoption+

cessing)+ and+ cloud+ computing+ (collaboration).+ This+ construct+ was+ operationalized+ by+
questions+asked+of+users+about+data+management+features+and+functions;+if+data+analysis+
was+run+on+premise+or+in+the+cloud;+what+data+management+approaches+were+used;+what+
programming+ languages+ and+ tools+ were+ used;+ what+ types+ of+ analytics+ products+ were+
used;+how+important+was+external+data;+what+methods+were+used+as+part+of+the+analytics+
process+ and+ what+ were+ the+ important+ analytic+ functions+ and+ features.+ We+ considered+
three+hypotheses+related+to+technology.++

H2+ –+ Use( of( Hadoop,( programming( and( visualization( tools( significantly( and( posiC
tively( affects( the( implementation( effectiveness( of( Big( Data( applications( and( use(
will(be(positively(related(to(TTF.((

H3(–(Use(of(cloud(infrastructure(significantly(and(positively(affects(the(implemenC
tation( effectiveness( of( Big( Data( applications( and( use( will( be( positively( related( to(
TTF.((

6.2.4! Proposed+Factors+for+Individual+Characteristics++

Researchers+studying+user+acceptance+have+defined+14+major+individual+characteristics,+
everything+from+gender+and+age+to+outcome+expectations+and+readiness+for+change.++

For+our+study,+we+operationalized+the+individual+characteristics+most+meaningful+to+the+
hypotheses+ through+ a+ series+ of+ questions.+ These+ questions+ were+ addressed+ to+ the+ data+
scientist+ and+ covered+ basic+ profile+ elements+ and+ the+ experience+ and+ skills+ of+ the+ re<
spondent.+Individuals+routinely+use+technology+to+help+them+accomplish+tasks.+Goodhue+
[18]+ argues+ that+ characteristics+ such+ as+ training,+ computer+ experience+ and+ motivation+
can+influence+how+easily+and+well+technology+is+used.+Several+studies+<+Agarwal+and+Pra<
sad+[290]+, Hung+[291],+highlight+Computer+Proficiency+and+analytics+capabilities+as+in<
fluencing+ factors+ for+ the+ Individual+ characteristics+ construct.+ Tijsen+ et) al.+ [101]+ caution+
that+quite+often+organizations+decide+to+adopt+technology+that+Individuals+are+not+famil<
iar+with.++

$ 187$
Conceptual+Model+for+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+Adoption+

Competency(–+Skills+and+abilities+of+the+users+to+perform+a+given+task+

Experience( is+ the+ knowledge+ of+ an+ event+ or+ subject+ gained+ through+ involvement+ in+ or+
exposure+to+it.+Here+we+assume+that+the+individual+has+performed+the+identified+task,+or+
drove+similar+projects+for+mobile+traffic+analysis.+

Further,+ Goodhue+ proposes+ that+ “individuals) who) are) more) competent,) better) trained) or)
more) familiar) with) their) information) systems) will) be) better) able) to) successfully) identify,)
access)and)interpret)needed)data.”+Similarly,+D’Ambra+and+Wilson+[229]+establish+support+
for+their+hypothesis:++“Individual)skills)and)experience)will)be)positively)relate)to)TTF.”+

H4(:(Individual(characteristics(related(to(the(role(of(a(data(scientist,(experience(and(
competency((will(contribute(positively(to(TTF(

6.2.5! Proposed+Factors+for+Task<Technology+Fit+Characteristics++

As+defined+by+Goodhue,+task<technology+fit+is+the+correspondence+between+task+require<
ments,+individual+abilities+and+the+functionality+of+the+technology.+In+this+case,+“technolo:
gy)is)a)means)by)which)a)goal:directed)individual)performs)tasks.”+Further,+he+posits+that+
there+ is+ a+ direct+ correlation+ between+ higher+ task<technology+ fit+ and+ high+ performance.+
The+interactions+between+individual,+task+and+technology+are+antecedents+to+TTF.+Good<
hue+explains+that+TTF+decreases+as+tasks+become+more+difficult+or+technology+offers+less+
functionality.+ With+ the+ task<technology+ fit+ model,+ we+ examine+ the+ eight+ main+ factors+
within+the+TTF+construct:++data+quality;+locatability+of+data;+authorization+to+access+data;+
compatibility;+ training+ and+ ease+ of+ use+ (infrastructure+ and+ applications);+ production+
timeliness,+systems+reliability+and+IS+relationship+with+users.+In+addition,+we+expand+the+
research+to+include+factors,+such+as+Data+velocity,+volume+and+variety.+

6.2.6! Proposed+Factors+for+Utilization+Characteristics++

Based+on+the+study+by+Goodhue+and+Thompson+[18],+utilization+should+be+measured+as+
the+proportion+of+times+users+chose+to+use+a+system.+However,+they+argue+that+there+are+

$ 188$
Conceptual+Model+for+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+Adoption+

some+weaknesses+with+this+measurement,+specifically+regarding+system+use+being+man<
datory.+So,+to+address+this+shortcoming,+they+conceptualized+utilization+as+“the)extent)to)
which) the) information) systems) have) been) integrated) into) each) individuals’) work) routine,)
whether) by) individual) choice) or) by) organizational) mandate.”+ In+ their+ study,+ they+ used+ a+
rating+system+so+that+users+should+rate+how+dependent+they+were+on+various+systems.+

6.2.7! Perceived+Impacts+

Performance+is+a+subjective+measure+of+the+results.+As+data+scientists+are+exploring+new+
models+and+new+use+of+the+data+the+expectations+can+hardly+be+related+to+an+operational<
ized+ task+ that+ can+ be+ benchmarked+ to+ previous+ ones.+ Goodhue+ [18]+ himself+ acknowl<
edged+that+an+ill<defined+problem+can+be+a+variable+of+the+task+characteristics.+As+a+result,+
we+substitute+the+performance+impact+with+the+user+perceived+impacts+or+realized+bene<
fits.+ According+ to+ Goodhue+ and+ Thompson+ [18],+ “performance) impacts) are) a) function) of)
both) task:technology) fit) and) utilization,) not) utilization) alone.”+ Both+ Dishaw+ and+ Strong+
[292]+and+Goodhue+et+al.+[18]+confirm+that+TTF+can+assess+the+value+of+an+IS,+assess+and+
predict+system+usage+and+individual+performance.+According+to+Gebauer+et)al.+[258],+re<
search+ results+ beyond+ those+ by+ Goodhue+ and+ Thompson+ [18]+ confirm+ that+ considering+
TTF+and+usage+together+provides+a+clearer+explanation+of+the+impact+of+information+tech<
nology+ on+ individual+ performance+ than+ technology+ usage+ alone.+ Further,+ Gebauer+ et) al.+
follow+the+lead+of+Zigurs+and+Buckland+[289]+and+accept+the+assumption+that+good+fit+be<
tween+task+and+technology+has+a+positive+impact+on+performance+and+technology+success.+
And,+ they+ note+ that+ research+ verifies+ the+ relevance+ in+ the+ task<technology+ fit+ model+ in+
explaining+ and+ predicting+ IS+ success+ for+ individual+ performance.+ To+ measure+ adoption+
success,+Gebauer+et)al.+[293]+argue+that+TTF+is+a+valid+construct+but+requires+supplemen<
tary+analysis+such+as+the+individual+use+context.+They+developed+a+profile+of+TTF+for+mo<
bile+IS+by+applying+TTF+to+managerial+tasks,+supported+by+IS+in+a+mobile+use+context+and+
using+task+performance+as+a+proxy+of+system+success.+

$ 189$
Conceptual+Model+for+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+Adoption+

In+ our+ study,+ we+ measure+ the+ impact+ through+ a+ data+ scientist+ user+ evaluation+ that+ ad<
dresses+performance+by+asking+to+what+extent+data+analytic+tools+affect+net+results+and+
infrastructure+and+applications+improve+results.+Additional+questions+were+asked+to+de<
termine+what+would+help+users+improve+the+results+of+their+data+analytics+task.+We+con<
sidered+two+hypotheses+related+to+perceived+benefits.++

H5(–(TTF(is(positively(related(to(perceived(impact/results.((

H6(–(TTF(variables(such(as(velocity,(variety(and(volume(affect(perceived(impact.((

6.3! Proposed+Conceptual+Model+

In+the+proposed+model+below,+based+on+Goodhue’s+original+TTF+model,+we+represent+the+
task<Big+Data/cloud+computing+technology+fit+model.+

+
$

$ 190$
Conceptual+Model+for+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+Adoption+

Mobile$Traffic$Analysis$Task$
$
Non$Routineness$
Complexity$
Interdependence$
$

Technology$1:$Big$Data$
Data$Sources/Variety$
Timeliness/Velocity$
Scalability/Volume$
Data$Acquisition$
Data$Programming$
Data$analysis$
Data$Visualization$
Task$
Technology$Fit$
locatability$of$data;$authoriN
zation$to$access$data;$comN
patibility;$training$and$ease$
of$use$(infrastructure$and$ Perceived$Impacts$
applications);$Data$quality$ Nperceived$results$
production$timeliness,$
Nrealized$benefits$
systems,$$

Techno$2:$Cloud$Computing$
$
Scalability/Elasticity$
Collaboration$
Cost$flexibility$$
Security$&$Data$Privacy$
Availability$ Utilization$$
$

Individual$Characteristics$
$
Competency$
Experience$$
$

Figure+17+Proposed+Model+based+on+Goodhue's+Task<Technology+Fit+Model+

In+this+proposed+model,+we+address+the+two+technologies+–+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+
–+ together+ for+ the+ first+ time,+ particularly+ in+ the+ context+ of+ mobile+ traffic+ analysis+ tasks+
performed+ by+ data+ scientists+ at+ mobile+ service+ providers.+ Additionally,+ we+ address+ the+
tasks+that+data+scientists+undertake+to+take+full+advantage+of+the+benefits+of+using+the+two+
technologies+together+to+affect+data<driven+decision+making+in+enterprises.+For+the+indi<
vidual+characteristics,+we+focus+on+the+experience+subconstruct.+For+task,+we+considered+
Goodhue’s+ two<dimensional+ construct+ of+ task+ characteristics:+ + non<routineness+ and+ in<
terdependence,+as+they+relate+to+Big+Data+processing,+and+add+relevance,+originally+stud<
ied+by+Venkatesh+and+Davis+[149].+For+technology,+we+consider+five+subconstructs+related+
to+technology+platform+(Big+Data)+and+technology+infrastructure+(cloud+computing+inten<

$ 191$
Conceptual+Model+for+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+Adoption+

tion+ to+ use).+ In+ addition,+ we+ considered+ nine+ TTF+ factors:+ locatability,+ authorization,+
compatibility,+ data+ characteristics+ (volume,+ velocity+ and+ variety),+ information+ quality+
(currency),+ information+ quality+ (completeness),+ ease+ of+ use+ –+ hardware,+ ease+ of+ use+ –+
software+and+timeliness,+as+defined+by+Davis+[148],+Goodhue+and+Thompson+[18],+DeLone+
and+McLean+[98],+Nance+and+Straub+[277],+Rogers+[21]+and+Venkatesh+et)al.+[20].+In+addi<
tion,+we+expand+our+research+to+include+Big+Data+factors,+such+as+real<time+analysis,+vol<
ume+and+variety,+in+order+to+clearly+assess+technology+adoption.+In+our+study,+we+meas<
ure+ the+ impact+ through+ a+ data+ scientist+ user+ evaluation+ that+ addresses+ performance+ by+
asking+to+what+extent+data+analytic+tools+affect+net+results+and+infrastructure+and+applica<
tions+ improve+ results+ related+ to+ mobile+ traffic+ analysis+ tasks.+ For+ the+ utilization+ con<
struct,+we+assess+perceived+usefulness+as+it+relates+to+using+or+intending+to+use+Big+Data+
and+ cloud+ technology+ when+ dealing+ with+ large+ volume+ of+ data+ and+ large+ variety+ of+ un<
structured+and+structured+data.+When+assessing+perceived+impacts,+the+performance+out<
come+expectations+subconstruct+was+used.++
$

6.4! Conclusion+

In+ this+ chapter,+ we+ describe+ the+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ computing+ adoption+ framework+
based+on+Goodhue’s+task<technology+fit+model+along+with+its+strengths+and+weaknesses.+
We+define+and+explain+the+proposed+adoption+factors+of+task,+individual,+technology,+task<
technology+fit,+utilization+and+performance+impacts.+Within+eight+hypotheses,+we+evalu<
ate+the+TTF+in+relation+to+the+mobile+traffic+analytics+process,+Big+Data+tools,+cloud+com<
puting+ infrastructure,+ individual+ characteristics+ related+ to+ the+ data+ scientist,+ perceived+
impact/results+and+the+perceived+impact+of+Big+Data+variables+–+velocity,+variety+and+vol<
ume.+ Unlike+ previous+ research,+ we+ propose+ a+ new+ conceptual+ model+ –+ the+ task<Big+ Da<
ta/cloud+computing+technology+fit+model+–+based+on+Goodhue’s+model,+which+takes+into+
account+the+previously+exposed+weaknesses.+In+Chapter+7,+we+will+present+the+research+
methodology,+ strategy,+ design+ and+ measurement+ scale+ along+ with+ specific+ constructs+

$ 192$
Conceptual+Model+for+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+Adoption+

along+ with+ their+ respective+ subconstructs+ that+ are+ used+ in+ the+ new+ model.+ The+ specific+
survey+questions+that+address+each+of+these+constructs+and+subconstructs+are+also+pro<
vided.+We+also+cover+the+data+analysis+method+used+–+the+partial+least+square+approach+–+
and+identify+the+software+used+for+analysis+as+well+as+explain+how+we+assess+the+meas<
urement+model+and+the+structural+model.+

$ 193$
 !

+
$

194$
Research+Methodology+

! Research+Methodology+++

The+previous+chapter+detailed+the+proposed+theoretical+model+–+the+task<Big+Data/cloud+
computing+ technology+ fit+ model+ –+ which+ we+ examined+ through+ empirical+ testing.+ The+
chapter+discusses+the+research+methodology+that+we+used+to+evaluate+the+proposed+theo<
retical+ model.+ We+ describe+ the+ three+ perspectives+ of+ research+ philosophy+ –+ ontology,+
epistemology+and+methodology.+In+addition,+we+explain+the+inductive+and+deductive+re<
search+approaches.+Next,+we+cover+the+research+strategy+by+explaining+how+the+research+
was+ conducted+ and+ how+ the+ quantitative+ research+ method+ for+ collecting+ and+ analyzing+
data+was+determined.+In+addition,+we+explain+the+research+design,+define+our+objectives+
and+describe+the+data+collection+method.+The+measurement+scale+that+was+developed+is+
detailed,+including+the+scale+items+and+types+to+assess+individual,+task,+technology,+task<
technology+ fit+ and+ perceived+ impacts.+ Each+ construct+ and+ the+ related+ subconstructs+ are+
identified+and+explained.+This+section+is+followed+by+the+presentation+of+the+survey+pro<
cess,+the+data+collection+process,+the+data+analysis+method+and+subsequent+findings.+

$ 195$
Research+Methodology+

7.1! Research+Philosophy++

Generally,+ research+ philosophy+ encompasses+ the+ knowledge+ needed+ to+ understand+ the+
research+ problem+ and+ the+ strategies+ available+ to+ obtain,+ analyze+ and+ interpret+ this+
knowledge+[294],+[295].+Three+perspectives+help+in+developing+or+improving+knowledge+
in+ research:+ ontology+ (what+ is+ the+ form+ and+ nature+ of+ reality+ and+ what+ can+ we+ know+
about+it?),+epistemology+(what+is+the+relationship+between+the+researcher+and+what+can+
be+known?)+and+methodology+(how+can+the+researcher+find+out+what+he+or+she+thinks+can+
be+known?)+[296].+With+a+slightly+different+perspective,+Crotty+[297]+views+ontology+and+
epistemology+as+mutually+dependent+and+difficult+to+distinguish+conceptually+when+dis<
cussing+research+perspectives:+“to+talk+about+the+construction+of+meaning+[epistemology]+
is+to+talk+of+the+construction+of+a+meaningful+reality+[ontology]”+.+The+figure+below+shows+
the+interrelationships+Crotty+[297]+sees+between+epistemology+(and+ontology),+theoreti<
cal+perspectives,+methodology+and+methods+for+data+collection+and+analysis.+

Figure+18+Establishing+the+methodology+framework+based+on+Crotty+[297]+

When+ selecting+ a+ research+ philosophy,+ researchers+ can+ choose+ between+ two+ main+ re<
search+beliefs+–+positivist+and+interpretive+–+depending+on+the+goals+of+the+research.+Ac<
cording+to+Guba+and+Lincoln+[296],+positivism+encompasses+a+dualist+and+objectivist+epis<

$ 196$
Research+Methodology+

temology.+That+is,+the+investigator+and+the+subject+of+investigation+are+assumed+to+be+in<
dependent+entities.+They+propose+that+the+methodologies+for+the+positivist+paradigm+are+
experimental+and+manipulative.+Furthermore,+research+questions+and/or+hypotheses+are+
stated+ in+ propositional+ form+ and+ subjected+ to+ empirical+ testing+ to+ verify+ them.+ In+ this+
case,+possible+confounding+conditions+have+to+be+carefully+controlled+to+ensure+that+they+
do+not+improperly+influence+the+outcomes.+

7.2! Epistemology++

Philosophical+stance+was+in+fact+quite+a+difficult+choice,+as+we+are+dealing+with+new+tech<
nologies+and+a+possible+degree+of+uncertainty+regarding+the+adoption+by+its+users,+Inter<
pretativism+might+be+have+been+a+valid+choice+to+capture+the+users+perceptions.+This+is+
well+supported+by+an+extensive+literature;+many+researchers+have+chosen+this+approach+
to+explain+ill<defined+problems+and+new+phenomenon.+However,+in+this+thesis,+the+ability+
to+ capture+ quantifiable+ data+ for+ a+ process+ that+ is+ analytically<focused+ provided,+ in+ our+
opinion,+a+better+stronghold+to+implement+the+findings.+In+addition,+as+a+telecom+profes<
sional,+the+ability+to+gain+a+qualitative+perspective+was+a+strong+constraint+and+therefore+
limited+the+ability+to+contact+and+engage+with+competing+providers.+Therefore,+the+posi<
tivist+approach+is+seen+as+the+appropriate+approach.+

7.3! Research+Approach++

Choosing+ a+ research+ approach+ is+ another+ important+ decision+ that+ researchers+ have+ to+
make+when+designing+a+study.+There+are+two+important+approaches+–+inductive+and+de<
ductive+–+for+conducting+a+study+that+involves+research+theory+as+a+building+or+develop<
ment+ process.+ Research+ that+ adopts+ an+ existing+ theory+ to+ develop+ hypotheses+ and+ test+
them+ has+ a+ deductive+ approach.+ According+ to+ Burney+ [298],+ a+ deductive+ approach+ is+
commonly+called+a+“waterfall”+or+“top<down”+approach.+The+approach+starts+with+a+theo<

$ 197$
Research+Methodology+

ry+ and+ then+ progresses+ to+ hypotheses,+ observation+ and+ confirmation.+ In+ this+ research+
approach,+arguments+are+based+on+laws,+rules+and+accepted+principles.+Based+on+qualita<
tive+data,+the+research+takes+the+general+down+to+the+specific+with+the+conclusion+follow<
ing+from+the+available+facts+(or+premises).+Conversely,+research+that+collects+quantitative+
data,+analyses+it+and+then+constructs+a+theory+uses+the+inductive+approach.+Burney+[298]+
describes+ this+ as+ a+ “hill+ climbing”+ or+ “bottom<up”+ approach.+ This+ research+ approach+
starts+with+observation+and+proceeds+to+pattern,+tentative+hypothesis+and+theory.+Using+
an+ inductive+ approach,+ researchers’+ arguments+ are+ based+ on+ observations+ and+ the+ con<
clusion+is+likely+based+on+premises+but+involved+a+degree+of+uncertainty.+Overall,+the+de<
ductive+research+approach+moves+from+specific+observations+to+broader+generalizations+
and+theories.++

7.4! Research+Strategy++

Research+strategy+is+the+plan+for+conducting+the+research+and+selecting+between+different+
research+ methods+ for+ collecting+ and+ analyzing+ data+ [299].+ It+ plays+ an+ important+ role+ in+
carrying+out+the+research+because+it+is+important+to+select+the+appropriate+strategy+that+
will+ help+ collect+ the+ correct+ data+ to+ understand+ the+ phenomenon+ and+ find+ out+ possible+
answers+ to+ the+ research+ questions.+ According+ to+ Saunders+ et) al.+ [300],+ “An+ effective+ re<
search+ strategy+ contains+ the+ clear+ objectives,+ research+ questions,+ data+ collection+ re<
sources+and+various+constraints+that+affects+the+research+in+different+ways+such+as+access+
limitations,+ time+ limitations,+ location+ and+ money+ limitations,+ ethical+ issue+ constraints,+
etc.”+ Researchers+ can+ use+ various+ methods+ to+ collect+ the+ background+ information+ and+
needed+ datasets+ including:+ case+ study+ analyses,+ experiments,+ interviews,+ literature+ re<
views,+observations+and+surveys.++

The+ research+ strategy+ for+ this+ study+ began+ by+ gathering+ and+ studying+ general+ back<
ground+information+and+specific+adoption<related+literature+on+the+topics+of+IT,+technolo<
gy,+cloud+computing+and+Big+Data.+After+conducting+initial+background+research,+the+re<
search+questions+were+developed.+Questions+for+informal+interviews+and+the+survey+were+

$ 198$
Research+Methodology+

constructed+ based+ on+ the+ research+ and+ from+ academic+ literature+ covering+ the+ relevant+
topics.+The+results+from+the+collection+of+data+will+be+analyzed+and+discussed+in+order+to+
discover+the+most+important+results.+Additionally,+some+conclusions+will+be+made+based+
on+the+answers+to+the+research+questions.+

7.5! Quantitative+Research+

For+ our+ study+ of+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ computing+ adoption,+ we+ employ+ a+ quantitative+ re<
search+ method.+ According+ to+ Aliaga+ and+ Gunderson+ [301],+ quantitative+ research+ can+ be+
described+as+“explaining+phenomena+by+collecting+numerical+data+that+are+analyzed+using+
mathematically+ based+ methods+ (in+ particular+ statistics.)”.+ Markus+ and+ Robey+ [302]+ ob<
served+ that+ often+ studies+ on+ information+ technology+ system+ adoption+ do+ not+ use+ an+ in<
teractionist+framework+–+one+that+focuses+on+the+interaction+between+characteristics+re<
lated+to+people+affected+by+the+system+and+system+characteristics.++For+example,+they+tend+
not+ to+ explore+ interrelationships+ between+ tasks+ and+ effectiveness+ of+ information+ tech<
nology.+Kaplan+et)al.+[303]+note+that+most+studies+regarding+computer+systems+“treat)or:
ganizational)features,)user)features,)technological)features,)and)information)needs)as)static,)
independent,) and) objective) rather) than) dynamic,) interacting) constructs,) i.e.,) as) concepts)
with)attributes)and)meanings)that)may)change)over)time)and)that)may)be)defined)different:
ly)according)to)how)individual)participants)view)and)experience)the)relationships)between)
them.”+Thinking+that+all+data+in+quantitative+research+has+to+occur+naturally+is+a+miscon<
ception.+Data+that+do+not+naturally+appear+in+quantitative+form+(such+as+attitudes+or+be<
liefs)+can+be+collected+in+a+quantitative+way+by+using+specially+designed+research+instru<
ments.+A+questionnaire+can+have+responders+rate+a+number+of+statements+using+a+rating+
scale+such+as:++1+Strongly+disagree;+2+Disagree;+3+Neither+agree+nor+disagree;+4+Agree+or+5+
Strongly+ agree.+ By+ using+ data+ collections+ instruments+ like+ questionnaires+ and+ tests,+ re<
searchers+can+quantify+a+wide+number+of+phenomena.++

$ 199$
Research+Methodology+

In+his+task<technology+fit+research+methodology,+Goodhue+[18]+advises+assessing+the+fit+of+
an+information+system+with+a+task.+He+posits+“Higher)task:technology)fit)will)result)in)bet:
ter)performance.”+However,+Kaplan+et+al.+[303]+point+out+that+one+person+performing+the+
task+ may+ have+ a+ different+ perspective+ of+ task<technology+ fit+ than+ another+ person+ per<
forming+the+same+task,+and+thus+the+fit+will+vary+between+users.+As+a+result,+interactionist+
theories+would+account+for+this+response+while+other+theories+would+not.++

7.5.1! Research+Design+

Research+design+is+an+imperative+step+in+the+overall+research+process.+The+design+is+the+
overall+ framework+ of+ the+ study,+ including:+ study+ type+ (descriptive,+ correlational,+ semi<
experimental,+ experimental,+ review+ or+ meta<analytic),+ sub<type,+ research+ question,+ hy<
potheses,+ independent+ and+ dependent+ variables,+ experimental+ design,+ data+ collection+
method(s)+ and+ data+ analysis+ plan.+ In+ this+ stage,+ an+ overall+ design+ is+ created+ to+ connect+
the+ data+ collection+ to+ the+ conclusions.+ More+ specifically,+ the+ research+ design+ keeps+ the+
research+question+aligned+with+the+conclusions+and+acts+as+an+action+plan+that+will+guide+
and+focus+the+research+process.+Yin+[304]+explains+research+design+as+a+logical+sequence,+
collecting+data,+analyzing+and+interpreting+observations+that+will+connect+empirical+data+
to+research+questions+and+finally+the+conclusions.++

We+need+to+conduct+and+in<depth+review+of+how+we+can+successfully+conduct+the+imple<
mentation+of+our+theoretical+model+and+draw+an+effective+conclusion.+Prior+researchers,+
such+as+in+the+Zhu+[228]+study,+have+shown+that+analyzing+technologies+complementarity+
required+significant+investments+in+resources+to+find+among+large+companies+a+statistical<
ly+ significant+ number+ of+ samples+ and+ develop+ instruments+ of+ measure.+ The+ observed+
studies+have+received+financial+support+from+institutions+(National+Science+Foundation).+

In+our+case,+it+was+quite+unlikely+we+could+access+such+a+resource;+therefore,+we+needed+
to+determine+what+sample+would+be+relevant.+In+addition,+we+faced+two+additional+con<
straints:++

$ 200$
Research+Methodology+

•! Being+ part+ of+ Orange+ Business+ Services,+ the+ initial+ effort+ to+ contact+ competing+
communication+ services+ providers+ was+ very+ difficult.+ We+ obtained+ mostly+ nega<
tive+responses+indicating+either+a+conflict+of+interest+or+the+lack+of+a+spokesperson+
to+answer+the+questions.+

•! Through+informal+industry+expert+interviews+at+the+time+of+the+study,+we+learned+
that+ communication+ service+ providers’+ capabilities+ of+ extracting+ and+ analyzing+
mobile+data+were+still+limited+(being+used+mostly+for+measuring+customer+churn,+
for+example)+and+had+not+effectively+leveraged+cloud+and+Big+Data+technologies+to+
develop+new+services.++

Further+discussions+were+initiated+with+a+few+other+researchers+that+led+to+brainstorming+
about+possible+solutions.+As+a+first+step,+we+want+to+advance+the+operationalization+of+Big+
Data.+ The+ objective+ is+ to+ better+ understand+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ usage+ mechanisms+ and+
determine+ which+ and+ how+ variables+ are+ affecting+ the+ outcome+ by+ addressing+ the+ ques<
tions+we+raised+in+the+previous+chapter.+We+chose+a+quantitative+approach+to+accomplish+
this+ and+ want+ to+ evaluate+ the+ strength+ of+ the+ relationships+ that+ we+ established+ in+ our+
model.+

7.5.2! Survey–based+Research++

7.5.2.1! Objectives+and+Description+

Mobile+traffic+analysis+is+a+new+research+field+and+relevant+datasets+for+research+are+not+
easily+acquired.+As+discussed+in+the+previous+section,+we+faced+several+constraints+in+ac<
quiring+the+needed+data+for+our+analysis.+We+chose+to+use+survey<based+research+in+this+
thesis+ to+ investigate+ the+ factors+ influencing+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ technology+ adoption.+
There+ are+ three+ main+ communication+ approaches+ to+ consider+ when+ choosing+ a+ survey+
method:++self<administered+survey,+telephone+survey+and+survey+via+personal+interview.+
According+ to+ Cooper+ and+ Schindler+ [305],+ there+ are+ six+ different+ modes+ of+ self<
administered+ surveys:+ + mail,+ drop<off,+ fax,+ computer<assisted+ self+ interviews,+ disk<by<

$ 201$
Research+Methodology+

mail+and+intercept.+The+computer<assisted+self<interview+mode+includes+e<mail+surveys,+
Web<based+ surveys+ and+ intranet+ surveys.+ Cooper+ and+ Schindler+ [305]+ highlight+ several+
advantages+ and+ disadvantages+ of+ conducting+ a+ self<administered+ survey.+ Some+ ad<
vantages+include:++enables+access+to+otherwise+hard<to<access+participants,+lowest+cost+of+
survey+ methods,+ wide+ geographic+ coverage+ possible,+ minimal+ researcher+ time+ needed+
and+rapid+data+collection.+Some+disadvantages+of+self<administered+surveys+include:++low+
response+ rates+ in+ some+ modes,+ lack+ of+ control+ on+ response+ time,+ determining+ truthful<
ness+ of+ responses,+ no+ interviewer+ intervention+ for+ clarifications,+ cannot+ be+ too+ long+ or+
complex+and+directions+are+necessary.++

7.5.2.2! Self<administered+Survey+

For+ our+ study,+ we+ created+ a+ Web<based+ (or+ Internet),+ computer<assisted+ self<
administered+survey+using+Qualtrics,+an+online+survey+platform,+based+on+the+TTF+analyt<
ical+ framework.+ As+ explained+ previously,+ gaining+ access+ to+ data+ scientists+ within+ telcos+
was+impossible+by+a+researcher+that+worked+at+Orange.+Therefore,+we+chose+to+survey+a+
representative+population+for+this+study+and+found+the+participants+of+MIT+NetMob+and+
the+ Orange+ Data+ for+ Development+ (D4D)+ Challenge+ to+ be+ a+ relevant+ target+ population.+
NetMob,+ the+ main+ conference+ on+ the+ scientific+ analysis+ of+ mobile+ phone+ datasets,+ takes+
place+every+year+at+the+Media+Lab+at+the+Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology+in+Cam<
bridge,+Massachusetts.+The+Orange+D4D+Challenge+has+been+ part+of+the+NetMob+agenda+
since+2013.+The+goal+of+the+Orange+Data+for+Development+(D4D)+challenge+is+to+contrib<
ute+to+the+socio<economic+development+and+well<being+of+populations+through+the+use+of+
Big+ Data+ analysis+ of+ mobile+ phone+ data.+ Knowledge+ of+ typical+ behaviors+ of+ mobile+ tele<
phone+ users+ can+ be+ very+ useful+ in+ addressing+ numerous+ development+ and+ well<being+
scenarios,+ including:+ identifying+ early+ signs+ of+ epidemics,+ reacting+ in+ times+ of+ crisis,+
measuring+the+threat+and+resultant+impact+of+droughts,+and+optimizing+the+usage+of+cer<
tain+infrastructures,+among+others.+In+this+challenge,+the+research+subject+can+be+chosen+

$ 202$
Research+Methodology+

freely+as+long+as+it+relates+to+an+objective+of+development+and+improving+quality+of+life+for+
all.+ Orange+ encourages+ the+ participants+ to+ cross<compare+ D4D+ data+ with+ other+ types+ of+
data+that+they+have+found+through+their+own+research.+By+way+of+example+and+to+stimu<
late+ideas,+a+list+of+data+sources+from+NGOs+or+international+organizations+is+available+on+
the+ D4D+ website+ (www.d4d.orange.com).+ The+ D4D+ Challenge+ data+ collection+ took+ place+
in+the+Republic+of+Cote+d’Ivoire+(or+Ivory+Coast)+in+western+Africa+over+a+five<month+peri<
od,+from+December+2011+to+April+2012.+The+original+dataset+contains+2.5+billion+records,+
calls+and+text+messages+exchanged+between+5+million+mobile+phone+users.+The+customer+
identifier+ was+ anonymized+ by+ Orange+ Cote+ d’Ivoire.+ Orange+ Labs+ in+ Paris,+ France+ com<
pleted+all+subsequent+data+processing.+

7.5.3! Measurement+Scale+Development+

Quantitative+research+turns+words+into+numbers,+so+the+measurement+scales+used+to+cap<
ture+ this+ data+ is+ very+ important.+ When+ using+ TTF,+ measurement+ scale+ development+ is+
particularly+ critical+ because+ the+ principal+ component+ analysis+ requires+ the+ number+ of+
factors+to+be+reduced+and+researchers+need+to+take+into+account+the+variables’+consisten<
cy.+We+learned+from+previous+research+by+D’Ambra+and+Wilson+[229]+as+well+as+Goodhue+
[18]+that+scale+could+be+an+issue+when+constructing+research+surveys.++

We+operationalized+the+constructs+in+our+task<technology+fit+research+model+by+selecting+++
measurement+ scale+ items+ and+ types.+ The+ survey+ instrument+ comprises+ questions+ as<
sessing:++individual+characteristics+(function,+country,+experience+level);+task+characteris<
tics;+technology+characteristics;+task<technology+fit+factors;+and+perceived+impacts.+Over<
all,+there+were+eight+constructs+defined+in+the+proposed+theoretical+model.+For+technolo<
gy,+we+considered+the+following+factors+for+cloud+computing:+In+this+same+construct,+we+
also+ considered+ the+ following+ factors+ for+ Big+ Data:+ For+ task,+ we+ considered+ Goodhue’s+
two<dimensional+ construct+ of+ task+ characteristics:+ + non<routineness+ and+ interdepend<
ence.+ In+ addition,+ we+ considered+ the+ eight+ TTF+ factors:+ quality),+ locatability,+ authoriza<
tion,+ compatibility,+ ease+ of+ use/training,+ production+ timeliness,+ systems+ reliability+ and+

$ 203$
Research+Methodology+

relationship+ with+ users,+ as+ defined+ by+ Goodhue+ and+ Thompson+ [18]+ below+ shows+ the+
proposed+constructs,+the+original+constructs+and+the+referenced+research+sources.+

Individual(Construct(with(Competency(and(Experience(Subconstruct(

For+the+individual+construct,+we+focused+on+the+experience+subconstruct.+Experience+is+
defined+as+the+number+of+years+the+respondent+has+personally+used+the+technology+being+
researched.+The+individual+construct,+and+the+experience+subconstruct+in+particular,+has+
been+studied+by+Agarwal+and+Presad+[290],+Davis+[149],+and+Venkatesh+et)al.+[20],+among+
others.+These+researchers+found+that+individual+differences+–+such+as+gender,+age+or+ex<
perience+–+can+play+a+role+in+the+implementation+of+any+technological+innovation.+Based+
on+ Lin+ and+ Huang’s+ [98]+ research+ on+ Knowledge+ Management+ Systems+ (KMS)+ and+
Chang’s+[103]+research+on+Business+Intelligence+(BI),+a+set+of+four+questions+address+the+
number+of+years+of+experience+the+survey+respondent+has+with+mobile+traffic+analysis+as+
well+as+the+competency+level+for+Big+Data+technology,+cloud+technology+and+mobile+traffic+
analysis.+These+questions+expand+on+the+original+questions+from+Lin+and+Huang+[98]++and+
Chang+ [103]+ measuring+ the+ number+ of+ years+ their+ respondents+ had+ in+ KMS+ and+ BI,+ re<
spectively.+In+addition+to+determining+the+number+of+years+of+experience+and+the+compe<
tency+level,+we+also+determined+in+separate+questions+the+respondent’s+current+function+
and+the+country+in+which+they+reside.+

Task(Construct(with(Three(Subconstructs(

When+ looking+ at+ the+ task+ construct,+ we+ measured+ three+ subconstructs:+ + non<routine+
tasks,+interdependence+tasks+and+relevance.+When+originally+studying+task<technology+fit+
(TTF),+Goodhue+[18]+proposed+that+task+characteristics+would+affect+user+evaluations+of+
TTF.+ NonCroutine( tasks+ are+ tasks+ that+ involve+ a+ variety+ of+ issues+ or+ ad+ hoc+ situations+
that+are+difficult+(and+lack+analyzable+search+behavior).+In+his+original+research,+Goodhue+

$ 204$
Research+Methodology+

found+that+users+that+engaged+in+non<routine+or+difficult+tasks+gave+lower+evaluations+on+
every+dimension+measured+except+uptime+and+freedom+from+crashes.+Later,+Goodhue+and+
Thompson+ [18]+ studied+ non<routine+ tasks+ in+ the+ context+ of+ addressing+ business+ prob<
lems.+They+found+that+the+strongest+effect+of+task+characteristics+on+TTF+was+from+non<
routine+tasks.+Individuals+engaged+in+non<routine+tasks+rated+their+information+systems+
lower+on+data+quality,+data+compatibility,+data+locatability,+training/ease+of+use+and+diffi<
culty+of+getting+authorization+to+access+data.+In+our+case,+we+asked+two+questions+to+de<
termine+ if+ the+ mobile+ traffic+ analysis+ task+ the+ respondent+ works+ on+ involved+ never<
before<asked+questions+and+if+they+deal+with+ad<hoc+or+non<routine+problems+when+ana<
lyzing+mobile+traffic.++

The+second+subconstruct+within+the+task+construct,+interdependence(tasks,+can+be+de<
fined+as+the+degree+to+which+individuals+perceive+that+they+interact+with+and+depend+on+
others+ to+ accomplish+ their+ work.+ Pearce+ and+ Gregersen+ [306],+ Thompson+ and+ McGrath+
([307],+[308])+conducted+research+on+the+interdependence+task+subconstruct.+Pearce+and+
Gregersen+found+that+reciprocal+task+interdependence+related+positively+to+how+respon<
sible+individuals+felt+for+their+work.+In+their+study+on+KMS,+Lin+and+Huang+[98]+measured+
how+independently+or+co<dependently+the+respondents+worked+and+to+what+degree+they+
had+ to+ interact+ with+ others+ in+ order+ to+ accomplish+ their+ work+ tasks.+ In+ our+ study,+ we+
asked+ two+ related+ questions+ to+ determine+ if+ the+ respondents+ think+ that+ mobile+ traffic+
analysis+requires+the+coordination+of+more+than+one+function+or+task+and+if+the+results+of+
the+respondents+work+is+dependent+on+the+effort+of+their+teammates.+

Relevance+ is+ the+ third+ subconstruct+ with+ the+ task+ construct+ that+ we+ measured.+ Rele<
vance+is+the+perception+that+output+from+the+task+is+relevant.+Venkatesh+and+Davis+[150]+
originally+ studied+ the+ relevance+ subconstruct.+ In+ their+ research,+ Men+ and+ Teo+ [107]+
measured+relevance+as+it+related+to+a+knowledge+portal+and+measured+the+output+on+four+
scales:++useless+to+useful;+irrelevant+to+relevant;+hazy+to+clear;+and+bad+to+good.+We+asked+
our+ respondents+ to+ categorize+ the+ task+ or+ goal+ of+ their+ analysis+ (output)+ using+ four+ op<

$ 205$
Research+Methodology+

tions:++social+analysis,+mobility+analysis,+network+analysis+or+some+other+specified+task+or+
goal.++

Technology(Construct(with(two(Subconstructs(((

In+studying+the+technology+construct,+two+subconstructs+were+taken+into+account:++techC
nology(platform+(Big+Data)+and+technology(infrastructure+(cloud+computing+intention+
to+use).+Davis+[149],+Goodhue+and+Thompson+[18]+studied+the+technology+construct+orig<
inally.+ They+ determined+ that+ technology+ characteristics+ could+ influence+ the+ degree+ of+
technology+and+task+fit+positively.+When+considering+the+Big(Data(technology(platform,+
we+used+Templeton+and+Byrd’s+[309]+approach+in+determining+the+technological+dimen<
sions+of+an+effective+knowledge+management+system.+In+our+survey,+we+asked+respond<
ents+to+choose+the+Big+Data+tools+characteristics+that+would+be+important+for+them+to+do+
their+job,+providing+options+including+Hadoop,+R+and+Pyron+programming+tools,+real<time+
data+analysis+databases,+visualization+tools,+rational+database+acceleration+and+scaling+or+
database+that+allows+the+ingestion+of+structured+and+unstructured+data.+

When+ considering+ the+ technology+ subconstruct+ intention( to( use( a( cloud( computing(
technology(infrastructure,+research+by+Opitz+[22]+was+used+as+a+model.+Intention+to+use+
is+defined+as+a+measurement+of+a+person’s+intention+to+use+or+not+use+a+certain+technolo<
gy.+In+the+Opitz+study,+the+intention+to+use+cloud+computing+was+measured+with+questions+
asking+the+question+in+four+different+ways:++if+the+respondent+intended+to+use+cloud+com<
puting+if+given+a+choice,+if+they+would+use+it+if+given+access;+if+they+intended+to+use+cloud+
computing;+or+that+they+will+start+using+cloud+computing+or+have+already+started+using+it.+
Optiz+found+that+intention+to+use+explained+82.5%+of+the+variance+in+actual+system+use.+
Perceived+usefulness+was+found+to+be+a+strong+determinant+of+intention+to+use.+For+our+
research,+we+framed+the+question+around+the+intention+to+use+cloud<based+Big+Data+tools.+
We+asked+the+likelihood+of+using+cloud<based+Big+Data+tools+if+the+respondent+could:++use+
high+ performance+ processing+ power,+ collaborate+ at+ the+ same+ time+ with+ colleagues,+ en<

$ 206$
Research+Methodology+

sure+data+security+in+the+cloud,+ensure+lower+financial+cost+and+ensure+a+simpler+setup+to+
process+data+analysis+tasks.+

TaskCTechnology(Fit(Construct(with(Eight(Subconstructs(

The+adoption+framework+chosen+for+this+thesis+is+based+on+Goodhue’s+task<technology+fit+
model.+Goodhue+et)al.+defines+task<technology+fit+as+“the)extent)that)technology)function:
ality)matches)task)requirements)and)individual)abilities.”+This+model+establishes+the+rela<
tionship+ between+ higher+ fit+ between+ task+ and+ technology+ and+ better+ individual+ perfor<
mance.+Goodhue+and+Thompson+[18],+Dishaw+and+Strong+[292]+and+Venkatesh+et)al.++[20]+
also+ researched+ task<technology+ fit.+ For+ the+ task<technology+ fit+ construct,+ eight+ subcon<
structs+ were+ measured:+ locatability,+ access,+ compatibility,+ data+ characteristics+ (volume,+
velocity,+ variety),+ information+ quality+ (currency),+ information+ quality+ (completeness),+
ease+of+use+(hardware),+ease+of+use+(software)+and+timeliness.++

Locatability+is+another+subconstruct+of+the+TTF+that+was+studied.+Locatability+is+the+ease+
of+determining+what+data+is+available+and+where.+This+question+is+based+on+research+from+
Goodhue+ and+ Thompson+ [18]+ that+ determined+ how+ easy+ it+ was+ for+ respondents+ to+ find+
out+what+data+a+company+maintain+and+how+easy+it+was+to+locate+corporate+or+divisional+
data+ on+ a+ particular+ issue+ with+ no+ prior+ knowledge+ of+ the+ data.+ Individuals+ engaged+ in+
non<routine+tasks+rate+their+information+systems+lower+on+data+locatability.+This+is+con<
sistent+ with+ the+ idea+ that+ because+ of+ the+ non<routine+ nature+ of+ their+ jobs,+ these+ people+
are+constantly+using+IS+to+address+new+problems,+seeking+out+new+data+and+combining+it+
in+unfamiliar+ways.+Systems+use+is+a+significant+predictor+of+locatability.+In+our+survey,+we+
asked+a+single+question+gauging+the+ability+to+easily+locate+and+select+a+dataset+was+aided+
by+the+choice+of+technology+that+the+respondent+chose+to+use.+

Another+TTF+subconstruct+that+was+measured+is+authorization,+or+the+ability+to+gain+au<
thorization+(or+permission)+to+access+data+necessary+to+do+a+job.+Goodhue+and+Thompson+
[18]+studied+authorization+by+measuring+the+ease+at+which+the+respondents+could+deter<
mine+that+there+was+useful+data+that+they+could+not+access+due+to+not+having+authoriza<

$ 207$
Research+Methodology+

tion.+ In+ addition,+ they+ assessed+ if+ gaining+ the+ necessary+ authorization+ was+ difficult+ and+
time+consuming.+In+the+Goodhue+and+Thompson+[18]+study,+they+found+that+authorization+
was+directly+related+to+job+level.+For+our+study,+we+asked+if+the+respondents+had+authori<
zation+ to+ access+ the+ necessary+ data+ using+ the+ information+ system+ that+ they+ chose+ to+ do+
analysis.++

The+next+subconstruct+that+was+studied+is+compatibility.+Rogers+[21]+and+Venkatesh+et)
al.+[20]+were+among+the+researchers+that+studied+the+technological+characteristic+of+com<
patibility.+ According+ to+ Rogers,+ “Compatibility) is) the) degree) to) which) the) innovation) fits)
with) the) potential) adopter’s) existing) values,) previous) experience) and) current) needs.”) Lin+
and+Huang+[98]considered+the+functionalities+of+the+KMS+in+terms+of:++adequacy,+appro<
priateness,+usefulness,+compatibility+with+task,+helpfulness,+sufficiency,+ease+and+best+fit.+
Teo+ and+ Men+ [107]+ studied+ if+ compatibility+ was+ positively+ related+ to+ the+ use+ of+ a+
knowledge+portal+(k<portal)+and+if+was+positively+related+to+performance.+They+asked+if+
the+ k<portal+ was+ compatible+ with+ work,+ if+ it+ was+ completely+ compatible+ with+ the+ situa<
tion,+if+it+fit+well+with+the+way+the+respondent+likes+to+work+and+if+it+fit+with+the+respond<
ent’s+work+style.+They+found+that+the+more+that+a+workplace+shares+tacit+knowledge,+the+
greater+the+KMS+users’+perception+of+fitness+between+technology+and+task.+In+our+study,+
we+wanted+to+determine+if+the+functionalities+of+the+Big+Data+tools+and+cloud+computing+
were+compatible+with+the+task+by+asking+if+the+respondent+could+easily+integrate+dispar<
ate+datasets,+consolidate+data+from+different+sources+and+address+unexpected+data+con<
sistencies.+

Data( volume+ is+ the+ amount+ of+ data+ being+ processed.+ In+ studying+ audits,+ Nance+ and+
Straub+[277]+found+that+the+more+data+there+was+to+process,+the+more+likely+people+were+
to+use+an+IT+supported+alternative+to+manual+auditing.+In+our+study,+we+measured+on+a+7<
point+ scale+ the+ impact+ the+ information+ system+ chosen+ to+ complete+ the+ analysis+ had+ on+
analyzing+a+large+volume+of+data.+

$ 208$
Research+Methodology+

According+to+Assunção+et)al.+[17],+data(velocity+focuses+on+the+importance+of+data+arriv<
ing+ and+ requiring+ to+ be+ processed+ at+ different+ speeds:+ + batch+ (at+ time+ intervals),+ near<
time+(at+small+time+intervals),+real<time+(continuous+input,+process,+output)+and+streams+
(data+flows).+In+our+study,+we+assessed+the+impact+that+processing+real<time+data+had+on+
the+respondent+choosing+an+information+system+to+help+them+complete+the+analysis.+

In+addition,+we+looked+at+the+task<technology+fit+subconstructs+data+variety,+data+volume+
and+ data+ velocity.+ Data( variety+ represents+ the+ ever<increasing+ variety+ of+ datasets,+ in<
cluding:++audio,+environmental+conditions,+GPS+signals,+graphics,+messages,+pictures,+sen<
sor+ readings,+ social+ media+ updates,+ statistics,+ texts,+ traffic+ conditions,+ weather+ infor<
mation+ and+ video,+ according+ to+ McAfee+ [43],+ Fan+ [310]+ and+ Assunção+ [17].+ Stieninger+
[23]+cites+exchangeability+as+a+variable+based+on+Borgman+et)al.+[311]+and+as+the+capacity+
for+users+to+be+able+to+change+providers.+In+our+study,+we+asked+respondents+to+use+a+7<
point+ scale+ to+ indicate+ if+ their+ choice+ of+ information+ system+ to+ complete+ the+ analysis+
helped+them+deal+with+external+data+to+find+better+insights.++

Another+subconstruct+of+task<technology+fit+to+consider+is+information+quality,+currency+
and+completeness.+Goodhue+and+Thompson+[18]+and+DeLone+and+McLean+[100]+conduct<
ed+ research+ on+ + information+ quality.+ Goodhue+ and+ Thompson+ defined+ completeness+ as+
the+currency+of+the+data,+the+right+data+is+maintained+and+the+right+level+of+detail.+They+
explored+the+ability+for+users+to+get+the+data+current+enough+for+their+business+needs+and+
if+the+data+was+up+to+date+enough+for+their+purposes.+In+our+study,+we+assess+currency+by+
asking+how+the+respondent+would+use+a+7<point+scale+and+rate+data+quality+in+terms+of+it+
being+current+enough+to+meet+their+needs.+Regarding+completeness,+Teo+and+Men+[107]+
found+that+completeness+in+information+quality+was+shown+to+be+a+significant+predictor+
of+utilization+but+not+a+significant+predictor+of+performance.+They+had+respondents+rate+
completeness+using+a+7<point+scale+when+assessing+four+ranges+of+responses:++incomplete+
to+complete,+inconsistent+to+consistent,+insufficient+to+sufficient,+inadequate+to+adequate.+
For+our+study,+we+assess+information+quality+as+it+relates+to+completeness+on+a+7<point+

$ 209$
Research+Methodology+

scale+by+asking+respondents+to+rate+how+data+anonymization+has+affected+their+results+of+
completing+a+data+analysis+task+effectively.+

Ease+ of+ use+ and+ how+ it+ relates+ to+ hardware+ and+ software+ are+ two+ additional+ subcon<
structs+ of+ task<technology+ fit.+ + Ease( of( use( C( hardware+ is+ defined+ as+ the+ ease+ of+ doing+
what+a+user+wants+to+do+using+the+system+hardware+for+submitting,+accessing+and+analyz<
ing+data.+Goodhue+and+Thompson+[18]+assessed+this+by+asking+respondents+how+easy+it+
was+to+learn+how+to+use+the+computer+systems+needed+or+that+gave+the+respondents+ac<
cess+to+the+data+they+needed.+They+also+asked+how+convenient+and+easy+to+use+was+the+
computer+systems+needed+or+that+gave+the+respondents+access+to+the+data+they+needed.+
In+our+study,+we+asked+if+the+respondent+felt+that+additional+training+was+necessary+to+use+
cloud+computing+or+if+additional+training+was+necessary+to+use+Big+Data+tools.+Additional<
ly,+respondents+were+asked+to+assess+using+a+7<point+scale+the+convenience+of+using+cloud+
computing+ infrastructure+ and+ the+ likelihood+ that+ using+ cloud+ computing+ infrastructure+
would+not+case+technical+difficulties+for+the+respondent’s+team.+

To+assess+ease+of+use+related+to+software,+Davis+was+used+as+a+model.+Ease(of(use(C(softC
ware+is+defined+as+the+ease+of+doing+that+a+user+wants+to+do+using+a+specific+piece+of+soft<
ware.+ Davis+ [149]) studied+ the+ ease+ of+ use+ related+ to+ the+ CHART<MASTER+ software.+ He+
had+respondents+assess+the+following:++learning+to+use+CHART<MASTER+would+be+easy;+
finding+ it+ easy+ to+ get+ CHART<MASTER+ to+ do+ what+ they+ want+ it+ to+ do,+ interaction+ with+
CHART<MASTER+would+be+clear+and+understandable,+CHART<MASTER+would+be+flexible+
to+interact+with,+becoming+skilled+at+using+CHART<MASTER+would+be+easy,+and+CHART<
MASTER+would+be+easy+to+use.+Davis+found+that,+contrary+to+popular+belief,+flexibility+is+
not+always+associated+with+ease+of+use.+We+assess+the+ease+of+use+of+Big+Data+platforms+
and+technology+choices+by+determining:++if+the+respondents+were+able+to+use+a+Big+Data+
platform+and+cloud+to+access+and+analyze+data,+if+the+technology+choices+made+helped+to+
access+ the+ data+ and+ make+ it+ easy+ to+ use+ to+ extract+ and+ access+ data,+ if+ the+ technology+
choices+made+helped+to+access+the+data+and+make+it+easy+to+use+to+use/implement+model<

$ 210$
Research+Methodology+

ing+techniques,+and+if+the+technology+choices+made+helped+to+access+the+data+and+make+it+
easy+to+use+to+perform+data+interpretation+and+visualization.+

Timeliness,+ a+ subconstruct+ of+ task<technology+ fit,+ is+ defined+ as+ an+ information+ system+
meeting+ pre<defined+ production+ turnaround+ schedules.+ Goodhue+ and+ Thompson+ [18]+
learned+that+production+timeliness+predicts+higher+perceived+impact+of+information+sys<
tems.+They+asked+users+to+assess+if,+to+their+knowledge,+the+information+system+met+its+
production+schedules+such+as+report+delivery+and+running+scheduled+jobs+and+if+regular+
IS+activities+(such+as+printed+report+deliver+or+running+schedule+jobs)+are+completed+on+
time.+ For+ our+ study,+ we+ assess+ on<time+ delivery/production+ timeliness+ by+ asking+ if+ the+
user+will+be+able+to+deliver+analysis+in+a+timely+manner+using+the+information+system+they+
chose.+

Utilization(Construct(with(Perceived(Usefulness(Subconstruct(

For+ the+ utilization+ construct,+ we+ assess+ the+ perceived+ usefulness+ subconstruct+ that+ was+
defined+ by+ Davis+ as+ the+ belief+ that+ using+ a+ tool+ would+ enhance+ job+ performance.+ In+ his+
research,+ Chang+ [103]+ assesses+ business+ intelligence+ (BI)+ use+ by+ having+ respondents+
rate:+ + using+ BI+ improves+ decision+ making,+ using+ BI+ enhances+ effectiveness+ in+ decision+
making,+using+BI+makes+it+easier+to+make+decisions,+and+overall,+BI+is+useful+in+decision+
making.+For+our+study,+we+asked+respondents+to+assess+perceived+usefulness+as+it+relates+
to+using+or+intending+to+use+Big+Data+and+cloud+technology+when+dealing+with+large+vol<
ume+of+data+and+large+variety+of+unstructured+and+structured+data.+Also,+respondents+are+
asked+to+rate+the+likelihood+to+recommend+Big+Data+and+cloud+technology+to+peers+that+
need+ to+ analyze+ mobile+ traffic.+ And,+ respondents+ are+ asked+ to+ say+ how+ useful+ they+ find+
Big+Data+tools+and+how+useful+they+find+cloud+technology+in+doing+their+jobs.+

$ 211$
Research+Methodology+

Performance,( Perceived( Benefits( Construct( with( Performance( Outcome( ExC

pectations(Subconstruct(

When+ assessing+ the+ performance,+ perceived+ benefits+ construct,+ the+ performance( outC
come(expectations+subconstruct+was+used.+Compeau+and+Higgins+[312]+as+well+as+Ven<
katesh+et+al.+[20]+studied+the+performance+outcome+expectations+subconstruct.+Compeau+
and+ Higgins+ [312]empirically+ established+ the+ influence+ of+ self<efficacy+ on+ performance+
and+ personal+ outcome+ expectations.+ According+ to+ Venkatesh+ et) al.+ [150],+ use+ perfor<
mance+expectancy+is+defined+as+“the)degree)to)which)an)individual)believes)that)using)the)
system) will) help) him) or) her) attain) gains) in) job) performance.”+ In+ the+ Lin+ and+ Huang+ [98]+
study+on+KMS,+they+had+users+assess+the+following+as+it+relates+to+using+a+KMS:++will+be+
better+ organized,+ will+ increase+ effectiveness+ on+ the+ job,+ will+ spend+ less+ time+ on+ routine+
job+tasks,+will+increase+the+quality+of+output+on+the+job,+and+will+increase+the+quality+of+
output+for+the+same+amount+of+effort.+Lin+and+Huang+[98]+found+that+outcome+expectation+
was+a+suitable+way+to+study+user+motivation+and+behavior.+In+our+study,+we+thoroughly+
examined+ the+ impact+ of+ the+ chosen+ data+ analytics+ tools+ on+ net+ results+ by+ assessing+ six+
similar+ points:+ + improved+ quality+ of+ research,+ the+ data+ infrastructure+ and+ applications+
chosen+allowed+the+user+to+improve+the+quality+of+results,+using+Big+Data+tools+improved+
analytics+process+results,+the+information+system+was+successfully+used+to+perform+mo<
bile+traffic+analysis,+combining+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+helped+the+user+accomplish+
more+ work+ that+ would+ be+ otherwise+ possible,+ and+ Big+ Data+ technology+ helped+ the+ user+
perform+his+or+her+job+better.+

$ 212$
Research+Methodology+

Table+11+Survey+and+Listing+of+the+Measurement+Items+Used+in+the+Study++
ConC SubconC Questions( Definition( Authors(
structs( structs(

Individual+ Experience+ Q1.4.1+I+have+experience+to+deal+with+mobile+traffic+analysis.+ The+ number+ of+ years+ the+ Lin+ and+ Huang+ [313],++
respondent+had+personally+used+ Bharadwaj[314]++
+ + Q1.4.2+ How+ would+ you+ rate+ the+ competency+ in+ using+ Big+ Data+ the+ technology+ being+ re<
technology.+ searched.+
+
Q1.4.3+ How+ would+ you+ rate+ the+ competency+ in+ using+ cloud+
+ technology.+

Q1.4.4+How+would+you+rate+the+competency+in+analyzing+mobile+
traffic+data+

Q1.2+What+is+your+current+function?+ The+ number+ of+ years+ the+ Lee+[276]+

respondent+had+personally+used+
•! PhD+<+Ms+student+from+University + the+ technology+ being+ re<
•! Professor/+Researcher+from+University+Dept/+Lab + searched.+
•! Researcher+from+an+International+Institution+and/or+Non+
Gov+Institution +
•! Researcher+form+Private+company+/+Research+Labs +
•! Researcher+from+a+Governmental+Institution +
+

Q1.3+In+which+country+do+you+reside?+

Task+ Non<Routine+ Q2.1.1+ The+ mobile+ traffic+ analysis+ task+ I+ work+ on+ involve+ Non<routine+ tasks+ represent+ Goodhue+ and+ Thompson+
Tasks+ questions+that+I+have+never+been+asked+before+ tasks+ that+ involve+ a+ variety+ of+ [18]+
+ + + issues+ or+ ad+ hoc+ situations+ that+
+ are+difficult+(and+lack+analyzable+
Q2.1.2+I+deal+with+ad<hoc,+non+routine+problems+when+analyzing+ search+behavior).++
+
mobile+traffic+data+
+
Interdependence+ Q2.1.3+ Mobile+ traffic+ analysis+ requires+ more+ than+ one+ function,+ The+degree+to+which+individuals+ Lin+ and+ Huang+ [313],+ + ,+
Tasks+(IDP)+ task+ + + + perceive+ that+ they+ interact+ with+ Teo+ and+ Men+ [107],+
and+ depend+ upon+ others+ to+ Pearce+ Gregersen+ [306],+
Jarvenpaa+ and+ Staples+
+ Q2.1.3+ The+ results+ of+ my+ work+ are+ dependent+ on+ the+ efforts+ of+ accomplish+their+work.+
[315],+Goodhue++[18]+
people+from+within+my+team.+

+ Relevance+
Q2.3:+ Was+ your+ main+ task/goal+ to+ analyze+ Mobile+ traffic+ data+ The+ perception+ that+ the+ Teo+ and+ Men+ {[107],+
(CDR)+used+to+deliver:+ knowledge+ portal+ (K<portal)+ Bailey+and+Pearson+[316]+
output+is+relevant.+
1.! Social+Analysis+(User+interactions,+Demographics,+Environ<
ment,+Epidemics)+
2.! Mobility+Analysis+(Human+Mobility,+transportation,+..)+
3.! Network+Analysis+(Mobile+demand,+Networking+solutions,+
Marketing+solutions,+Privacy+solutions+
4.! other,+please+specify+

Technology+ Technology+ What+Big+Data+tools+characteristics+would+be+important+for+you+ + Chen+[53],+Goodhue+and+

Platform+ (Big+ to+do+your+job++ Thompson+[18],+Yen+
Data)+ [317]+,+Davis+[149],+
+ Chang+[143],+Perugini+
Q3.1.1+Hadoop+tools+ and+Bagozzi+[252]+
+ + Templeton+[309]+
Q3.1.2+ Use+ programming+ tools+ R+ and+ Python+ that+ allow+ me+ to+ Gold+et+al+[318]+
implement+the+necessary+algorithm+

Q3.1.3+Use+a+database+that+allow+me+to+analyze+streaming+data+
in+real+time+

Q3.1.4+Visualization+tools+like+Tableau,+Spotfire+

Q3.1.5+Relational+database+acceleration+/+scale+

Q3.1.6+ Use+ a+ database+ that+ allow+ me+ to+ ingest+ structured+ and+
unstructured+data + +

$ 213$
Research+Methodology+

ConC SubconC Questions( Definition( Authors(

structs( structs(

Technology+ Technology+ Q3.2+I+would+be+more+likely+to+use+a+Big+Data+tools+in+the+cloud+if+ Measurement+ of+ a+ person’s+ Opitz+[22]+

Infrastructure+ I+could+...+ intention+ to+ use+ or+ not+ use+ a+ Stieninger+et+al+[134],+
(cloud)+ technology.+ Venkatesh++[150]+
+ Armbrust+et+al.+[200],+
Q3.2.1+use+high+performance+processing+power+ Dillon+et+al.+[203],+Li+et+al.+
+ [319]+,+Parkes+et+al.+,+Won+
Q3.2.2+Collaborate+at+the+same+time+with+my+colleagues+ (2009),+Wu+(2011)++
Phaphoom+et+al.+[135]+
Wu+et+al.+
Q3.2.3+Ensure+data+security+in+the+Cloud+

Q3.2.4+Ensure+a+lower+Financial+cost+

Q3.2.5+ Ensure+ a+ simpler+ setup+ to+ process+ my+ Data+ Analysis+

tasks.+

Task+ technology+ Locatability+ During+the+Analysis,+the+choice+of+technology+I+made+helped+ Ease+of+determining+what+data+is+ Goodhue+and+Thompson+

fit+ available+and+where.+ [18]+
•! Q4.1.1(Locatability(:+locate+and+select+dataset+easily+
+
Accessibility+ •! Q4.1.2(Authorization:+have+authorization+to+access+ Obtaining+ authorization+ to+ Goodhue+and+Thompson+
necessary+data+ access+ data+ necessary+ to+ do+ my+ [18]+
job.+

Compatibility+ Big+ data+ tools+ functionalities+ of+ are+ compatible+ with+ the+ task.+ The+ perception+ that+ the+ KMS+ Lin+and+Huang+[313]+,+
Cloud+ Computing+ functionalities+ of+ were+ compatible+ with+ the+ capabilities+ match+ with+ the+ Jarupathirun+and+Zahedi+
task.+ user’s+task+requirements.+ [259],+

•! Q4.1.3(Compatibility:++I+can+easily+integrate++disparate+
datasets+

Compatibility+ Q4.1.4(consolidate+data+from+different+sources+ The+degree+to+which+a+technolo< Teo+and+Men+[107],+,++

gy+ is+ perceived+ as+ being+ con< Goodhue+and+Thompson+
sistent+ with+ the+ tasks+ at+ hand+ [18],+Moore+and+Benba<
Q4.1.5(address+unexpected+data+inconsistencies+ sat++[320]+
and+ suitable+ to+ the+ nature+ or+
Stieninger+[134],+
work+ working+ style.+ Data+ from+
different+ sources+ can+ be+
consolidated+ or+ compared+
without+ inconsistencies.+)
Tornatzky) et) al.) define) compati:
bility)factor)in)a)more)operation:
al) way) as) “congruence) with) the)
existing) practices) of) the)
adopters”) [9].) In) addition,)
Premkumar) et) al.) distinguish)
between) technical) compatibility)
and)organizational)compatibility)
[33].+

Data+Volume+ Q4.2.1+To+complete+my+analysis,+the+information+system+I+chose+ Amount+of+data+being+processed.+ Nance+and+Straub++[321]+

helped+me+to+deal+with++(scale+1<7)(Large(Volume(of(data((
+
Data+Variety+ Q4.2.2+To+complete+my+analysis,+the+information+system+I+chose+ + Stieninger+et+al+[134],++
helped+ me+ to+ deal+ with+ +(scale+ 1<7)+ External+ data+ + to+ help+ find+ Borgman+[311]+
better+insights)

Data+Velocity+ Q4.2.3+To+complete+my+analysis,+the+information+system+I+chose+ + +
helped+me+to+deal+with++(scale+1<7)+Real+time+data++

Information+ ( Data+ that+ I+ use+ or+ would+ like+ to+ Goodhue+and+Thompson+

Quality+(curren< use+ is+ current+ enough+ to+ meet+ [18],+Katerattanakul+and+
cy)+ my+needs.+ Siau,+1999+(MIS)+Strong+
Q4.3.1+ How+ would+ you+ rate+ the+ following+in+ completing+your+ et+al.,+1997+(MIS) Wang+
task+ effectively++ (scale+ 1<7)+ Data+ quality:+ Data+ that+ I+ use+ or+ and+Strong,+1996+(MIS)+
would+like+to+use+is+current+enough+to+meet+my+needs+ + Baroudi+and+Orlinkowski,+
1988+(MIS)+Bailey+and+
Pearson,+1983+(MIS)+
The+ concern+ that+ information+
provided+ is+ accurate,+ updated,+
and+appropriate.+

Information+ Q4.3.2+ How+ would+ you+ rate+ the+ following+in+ completing+your+ The+ perception+ that+ the+ Teo+and+Men+{[107],+
Quality+(com< task+ effectively++ (scale+ 1<7)+ Data+ anonymization+ has+ impacted+ knowledge+ portal+ (K<portal)+ Bailey+and+Pearson+[316]+

$ 214$
Research+Methodology+

ConC SubconC Questions( Definition( Authors(

structs( structs(

pleteness)+ the+results+ output+is+complete.++

Information+
Quality+(rele< + The+ perception+ that+ the+
vance)+ knowledge+ portal+ (K<portal)+
output+is+relevant.+

Training+and+Ease+ Training++ Ease+of+doing+what+I+want+to+do+ Goodhue+and+Thompson+

of+use+(hard< using+ the+ system+ hardware+ and+ [18]+
ware/software)+ Q4.3.3+ I+ felt+ more+ training+ was+ necessary+ to+ use+ cloud+ compu< software+ for+ submitting,+
ting+ accessing+and+analyzing+data.+

Q4.3.4+I+felt+more+training+was+necessary+to+Big+data+tools+

With+Big+Data+tools+and+cloud+computing,+

I+was+able+to+deal+with+(scale+1<7)(

Ease(of(use(Hardware(

Q4.5.1+<+Cloud+computing+infrastructure+is+convenient+to+use++

Q4.5.2+ Using+ cloud+ computing+ would+ not+ lead+ to+ technical+

difficulties+in+my+team.+

Ease+of+use+ Ease+of+Use+ Ease+of+doing+what+I+want+to+do+ Davis+[149],+Chang+[143],+

(software)+ using+specific+piece+of+software.+ Goodhue+ and+ Thompson+
Software+ [18],+Yen+et+al.+[317]+

Q4.5.3+I+was+able+to+use+big+data+platform+and+cloud+for+access<
ing+and+analyzing+data.+ +

Q4.5.4+The+technology+choices+I+made,+helped+to+access+the+data+
and+is+easy+to+use+to++Extract/access+Data+(eg:+Hadoop<NoSQL)+

Q4.5.5+The+technology+choices+I+made,+helped+to+access+the+data+
and+is+easy+to+use+to++Use/implement+modeling+technique+

Q4.5.6+The+technology+choices+I+made,+helped+to+access+the+data+
and+is+easy+to+use+to+perform+data+interpretation+and+visualiza<
tion+

+ Timeliness+ On+time+delivery+<+Production+Timeliness+ IS+meets+pre<defined+production+ Goodhue+ and+ Thompson+

turnaround+schedules.+ [18],++
Q4.4+–+With+the+Information+system+I+chose,+I+was+able+to+deliver+
analysis+in+a+timely+manner+(1<7)+

Perceived+ I+ am+ using+ or+ intend+ to+ use+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ technology+ in+ The+ belief+ that+ using+ BI+ would+ Davis+[149],+Chang+[143],++
Usefulness+(PU) + practice+when+I+deal+with+++++ enhance+job+performance.+
Opitz+[22]+
+ Q5.2.1+large+volume+of+data+ +
Men+and+Teo+[107]+
Q5.2.2+high+velocity+data+ The+belief+that+using+tool+would+
enhance+job+performance.+ Thompson+et+al+[18]+
Q5.2.2+Large+variety+of+unstructured+and+structured+data+
The+ perspective+ user’s+ subjec< Junglas+et+al+[322],+[278]+
Utilization+ Q5.2.3+I+recommend+Big+Data+and+cloud+technology+to+my+peers+ tive+ probability+ that+ using+ a+
that+need+to+analyze+mobile+traffic+analysis+ specific+ application+ system+ will+ . +
increase+ his+ or+ her+ job+ perfor<
mance+ within+ an+ organizational+
Q5.2.4+Overall,+I+found+the+Big+Data+tools+useful+in+my+job+
context.++

Q5.2.5+Overall,+I+found+the+cloud+technology+useful+in+my+job+
Frequency+ Intensity+ The+
behavior+ of+ employing+ the+
technology+in+completing+tasks.+

$ 215$
Research+Methodology+

ConC SubconC Questions( Definition( Authors(

structs( structs(

Perceived+ Q5.1+What+impact+did+the+data+analytic+tools+you+chose+have+on+ Expectations+ associated+ with+ Lin+and+Huang+[98]+

Performance+ your+net+results+for+each+of+the+following+ improvements+ in+ job+ perfor< Compeau+ and+ Higgins+
outcome+ expecta< mance+ (efficiency+ and+ effective< [312],++
tions+ ness)+ associated+ with+ using+ +
+ Q5.1.1+improved+the+quality+of+my+research.+ KMSs.++ Venkatesh+et+al.+[20]+
+ + + + + +
+ + +
+ + Davis+ [149],+ DeLone+ and+
Q5.1.2+ The+ data+ infrastructure+ and+ applications+ I+ chose+ has+
+ + McLean+ [323],+ Goodhue+
+ allowed+me+to+improve+the+quality+of+my+results+ + and+ Thompson+ + [18],+
Perceived+ + + + + + 1995),+ Luarn and+ Huang+
Performance+ Perceived+ + [324]+
Impacts+and+ Performance+ Q5.1.3+ Using+ Big+ Data+ tools+ improved+ my+ analytics+ process + Torkzadeh+and+Doll+
Benefits+ impact+
+ +
+ [325] ++
+ +
Performance+ impact+ relates+ to+
Q5.1.4+ I+ successfully+ used+ the+ information+ systems+ to+ perform+ the+ accomplishment+ of+ a+ +
the+mobile+traffic+analysis+ + + + portfolio+ of+ tasks+ by+ an+ individ<
ual.+

Q5.1.5+ Big+ data+ and+ cloud+ technolgy+ combined+ help+ me+ to+
accomplish+more+work+than+would+otherwise+be++
possible+
+ + + +
Q5.1.6Big+Data+technology+helped+me+to+perform+my+job+better+

In+table+11,+to+keep+responses+as+uniform+as+possible,+the+respondents+were+asked+close<
ended+ questions+ that+ had+ appropriately+ scaled+ response+ options.+ The+ measurement+
scales+were+based+on+previously+published+research+related+to+technology+user+adoption+
including+ that+ from+ Davis+ et+ al.+ [149],+ DeLone+ and+ McLean+ [323],+ Goodhue+ [255],+ and+
Goodhue+and+Thompson+[18].++

7.6! Survey++
7.6.1!Pre+test+D4D+Survey+
Given+ the+ nature+ of+ our+ study+ and+ the+ recency+ of+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ technologies,+ we+
wanted+to+ensure+that+the+questions+and+survey+would+be+well+understood.++The+pretest+
survey+was+conducted+with+a+key+focus+to+understand:++

!! How+and+what+process/tools+participants+used+to+analyze+the+data,+and+

!! What+challenges+they+had+to+deal+with+in+this+project.++

The+initial+pretest+survey+was+conducted+in+collaboration+with+D4D+Orange+organizers.+

The+ D4D+ Challenge+ is+ focused+ on+ the+ bringing+ researchers,+ public+ institutions+ or+ NGOs+
involved+or+interested+in+the+development+of+sub<Saharan+Africa+and+Ivory+Coast+in+par<
ticular.+The+goal+of+the+D4D+challenge+is+to+use+mobile+data+in+order+contribute+to+the+soC

$ 216$
Research+Methodology+

cioCeconomic(development(and(wellCbeing(of(populations.+Orange+provided+a+mobile+
dataset+containing+2.5+billion+call+detail+records.+External+data+is+encouraged+in+order+to+
crossCcompare(D4D(data(with(other(types(of(data.+

Results+were+presented+at+the+Boston+MIT+Labs.+All+the+registered+participants+were+giv<
en+access+to+the+dataset+located+on+Orange+servers+in+November+2012.+The+participants+
had+ about+ 6+ months+ to+ submit+ their+ results+ back+ to+ D4D+ organizers+ for+ peer+ review.+
About+130+papers+were+submitted+at+the+time+of+the+event.++

For+this+survey,+we+contacted+participants+in+the+D4D+Challenge+by+email.+We+issued+the+
survey+ with+ two+ additional+ reminders.+ The+ reminders+ were+ spaced+ about+ 2+ ½+ weeks+
apart.+The+span+of+the+survey+was+7<8+weeks+of+the+field.+

1.! Participants+profile+
Table(12+Participants+profile+per+Function+and+per+Regions+

n+ Percent+
+
PhD+<+Ms+student+from+University+ 46+ 41%+
Professor/+Researcher+from++University+Dept/+Lab+ 47+ 42%+
Other+ Researchers+ Private/Internat'l+ Institution+
18+ 16%+
and/or+Non+Gov+Institution+
Total+ 111+ 100+
$

n+ Percent+
+
Americas+ 34+ 31%+
Europe+ 54+ 49%+
Asia+ 10+ 9%+
Middle+East+Africa+ 13+ 12%+
Total+ 111+ 100+

Based+ on+ the+ papers+ submitted,+ teams+ who+ submitted+ papers+ had+ 3<4+ participants+ on+
average.++

$ 217$
Research+Methodology+

In+addition,+we+queried+the+participants+about+the+number+of+similar+projects+they+mana<
ged+ in+ 2013,+ 2012+ and+ before+ to+ see+ if+ there+ is+ a+ significant+ change+ in+ demand/need+ in+
that+field.+Results+show+that+the+majority+of+researchers+where+managing+less+than+2+si<
milar+projects+per+year+(78%).+Only+19.8%+managed+3<5+projects+and+a+mere+1.8%+ma<
naged+more+than+5+projects.+The+evolution+of+the+number+of+projects+over+the+year+shows+
no+significant+increase/variation.+

research(objectives+

D4D+ participants+ were+ asked+ to+ use+ mobile+ data+ to+ contribute+ to+ Ivory+ Coast+ develop<
ment.+ Four+ key+ categories+ were+ identified+ based+ on+ results:+ + Social+ Development,+
Healthcare,+ Mobility+ and+ Technology.+ Of+ the+ two+ largest+ functional+ goals,+ “better+ fact<
based+decision”+represents+46%+followed+by+“more+efficient+operations”+with+24.3%.+The+
crosstab+of+Strategic+and+Functional+goals+show+that+improving+“fact<based+decision”+va<
riable+ is+ particularly+ important+ for+ the+ Social+ Development+ category+ (45.1%),+ Mobility+
(25.5%)+ and+ Healthcare+ (21%).+ “Efficient+ operations”+ shows+ 44.4%+ for+ Mobility+ and+
29.6%+for+Social+Development.+Notable+information+regarding+the+strategic+goal,+respon<
dents+ had+ the+ opportunity+ to+ provide+ details+ in+ a+ text+ box+ when+ they+ selected+ “other.”+
Four+ respondents+ focused+ on+ improving+ data+ visualization+ and+ one+ answer+ focused+ on+
privacy+considerations.+

+
Table(13+Researcher’s+Main+Analysis+goals/objectives+

n+ Percent+
+
Improve+Social+Development+ 45+ 40.5+

Improve+healthcare+(diseases,...)+ 20+ 18+

Improve+Mobility+ 33+ 29.7+
Improve+Technology+ 13+ 11.7+
Total+ 111+ 100+
!
!
!

$ 218$
Research+Methodology+

Table(14+Researcher’s+main+functional+goal+

n+ Percent+
+
Improve+customer+experience+ 7+ 6.3+
Improve+products+and+services+quality+ 9+ 8.1+
identify+new+product/+innovations+ 15+ 13.5+
more+efficient+operations+ 27+ 24.3+
enable+better,+fact<based+decision+making+ 51+ 45.9+
reduce+risk+ 2+ 1.8+
Total+ 111+ 100+
$
$

Table(15+Researcher+Assigned+Responsibilities+

n+ Percent+
+
Data+Analysis+Visualization+ 31+ 27.9+
Data+Visualization+Programming+Algorithm++Data+Infrastructure+ 23+ 20.7+
Data+Visualization+++Algorithm+ 16+ 14.4+
Algorithm+/+Model+Design+ 15+ 13.5+
Data+Visualization+++Programming+++Algorithm+ 8+ 7.2+
Data+Visualization+++Programming+++Database+ 4+ 3.6+
Data+Visualization+++Programming+ 3+ 2.7+
Data+Infrastructure+(DB,+Server,..)+ 2+ 1.8+
Data+Infrastructure+++Algorithm+ 2+ 1.8+
Algorithm+++Programming+ 2+ 1.8+
Data+Visualization+++Data+Infrastructure+ 2+ 1.8+
Data+Infrastructure+++Programming+ 1+ 0.9+
Algorithm+++Programming+++Data+Infrastructure+ 1+ 0.9+
Data+Visualization+++Algorithm+++Data+Infrastructure+ 1+ 0.9+
Programming+ 0+ 0+
Total+ 111+ 100+
$

We+asked+4+questions+regarding+the+role+of+each+participant+to+understand+how+and+what+
they+contributed+in+the+process.+Essentially+four+tasks+were+identified+in+the+process+:+1)+
setting+ up/managing+ database+ infrastructure,+ 2)+ design+ algorithms/models,+ 3)+ Pro<
gramming+and+4)+analyzing+and+visualizing+the+data.+Rather+than+analyzing+the+data+in<
dependently,+we+created+a+multiple+response+program+to+allow+us+to+see+combined+tasks+
as+if+they+were+a+single+question.+The+benefit+is+to+determine+the+relative+endorsement+of+
one+task+versus+the+others.+This+approach+allows+us+to+better+understand+how+tasks+were+
divided+and+also+what+skills+are+required+for+each+project.+As+specified+previously,+D4D+
submissions+were+made+by+teams+of+3<4+people+(on+average),+so+we+expected+some+level+

$ 219$
Research+Methodology+

of+task+distribution.+As+a+result,+we+see+that+43.2%+of+participants+were+in+charge+of+one+
task+ (Data+ Analysis+ and+ Algorithm<Model+ Design),+ 20.7%+ completed+ all+ the+ tasks,+ and+
36%+ completed+ a+ combination+ of+ 2+ or+ 3+ tasks.+ No+ “Programming+ only”+ task+ was+ per<
formed.+

IT(infrastructure(and(data(management++
+

Table$16$Most$important$technology$functions$or$features$for$the$researcher$

n+ Percent+
+High<performance,+inexpensive+processing+power+ 18+ 16.2+
High<capacity+++High<performance+ 17+ 15.3+
Data+integration+and+quality+capabilities+ 11+ 9.9+
High<capacity,+inexpensive+storage+ 7+ 6.3+
High<velocity++High<performance+ 7+ 6.3+
Unstructured+data+management+and+search+ 6+ 5.4+
High<velocity+data+stream+processing+ 5+ 4.5+
Data+integration+++High<performance+ 5+ 4.5+
Relational+database+acceleration+/+scale+ 4+ 3.6+
Relational+DB++High<performance+ 3+ 2.7+
Data+integration+++High<velocity+ 2+ 1.8+
Data+integration+++High<velocity+++High<performance+ 2+ 1.8+
Relational+DB++High<capacity+ 2+ 1.8+
Relational+DB++Data+integration+ 2+ 1.8+
Other+Consolidated+results+ 20+ 18+

For+ these+ questions,+ respondents+ were+ asked+ what+ IT+ infrastructure+ and+ data+ manage<
ment+ functions+ /+ features+ are+ most+ important+ for+ their+ project.+ The+ answers+ were+ re<
grouped++into+a+multiresponse+program+(MRP)+to+better+understand+how/what+compo<
nents+were+working+together.+While+results+are+insightful,+responses+were+consolidated+
for+ results.+ Results+ show+ that+ performance( and( storage( were( key( criteria( (37.5%(

$ 220$
Research+Methodology+

combined),+ followed( by( data( integration( (alone:( 9.9%).+ Results+ are+ not+ showing+ si<
gnificant+patterns+requiring+complex+dependencies.++
$

Table(17+Data+infrastructure+used+by+the+researcher+

n+ Percent+
+On<premise+Server/Cluster+ 79+ 71.2+
Public+Cloud++ 21+ 18.9+
Total+ 100+ 90.1+
Don’t+know+ 11+ 9.9+
111+ 100+
+ + +

This+was+a+very+surprising+result.+Given+the+large+database+and+processing+requirements,+
we+expected+cloud<based+infrastructure+(18.9%)+to+be+much+more+significant.+We+did+an+
audit+ to+ understand+ why+ this+ number+ was+ so+ low.+ One+ of+ the+ main+ feedbacks+ was+ that+
academic+ researchers+ had+ access+ to+ internal+ university+ infrastructure+ including+ their+
own+ cloud+ setup.+ We+ investigated+ further+ this+ issue+ as+ this+ may+ potentially+ impact+ our+
research.+ Qualitative+ interviews+ were+ conducted+ and+ researchers+ indicated+ they+ have+
been+using+university+computing+capabilities+that+can+be+defined+as+“Cloud,”+but+the+fact+
we+used+the+term+"Public+Cloud”+in+the+question+led+to+some+confusion.+We+would+need+to+
make+the+appropriate+revision+in+the+final+survey.+
Table(18+Data+Store+used+by+the+researcher+

Frequency+ Percent)
+
Mapreduce,+Hadoop,+Specialized+Relational+ 46+ 41.4)
Traditional+Relational+(SQL,...)+ 64+ 57.7)
Other+(dedicated+application)+ 1+ 0.9)
Total+ 111+ 100)

The+Results+Mapreduce/Hadoop,+Specialized+Relational+vs.+Traditional+Db+is+more+balan<
ced,+thus+confirming+our+concerns+regarding+the+use+of+cloud+computing.+

Programming(and(data(analysis(tools(&(solutions(

$ 221$
Research+Methodology+

Table(19+Programming+language+used+by+the+researcher+

Frequency+ Percent+
+
Traditional+languages+(e.g.,+Java,+C,+C++)+ 41+ 36.9+
SQL+ 8+ 7.2+
Scripting+ Languages+ (e.g.,+ Python,Numpy,+ R,+
51+ 45.9+
Open+source+libraries)+
Proprietary+Language+/+Libraries+(Matlab,+SAS,+
10+ 9+
)+
No+programming+ 1+ 0.9+
Total+ 111+ 100+
+
Table(20+Statistical+and+visualization+tools+used+

Frequency+ Percent+
+
StatPAK=+ Statistical+ or+ Mathematical+ packages+ (e.g.,+
matplotlib,+SPSS,+SAS,+R,+Octave/Matlab)+ 49+ 44.1+
STD+ GRPH=+ Standard+ graph+ analysis+ apps+ (e.g:+ numpy,+
networkx)+ 17+ 15.3+
StatPAK+STD+GRPH+ 18+ 16.2+
DataVIZ+ =+ Data+ visualization+ apps+ (e.g.,+ Tableau,+ Spot<
fire);+ 10+ 9+
StatPAK+DataVIZ++ 6+ 5.4+
STF+GRPH+DataVIZ++ 1+ 0.9+
StatPAK+STD+GRPH+DataVIZ++ 4+ 3.6+
STREAM+AN=Streaming+analytics+ 4+ 3.6+
StatPAK+STD+GRPH+DataVIZ++STREAM+AN+ 2+ 1.8+
111+ 100+
+
+

Programming(languages((

We+used+a+multiple+response+program+(MRP)+and+results+show+consistency+and+continui<
ty+between+the+programming+tools+used+and+analytical+tools.+The+use+of+open+source+lan<
guage+R,+in+particular,+is+quite+standard+among+researchers+to+create+visualization.+

Methods(
Table(21+Methods+used+as+part+of+the+analytics+process+

Frequency+ Percent+
+

$ 222$
Research+Methodology+

Exploratory+ analysis+ (i.e.+ cluster+ or+ factor+ analy<

29+ 26.1%+
sis)+
Data+mining+ 29+ 26.1%+
Predictive+ analytics+ (i.e.+ regression,+ propensity+
20+ 18%+
modelling,+choice+modelling+etc.)+
Standard+analytics+(i.e.+descriptive+stats)+ 17+ 15.3%+
other,+Optimization+techniques,+Decision+analysis+ 16+ 14.4%+
+
+
Table(22+Most+important+analytics+functions/features+for+the+researcher+

N+ Percent+
+Data+visualization+ 65+ 25.6%+
Advanced+analytics+algorithms+ 57+ 22.4%+
Machine+learning+ 42+ 16.5%+
Social+network+analytics+ 34+ 13.4%+
Executing+ existing+ algorithms+ on+ much+ larger+
data+sets+ 26+ 10.2%+
Executing+existing+algorithms+faster+ 18+ 7.1%+
Text+analytics+ 8+ 3.1%+
Other;+if+so,+what+features?+ 4+ 1.6%+
Total+ 254+ 100.00%+
+

As+this+was+the+first+D4D+event,+it+was+difficult+to+qualify+effectively+all+the+algorithms+and+
models+that+would+be+used.+Therefore,+in+this+question,+we+used+more+generic+categories.+
In+ addition,+ an+ additional+ study+ of+ D4D+ papers+ showed+ that+ multiple+ models/algorithm+
were+used+to+reach+proper+results,+making+the+classification+more+complex.++

Results+shows+that+the+use+of+basic+analytics+(15.3%)+was+enough+to+extract+value+from+
the+ CDRs,+ though+ we+ didn’t+ judge+ the+ quality+ of+ the+ output.+ At+ the+ same+ time,+ a+ closer+
reading+ of+ submitted+ papers+ showed+ that+ researchers+ combined+ multiple+ models+ to+
reach+ results+ (gravitation+ model,+ SIR+ model,+ graph+ model),+ for+ example,+ health<related+
topics+ where+ disease+ spreading+ models+ were+ generated+ separately+ and+ then+ integrated+
with+mobile+CDRs.+++

$ 223$
Research+Methodology+

Pre(test(survey(key(findings(and(conclusion(

•! Data(Infrastructure:++Only+a+few+teams+leveraged+cloud+capabilities+to+promote+ea<
sier+data+transformation,+collaboration,+and+third<party+data+integration.+According+to+
the+survey,+some+researchers+struggled+to+access+datasets+(ie:+in+Africa).+About+one<
third+of+respondents+had+to+setup+or+deal+with+data+infrastructure.+In+general,+the+key+
Infrastructure+ requirements+ for+ the+ users+ were+ Performance+ and+ Capacity+ followed+
by+ Data+ Integration.+ Teams+ acknowledged+ that+ a+ cloud+ approach+ would+ be+
useful/valuable+in+the+future.++

•! Big(Data:+++Large(r)+volume+of+data+was+very+important+to+the+teams,+Real+time+data+
was+less+important,+as+only+a+6<month+CDR+extract+was+provided.+We+noted+that+quite+
a+few+models+had+recommendation+systems+(could+communicate/interact+back+to+the+
end+ users)+ and+ therefore+ could+ have+ accommodated+ real<time+ parsing.+ Data+ anony<
mization+was+not+a+concern,+though+it+seems+that+higher+data+granularity+would+have+
improved+results.+

•! Models+ were,+ in+ general,+ complex.+ Researchers+ combined+ multiple+ models+ to+ reach+
effective+ results+ (gravitation+ model,+ SIR+ model,+ graph+ model).+ Results+ show+ that+
researchers+had+to+tackle+data+transformation+(ETL)+issues+and+data+mapping+before+
applying+other+algorithms.+Output+was+also+a+challenge+as+it+seems+the+optimum+tools+
still+do+not+exist.+

•! External(Data:++Interestingly,+although+external+third<party+data+were+critical+to+ge<
nerating+ unique+ insights,+ the+ use+ of+ social+ media+ data+ was+ almost+ nonexistent.+ We+
found+that+most+approaches+could+be+sorted+in+4+categories;+Social+Development,+Mo<
bility,+ Technology+ and+ Healthcare.+ However,+ we+ missed+ topics+ like+ pollution,+ use+ of+
sensor+ data+ (industrial,+ individual)+ as+ well+ as+ transactional+ (financial/business)+ re<
lated+studies.+

•! Impact(and(Perceived(Performance:((Responses+show+that+mobile+CDR+analysis+is+
still+a+new+field+of+research+and+that+researchers+still+need+to+familiarize+themselves+
$ 224$
Research+Methodology+

with+ the+ process+ and+ methods.+ Access+ to+ higher+ quality+ of+ data,+ historical+ dataset+
(machine+learning)+and+a+wider+variety+of+data+would+significantly+improve+the+out<
put.+

We+incorporated+the+pretest+survey+findings+to+finalize+our+survey.+The+changes+include+
the+adoption+of+a+Likert+scale+for+the+constructs+and+avoiding+multiple+choice+questions+
and+linear+scales+as+they+are+not+recommended+for+use+with+PLS+software.++

Also+the+pretest+validated+that+Big+Data+terminology+and+data+visualization+is+well+under<
stood+by+researcher+and+is+not+confusing.+Regarding+the+cloud+construct,+we+also+modi<
fied+our+wording+and+avoided+private/public+distinction.++

7.6.2! ++++++Survey+Process+

For+this+survey,+we+contacted+by+email+participants+in+the+D4D+Challenge+that+were+aca<
demic+and+nonacademic+researchers+(professors,+PhD/Masters+students+and+practition<
ers+ at+ private/international+ organizations),+ regrouped+ in+ more+ than+ 150+ teams+ from+
around+the+globe,+as+well+as+participants+in+the+Netmob+event.+In+the+email,+we+presented+
the+scope+of+our+request+and+the+purpose+of+the+research.+We+followed+up+with+two+addi<
tional+reminders.+In+each+reminder,+spaced+about+18+days+apart,+we+sent+the+link+to+the+
survey.+The+survey+was+in+the+field+approximately+8+weeks.+

After+two+months,+189+survey+responses+had+been+collected.+The+number+of+responses+in+
this+survey+is+relatively+limited+due+to+the+specificity+of+the+research.+As+a+result,+we+need+
to+ensure+during+our+analysis+that+we+take+these+limitations+into+consideration+and+vali<
date+ or+ crosscheck+ our+ interpretations.+ There+ are+ several+ studies+ that+ address+ the+ fact+
that+we+have+a+limited+sample.+There+is+evidence+that+data+may+still+be+reliable+indicators+
for+interpretation+even+if+it+is+limited+in+numbers.++

Due+to+the+limited+sample+size+participating+in+the+NetMob<D4D+challenges,+the+survey’s+
settings+required+the+respondents+to+answer+all+the+questions.+Required+answers+can+be+
an+issue+and+lead+to+random+answer+or+even+dropping+the+survey+completely.+In+this+spe<

$ 225$
Research+Methodology+

cific+ research,+ respondents+ were+ active+ participants+ at+ the+ Netmob<D4D+ and+ submitted+
their+paper+at+the+event.+Therefore,+the+risk+of+misunderstanding+the+questions+was+ex<
pected+to+be+rather+limited.++

In+the+survey,+only+a+few+entries+were+incomplete+and+eliminated+from+the+dataset.+We+
noted+ that+ all+ the+ respondents+ stopped+ after+ the+ first+ few+ pages+ (well+ under+ the+ 10%+
threshold+completion+rate).+While+the+survey+notified+participants+on+the+first+page+that+
the+survey+would+take+an+average+of+8+minutes+to+complete,+it+is+assumed+that+those+per<
sons+ started+ and+ could+ not+ finish+ or+ simply+ lost+ interest.+ As+ a+ result,+ the+ missing+ data+
cleaning+was+limited.+

7.7! Data+Analysis+Method++

For+this+thesis,+we+chose+the+partial+least+square+(PLS)+approach+to+structural+equation+
modeling+(SEM)+to+test+our+conceptual+model.+In+the+following+sections,+we+explain+pre<
liminary+data+analysis,+define+and+describe+PLS+and+SEM+and+reveal+the+benefits+of+choos<
ing+the+PLS<SEM+approach.+A+path+diagram+is+presented+showing+how+the+variables+are+
interconnected+ with+ lines+ that+ are+ used+ to+ indicate+ linear+ relationships.+ The+ software+
package+that+was+used+to+analyze+the+data+is+discussed.+In+addition,+the+various+elements+
and+acceptable+values+associated+with+assessing+the+measurement+model+and+structural+
model+are+identified+and+explained.+

7.7.1! Preliminary+Data+Analysis+

In+the+preliminary+data+analysis+step,+researchers+make+observations+about+the+data,+re<
code+ categorical+ data,+ transform+ continuous+ data+ into+ another+ continuous+ variable+ and+
recode+continuous+to+categorical+data.++During+this+step,+missing+values+and+outlying+data+
points+ are+ identified.+ The+ quantitative+ data+ derived+ from+ the+ survey+ was+ analyzed+ with+
SmartPLS,+a+popular+software+tool+for+partial+least+squares+structural+equation+modeling+
(PLS<SEM).+The+software+was+used+to+assess+the+relationships+between+individual,+tech<

$ 226$
Research+Methodology+

nology+and+task+factors.+We+examined+reliability+and+validity+according+to+certain+criteria+
associated+with+the+formative+and+reflective+measurement+model+specification.+In+addi<
tion,+SmartPLS+was+used+to+create+a+box+plot+(or+box+and+whisker+diagram),+a+standard<
ized+way+of+displaying+the+distribution+of+data,+to+identify+outliers.++

7.7.2! Structural+Equation+Modeling+(SEM)++&+Partial+Least+Square+

For+ our+ study,+ we+ used+ the+ partial+ least+ square+ (PLS)+ approach+ to+ structural+ equation+
modeling+ (SEM),+ defined+ by+ Hair+ et) al.+ [326]+ as+ “a+ causal+ modeling+ approach+ aimed+ at+
maximizing+the+explained+variance+of+the+dependent+latent+constructs.”+They+explain+that+
a+SEM+with+latent+constructs+has+two+components+–+the+structural+model+(or+inner+model+
in+the+PLS<SEM+context)+and+the+measurement+models+(or+the+outer+models+in+the+PLS<
SEM+ context).+ These+ researchers+ reveal+ that+ some+ researchers+ view+ PLS<SEM+ as+ a+ less+
rigorous+method+and+therefore+less+suitable+for+examining+relationships+between+latent+
variables+ and+ few+ view+ it+ as+ a+ perfect+ solution+ for+ dealing+ with+ smaller+ sample+ sizes.+
However,+Hair+et)al.+[326]+vigorously+defend+the+method,+calling+the+negative+perceptions+
“unfortunate+ and+ shortsighted.”+ In+ addition,+ they+ make+ the+ argument+ that+ PLS<SEM+ has+
many+benefits+over+covariance<based+SEM.+According+to+Vilares+et)al.,+[327]+research+has+
shown+ that+ PLS+ estimates+ are+ superior+ to+ covariance<based+ estimates+ in+ terms+ of+ bias+
and+precision.+Furthermore,+Hair+et)al.+[326]++explain+that+with+PLS<SEM+constructs+with+
fewer+ items+ can+ be+ used+ (one+ or+ two)+ and+ when+ the+ emphasis+ is+ more+ on+ exploration+
than+confirmation,+then+PLS<SEM+is+the+appropriate+method+to+use.++

In+terms+of+our+research,+we+used+the+PLS+estimation+method+to+assess+the+relationships+
between+the+individual,+technology+and+task+factors+influencing+Big+Data+and+cloud+tech<
nology+adoption.+As+mentioned+in+the+previous+section,+189+survey+responses+were+col<
lected.+When+analyzing+the+results,+we+will+take+into+account+the+relatively+small+size+of+
this+dataset.+

$ 227$
Research+Methodology+

7.7.2.1! Structural+Equation+Modeling+(SEM)++

Structural+ Equation+ Modeling+ (SEM)+ is+ a+ second<generation+ multivariate+ data+ analysis+

method+ that+ can+ test+ theoretically+ supported+ linear+ and+ additive+ causal+ models+ [328],+
[329]+.+In+a+review+of+empirical+studies+using+PLS<SEM+during+a+20<year+period,+Ringle+et)
al.+ [330]+ determined+ that+ the+ most+ frequently+ cited+ reasons+ for+ researchers+ choosing+
PLS<SEM+ are:+ + small+ sample+ size+ (36.92%),+ non<normal+ data+ (33.85%),+ and+ the+ use+ of+
formatively+ measured+ latent+ variables+ (30.77%).+ Additionally,+ the+ authors+ observe+ that+
researchers+ appreciate+ the+ ability+ of+ PLS<SEM+ to+ handle+ model+ complexity+ with+ fewer+
restrictions+compared+to+CB<SEM.+They+base+this+observation+on+the+difference+between+
the+average+number+of+latent+variables,+indicators+and+structural+model+relationships+per+
model.+Their+review+found+that+the+number+of+key+elements+were+nearly+double+in+stud<
ies+ using+ PLS<SEM+ compared+ to+ studies+ using+ CB<SEM.+ Summarizing+ the+ views+ of+ other+
researchers+ such+ as+ Fornell+ and+ Bookstein+ [331];+ Henseler,+ Ringle+ and+ Sinkovics+ [332],+
Hair+et)al.([333](states,+”Finally,)even)though)we)believe)that)PLS:SEM)path)modeling)can)
indeed)be)a)‘silver)bullet’+if)correctly)applied,)it)is)important)to)stress)that)we)do)not)argue)
against)the)statistically)more)demanding)CB:SEM)method.)CB:SEM)and)PLS:SEM)are)com:
plementary)in)that)the)nonparametric)and)variance:based)SEM)approach’s)advantages)are)
the)parametric)and)covariance:based)SEM)approach’s)disadvantages,)and)vice)versa.”+

7.7.2.2! Path+Diagram++

The+path+diagram+below+shows+how+the+variables+in+the+proposed+constructs+are+inter<
connected+and+includes+lines+that+indicate+their+linear+relationships.+

$ 228$
Research+Methodology+

Inner%Model% (Structural%Model)
++

Task1

Task2

Outer%Model%Measurements
Outer%Model%Measurements

Perf1

Perf2

Exogenous% Latent%Variables Endogenous% Latent%Variables

+

Figure(19+Path+Diagram+of+the+Task<Technology+Fit+Model+developed+for+this+research.+

(
Inner(vs.(Outer(Model(in(a(SEM(Diagram((

A+structural+equation+model+with+latent+variables+has+two+components,+according+to+Hair+
et+al.+[323].+The+two+submodels+are+the+inner+model,+or+structural+model,+and+the+outer+
model,+ or+ measurement+ model.+ The+ inner+ model+ shows+ the+ relationships+ between+ the+
independent+and+dependent+variables.+The+outer+model+shows+the+relationships+between+
the+ independent+ and+ dependent+ variables+ and+ their+ indicators.+ In+ the+ outer+ model,+ the+
latent+variables+are+either+exogenous+or+endogenous.+If+they+are+exogenous,+path+arrows+
are+ pointing+ away+ from+ the+ indicators+ leading+ to+ the+ independent+ variable+ and+ away+
from+the+independent+variable+leading+to+the+dependent+variable.+An+endogenous+latent+
variable+has+at+least+one+path+arrow+leading+to+it+from+an+independent+variable+and+path+
arrows+leading+from+the+dependent+variable+to+other+indicators.+

$ 229$
Research+Methodology+

7.7.2.3! Software+Used+for+Analysis++

In+terms+of+our+research,+we+used+the+PLS+estimation+method+to+assess+the+relationships+
between+the+individual,+technology+and+task+factors+influencing+Big+Data+and+cloud+tech<
nology+adoption.+As+mentioned+earlier,+189+survey+responses+were+collected.+When+ana<
lyzing+the+results,+we+took+into+account+the+relatively+small+size+of+this+dataset.+To+con<
duct+our+analysis,+we+used+the+SmartPLS+software+package,+developed+by+Christian+Rin<
gle+ and+ launched+ in+ 2005,+ which+ is+ free+ for+ students+ to+ use+ and+ downloadable+ at+
http://www.smartpls.de.++This+software+has+a+user<friendly+interface+and+advanced+report<

ing+features,+making+it+ideal+for+academics+and+researchers.+SmartPLS+can+determine+the+
direct+and+indirect+path+influences+among+all+latent+variables+within+a+nomological+net<
work.+ Conversely,+ he+ warns+ that+ SmartPLS+ has+ a+ few+ restrictions,+ such+ as+ the+ require<
ment+to+be+recursive,+not+allowing+a+causal+loop,+and+each+indicator+can+only+be+assigned+
once+per+latent+variable.+Additionally,+it+should+be+noted+that+SmartPLS+defaults+to+reflec<
tive+ indicators+ when+ a+ model+ is+ built.+ Therefore,+ if+ the+ indicators+ are+ formative,+ the+ re<
searcher+has+to+reflect+the+change+in+the+software.+
$

7.7.3! Assessing+the+Measurement+Model++

Hair+ et) al.+ [333]+ + explain+ that+ like+ other+ multivariate+ analysis+ techniques,+ PLS<SEM+ re<
quires+a+thorough+model+evaluation.+PLS<SEM+follows+the+notion+of+an+underlying+covari<
ance<based+latent+construct<generating+mechanism+and+as+such+follows+a+two<step+pro<
cess+ that+ involves+ a+ first+ step+ of+ examining+ the+ measurement+ model.+ Particularly,+ re<
searchers+need+to+examine+reliability+and+validity+according+to+certain+criteria+associated+
with+formative+and+reflective+measurement+model+specifications.+In+terms+of+the+evalua<
tion+of+measurement+models,+model+evaluation+in+PLS<SEM+is+heavily+influenced+by+CB<
SEM+ reporting+ [333].+ Since+ reflective+ indicators+ have+ positive+ intercorrelations,+ factor+
loading+ and+ communality,+ Cronbach’s+ alpha,+ average+ variance+ extracted+ and+ internal+

$ 230$
Research+Methodology+

consistency+can+be+used+to+empirically+assess+the+individual+and+composite+reliabilities+of+
the+indicators.++
$

7.7.3.1! Assessing+Individual+Item+Reliability++

Assessing+the+individual+item+reliability+is+a+component+of+the+measurement+model+eval<
uation.+When+using+the+PLS+approach,+individual+item+reliability+is+assessed+by+the+load<
ings,+or+simple+correlations+of+the+indicators+with+their+respective+latent+variable+[334].+A+
widely+accepted+rule+of+thumb,+promoted+by+Carmines+and+Zeller+[335],+indicates+that+to+
accept+ an+ indicator+ as+ a+ constituent+ of+ a+ construct,+ the+ manifest+ variable+ should+ have+ a+
loading+of+0.708+or+more.+As+explained+by+Barroso+et)al.+[336],+“This+implies+more+shared+
variance+ between+ the+ construct+ and+ its+ measures+ than+ error+ variance.”+ However,+ some+
researchers+ think+ this+ rule+ of+ thumb+ is+ too+ rigid.+ Chin+ [337]+ + thought+ the+ loading+ value+
was+too+rigid+at+the+early+stages+of+scale+development.+Barclay+et+al+[338]argued+that+the+
rule+of+thumb+was+too+strict+in+situations+when+scales+are+applied+across+different+con<
texts.++According+to+Barroso+et)al.+[336],+it+is+important+to+remember+that+“…+in)the)case)of)
PLS,)the)inclusion)of)weak)items)will)help)to)extract)what)useful)information)is)available)in)
the) indicator) to) create) a) better) construct) score.) In) addition,) PLS) works) with) determinate)
constructs,)so)the)weakest)indicators)are)factored)in)by)lower)weights.”++

7.7.3.2! Convergent+and+Discriminant+Validity++

Hair+ et+ al.+ [333]+ state+ that+ for+ discriminant+ validity+ the+ AVE+ of+ each+ latent+ construct+
should+be+higher+than+the+construct’s+highest+squared+correlation+with+any+other+latent+
construct+ based+ on+ the+ Fornell<Larcker+ criterion.+ Specifically,+ the+ Fornell<Larcker+ [339]+
criterion+postulates+that+a+latent+construct+shares+more+variance+with+its+assigned+indica<
tors+than+with+another+latent+variable+in+the+structural+model.+Further,+Hair+et)al.+[333]+
explain+that+an+indicator’s+loadings+should+be+higher+than+all+of+its+cross+loadings.+

$ 231$
Research+Methodology+

7.7.3.3! Reliability+Analysis++

According+to+Straub+et+al.+[340],+reliability+analysis+evaluates+the+extent+to+which+a+varia<
ble+or+set+of+variables+is+consistent+in+what+it+intends+to+measure.+The+coefficient+of+relia<
bility+is+measured+by+Cronbach’s+alpha.+Cronbach's+alpha+can+be+written+as+a+function+of+
the+number+of+test+items+and+the+average+inter<correlation+among+the+items.++

When+using+the+Cronbach’s+alpha+to+assess+reliability,+many+researchers+state+that+Nun<
nally+ et) al.+ [341]+ suggests+ a+ rule+ of+ thumb+ level+ of+ 0.70+ as+ a+ benchmark+ for+ acceptable+
reliability.+ However,+ what+ he+ actually+ wrote+ is+ “what) a) satisfactory) level) of) reliability) is)
depends)on)how)a)measure)is)being)used.)In)the)early)stages)of)research)…)one)saves)time)
and)energy)by)working)with)instruments)that)have)only)modest)reliability,)for)which)pur:
pose) reliabilities) of) .70) or) higher) will) suffice.) …) In) contrast) to) the) standards) in) basic) re:
search,)in)many)applied)settings)a)reliability)of).80)is)not)nearly)high)enough.”++

7.7.4! Assessing+the+Structural+Model++

If+the+structural+model+is+complex,+including+many+constructs+and+many+indicators,+Hair+
et+al.+advises+that+researchers+should+select+PLS<SEM.+To+assess+the+inner+model+or+struc<
tural+path+model,+typically+four+structural+model+measurements+are+required:++Coefficient+
of+ Determination+ (R2);+ Predictive+ Relevance+ (Q2);+ Effect+ Size+ (f) 2);+ and+ Path+ Coefficient.+
When+we+assess+the+model,+we+will+use+SmartPLS+to+calculate+(including+using+the+Boot<
strap+option)+to+identify+these+indicators.+

7.7.4.1! Coefficient+of+Determination,+R2++

According+to+Ringle+et)al.+[330],+“A+common+argument+for+using+PLS<SEM+is+that+the+tech<
nique+excels+at+prediction+and+almost+all+model+estimates+use+the+coefficient+of+determi<
nation+(R2+values)+to+characterize+the+ability+of+the+model+to+explain+and+predict+the+en<
dogenous+latent+variables.”+The+coefficient+of+determination+is+also+called+the+explained+

$ 232$
Research+Methodology+

variance+(R2)+or+the+endogenous+constructs.+Peng+and+Lai+[342]+explain,+“Using)R2) to)as:
sess) the) structural) model) is) consistent) with) the) objective) of) PLS) to) maximize) variance) ex:
plained)in)the)endogenous)variables.”+In+their+Rules+of+Thumb+for+Model+Evaluation,+Hair+
et+al.+[333]+state+that+R2+values+of+0.75,+0.50+and+0.25+for+endogenous+latent+values+can+be+
described+ as+ substantial,+ moderate+ or+ weak,+ respectively.+ On+ the+ contrary,+ Chin+ [343]+
defines+ values+ of+ approximately+ .670+ as+ substantial,+ values+ around+ .333+ as+ average+ and+
values+of+.190+and+lower+as+weak.++
$

7.7.4.2! Predictive+Relevance,+Q2++

Hair+ et) al.+ [333]+ recommend+ using+ blindfolding+ to+ obtain+ cross<validated+ redundancy+
measures+for+each+construct.+Researchers+should+make+sure+the+valid+number+of+observa<
tions+is+not+a+multiple+integer+of+the+omission+distance+d.+Values+of+d+should+be+between+5+
and+10.+Q2+values+that+are+greater+than+zero+indicate+that+the+exogenous+constructs+have+
predictive+relevance+for+the+endogenous+construct+that+is+under+consideration.+Predictive+
relevance+can+be+calculated+using+the+blindfolding+option+in+the+SmartPLS+software.+
$

7.7.4.3! Effect+Size,+f)2++

Effect+size+(f)2)+measures+if+an+independent+latent+variable+(LV)+has+a+substantial+impact+
on+a+dependent+latent+variable.+Cohen+[344]+considers+if+a+predictor+LV+(exogenous+LV)+
has+a+small,+medium+or+large+effect+on+an+endogenous+LV.+He+defines+values+between+.020+
and+.150+as+having+a+small+effect,+between+.150+and+.350+as+having+a+medium+effect+and+
exceeding+.350+as+an+exogenous+LV+having+the+largest+effect+on+an+endogenous+LV.+Effect+
sizes+were+calculated+for+the+variables+that+were+influenced+by+more+than+one+independ<
ent+variable.+According+to+Pend+and+Lai+[342],+the+increase+in+R2+relative+to+the+propor<
tion+ of+ variable+ that+ remains+ unexplained+ in+ the+ endogenous+ latent+ variable+ is+ used+ to+
calculate+effect+size.+In+this+study,+the+effect+size+was+calculated+using+the+SmartPLS+soft<
ware.+

$ 233$
Research+Methodology+

7.7.4.4! Path+Coefficient++

Path+ coefficient+ between+ latent+ variables+ should+ be+ analyzed+ in+ terms+ of+ the+ algebraic+
sign+and+magnitude+as+well+as+significance.+In+order+to+assess+the+path+coefficients’+signif<
icance,+ Hair+ et) al.+ [345]+ suggest+ that+ researchers+ use+ bootstrapping+ with+ 5,000+ as+ the+
minimum+number+of+bootstrapping+sample+and+the+number+of+cases+equal+to+the+number+
of+ observations+ in+ the+ original+ sample.+ Critical+ t<values+ for+ the+ two<tailed+ test+ are+ 1.65+
(significance+level+=+10%),+1.96+(significance+level+=+5%),+and+2.58+(significance+level+=+
1%).++

7.8! Conclusion+

In+Chapter+7,+we+presented+the+overall+research+methodology+that+was+used.+We+identi<
fied+the+research+philosophy+as+the+positivist+approach.+The+research+strategy+was+out<
lined+and+the+research+design+was+explained+along+with+the+specific+constraints+for+this+
particular+ research.+ The+ objectives+ of+ this+ survey<based+ research+ were+ defined+ and+ the+
choice+of+the+Web<based,+computer<assisted+self<administered+survey+was+defended.+The+
measurement+ scale+ development+ was+ explained+ and+ defined+ along+ with+ specific+ con<
structs+ along+ with+ their+ respective+ subconstructs+ that+ are+ used+ in+ the+ new+ model.+ The+
specific+survey+questions+that+address+each+of+these+constructs+and+subconstructs+were+
provided.+ In+ addition,+ the+ specifics+ of+ the+ survey+ and+ the+ survey+ process+ were+ detailed.+
This+ chapter+ also+ covered+ the+ data+ analysis+ method+ used+ –+ the+ partial+ least+ square+ ap<
proach+–+and+identified+SmartPLS+as+the+software+used+for+analysis+as+well+as+explained+
how+we+assessed+the+measurement+model+and+the+structural+model.+In+Chapter+8,+we+will+
show+the+outcomes+that+were+achieved+based+on+all+of+the+decisions+made+and+explained+
in+Chapter+7.+Chapter+8+will+present+the+data+analysis+and+results.+We+will+explain+the+en<
tire+data+collection+and+analysis+processes+–+including+the+important+step+of+data+screen<

$ 234$
Research+Methodology+

ing,+handling+missing+data,+identifying+outliers+and+checking+for+normality,+linearity,+ho<
moscedasticity+ and+ multicollinearity.+ In+ addition,+ a+ summary+ of+ the+ basic+ profile+ of+ the+
survey+respondents+is+presented.+

$ 235$
 !

236$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

! Data+Analysis+and+Results+

This+ chapter+ presents+ and+ discusses+ the+ steps+ in+ the+ data+ analysis+ process+ and+ the+ re<
sults.+In+Section+8.1,+we+describe+the+data+collection+process.+Data+analysis+as+well+as+data+
coding+ is+ covered+ in+ Section+ 8.2+ and+ its+ subsections.+ We+ show+ the+ specific+ data+ coding+
used+for+our+study,+which+involves+assigning+alphanumeric+codes+to+answers+so+that+sta<
tistical+techniques+can+be+applied.+Also+in+this+section,+we+discuss+that+data+screening+and+
addressing+missing+data+are+important+steps+in+the+data+analysis+process.+We+also+explain+
the+importance+of+identifying+outliers+and+checking+for+normality,+linearity,+homoscedas<
ticity+ and+ multicollinearity.+ The+ chapter+ concludes+ with+ a+ table+ summarizing+ the+ basic+
profile+of+the+survey+respondents.+

8.1! Data+Collection++

Depending+ on+ the+ study,+ data+ collection+ can+ come+ in+ various+ forms+ such+ as+ interviews,+
surveys+or+focus+groups.+As+discussed+in+Chapter+7,+this+thesis+uses+data+that+was+collect<
ed+from+a+Web<based,+computer<assisted+self<administered+survey.+This+survey+was+ad<

$ 237$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

ministered+ to+ data+ scientists+ via+ Qualtrics,+ an+ online+ survey+ platform.+ The+ survey+ data+
was+collective+in+a+quantitative+way+in+order+to+be+analyzed+based+on+our+eight+hypothe<
ses.+

The+number+of+responses+in+this+survey+is+relatively+limited+due+to+the+specificity+of+the+
research.+As+a+result,+thorough+and+accurate+data+preparation+and+analysis+is+extremely+
important.+ We+ need+ to+ ensure+ that+ we+ take+ these+ limitations+ into+ consideration+ in+ our+
analysis+ and+ validate+ or+ cross+ check+ our+ interpretations.+ Several+ researchers+ have+ ad<
dressed+conducting+research+with+a+limited+sample+and+have+found+that+data+can+still+be+
reliable+indicators+for+interpretation+even+if+limited+in+numbers.++

8.2! Data+Analysis++

In+ this+ section,+ the+ steps+ of+ the+ data+ analysis+ are+ detailed+ along+ with+ the+ results+ of+ the+
analysis+of+the+proposed+model.+A+descriptive+data+analysis+is+conducted+to+better+under<
stand+the+data+set+and+variables.+Then,+the+study’s+research+model+is+assessed+based+on+
criteria+for+PLS<SEM.++

8.2.1! Data+Preparation+

Data+ preparation+ is+ the+ key+ success+ factor+ in+ Big+ Data+ analytics.+ As+ the+ old+ axiom+ goes,+
"garbage+in,+garbage+out."+If+researchers+use+high+volumes+of+unprepared+data+in+an+ana<
lytical+solution,+the+results+are+going+to+be+invalid+and+these+bad+results+will+lead+to+bad+
decisions.+The+overall+scope+of+data+preparation+–+editing+and+coding+and+screening+for+
missing+data,+outliers,+normality,+linearity,+homoscedasticity+and+multicollinearity+–+will+
be+detailed+in+the+following+subsections.(

$ 238$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

8.2.1.1! Data+Editing+and+Coding+

Data+editing+and+coding+are+key+components+of+the+data+preparation+process.+Data+edit<
ing+ involves+ looking+ to+ correct+ incomplete,+ inconsistent+ and+ ambiguous+ answers.+ Data+
coding+involves+assigning+alpha,+numeric+or+alphanumeric+codes+to+answers+so+that+sta<
tistical+techniques+can+be+applied.+In+this+study,+we+have+assigned+alphanumeric+codes+to+
the+survey+answers+as+illustrated+in+the+table+below.+

Table(23+Survey+and+measurement+items+

Question( Variable(
Measurement(Statement) Measure) Items) Construct)
Number) type)
Individual(Characteristics)

Q1.2) What+is+your+current+function?) Nominal) Independent) INDIV1) Individual+Characteristics)

Q1.3) List+of+countries) Nominal) Independent) INDIV2) Individual+Characteristics)

Your+level+of+experience+with+Technology+<+I+have+experience+to+ Ordinal+discrete+
Q1.4.1) dependent) INDIV3) Individual+Characteristics)
deal+with+mobile+traffic+analysis.) likert+scale+
How+would+you+rate+the+competency+in+using+Big+Data+technol< Ordinal+discrete+
Q1.4.2) dependent) INDIV4) Individual+Characteristics)
ogy.) likert+scale)
Ordinal+discrete+
Q1.4.3) How+would+you+rate+the+competency+in+using+cloud+technology?) dependent) INDIV5) Individual+Characteristics)
likert+scale)
How+would+you+rate+the+competency+in+analyzing+mobile+traffic+ Ordinal+discrete+
Q1.4.4) dependent) INDIV6) Individual+Characteristics)
data) likert+scale)
Task(Characteristics)
Based+on+your+level+of+experience+with+technology<++I+deal+with+
Ordinal+discrete+
Q2.1.1) ad<hoc,+non+routine+problems+when+analyzing+mobile+traffic+ dependent) TASK1) Task+Characteristics)
likert+scale)
data)
Ordinal+discrete+
Q2.1.2) Mobile+traffic+analysis+requires+more+than+one+function,+task) dependent) TASK2) Task+Characteristics)
likert+scale)
The+results+of+my+work+are+dependent+on+the+efforts+of+people+ Ordinal+discrete+
Q2.1.3) dependent) TASK3) Task+Characteristics)
from+within+my+team.) likert+scale)
Was+your+main+task/goal+to+analyze+Mobile+traffic+data+(CDR)+
used+to+deliver+:++)
N! Social+Analysis+(User+interactions,+Demographics,+Envi<
ronment,+Epidemics) +)
Q2.2) Nominal) Independent) TASKA+ Task+Characteristics)
N! Mobility+Analysis+(Human+Mobility,+transportation,+..)+)
N! Network+Analysis+(Mobile+demand,+Networking+solutions,+
Marketing+solutions,+Privacy+solutions+)
N! other,+please+specify)
In+your+Project+team,+how+would+you+rate+your+contribution+to+ Ordinal+discrete+
Q2.3.1) dependent) TASK5) Task+Characteristics)
the+following+tasks.+Data+Infrastructure+(DB,+Server,..)+setup) likert+scale+)
Ordinal+discrete+
Q2.3.2) Algorithm+/+Model+Design) dependent) TASK6) Task+Characteristics)
likert+scale)
Ordinal+discrete+
Q2.3.3) Programming) dependent) TASK7) Task+Characteristics)
likert+scale+
Ordinal+discrete+
Q2.3.4) Data+analysis+and+visualization) dependent) TASK8) Task+Characteristics)
likert+scale)
What+analytic+functions/features+are+most+important+to+you?+
Q2.4) (check+all+that+apply)+Advanced+Statistical+Analysis ) Nominal) Independent) TASK9) Task+Characteristics)
N! Visual+Analytics )

$ 239$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

N! Machine+learning )
N! Clustering+techniques+(K<mean) )
N! Graph+analysis +
N! Gravity+Based+Models )
N! Complex+network+tools+(Centrality,+Modularity,+Commu<
nity+Detection )
N! Other;+if+so,+what+features?)
Technology(Characteristics)
Regarding+the+IT+infrastructure+you+used,+what+data+manage< Ordinal+discrete+ Technology+Characteris<
Q3.1.1) dependent) TBD1+
ment+functions/features+are+most+important+<+Hadoop+tools) likert+scale) tics)
Use+programming+tools+R+and+Python+that+allow+me+to+imple< Ordinal+discrete+ Technology+Characteris<
Q3.1.2) dependent) TBD2)
ment+the+necessary+algorithm) likert+scale) tics)
Use+a+database+that+allows+me+to+analyze+streaming+data+ Ordinal+discrete+ Technology+Characteris<
Q3.1.3) dependent) TBD3)
realtime) likert+scale) tics)
Ordinal+discrete+ Technology+Characteris<
Q3.1.4) Visualization+tools+like+Tableau,+Spotfire) dependent) TBD4)
likert+scale) tics)
Ordinal+discrete+ Technology+Characteris<
Q3.1.5) Relational+database+acceleration/scale) dependent) TBD5)
likert+scale) tics)
Use+a+database+that+allows+me+to+ingest+structured+and+unstruc< Ordinal+discrete+ Technology+Characteris<
Q3.1.6) dependent) TBD6)
tured+data) likert+scale) tics)
I+would+be+more+likely+to+use+a+Big+Data+tools+in+the+cloud+if+I+ Ordinal+discrete+ Technology+Characteris<
Q3.2.1) dependent) TCL1)
could+...+$use+high+performance+processing+power) likert+scale) tics)
Ordinal+discrete+ Technology+Characteris<
Q3.2.2) Collaborate+at+the+same+time+with+my+colleagues) dependent) TCL2)
likert+scale) tics)
Ordinal+discrete+ Technology+Characteris<
Q3.2.3) Ensure+data+security+in+the+cloud) dependent) TCL3)
likert+scale) tics)
Ordinal+discrete+ Technology+Characteris<
Q3.2.4) Ensure+a+lower+financial+cost) dependent) TCL4)
likert+scale) tics)
Ordinal+discrete+ Technology+Characteris<
Q3.2.5) Ensure+a+simpler+setup+to+process+my+data+analysis+tasks.) dependent) TCL5)
likert+scale) tics)
Task(Technology(FIT)
During+the+analysis,+the+choice+of+technology+I+made+helped< Ordinal+discrete+
Q4.1.1) dependent) LOCA1) TTFit+<+locability)
locate+and+select+dataset+easily) likert+scale)
Ordinal+discrete+
Q4.1.2) access+necessary+data) dependent) LOCA2) TTFit+<+locability)
likert+scale)
Ordinal+discrete+
Q4.1.3) easily+integrate++disparate+datasets) dependent) LOCA3) TTFit+<+locability)
likert+scale+
Ordinal+discrete+
Q4.1.4) consolidate+data+from+different+sources) dependent) LOCA4) TTFit+<+locability)
likert+scale)
Ordinal+discrete+
Q4.1.5) Address+unexpected+data+inconsistencies) dependent) TIME1) TTFit+<+Time)
likert+scale)
To+complete+my+analysis,+the+information+system+I+chose+helped+ Ordinal+discrete+
Q4.2.1) dependent) BDAT1) TTFit+<+Big+data)
me+to+deal+with?+$Real<time+data) likert+scale)
Ordinal+discrete+
Q4.2.2) Larger+volume+of+data) dependent) BDAT2) TTFit+<+Big+data)
likert+scale+
Ordinal+discrete+
Q4.2.3) External+data++to+help+find+better+insights) dependent) BDAT3) TTFit+<+Big+data)
likert+scale)
How+would+you+rate+the+following+in+completing+your+task+
Ordinal+discrete+
Q4.3.1) effectively+<+Data+that+I+use+is+current,+accurate+and+appropriate+ dependent) QUAL1) TTFit+<+quality)
likert+scale)
enough+to+meet+my+needs.)
Ordinal+discrete+
Q4.3.2) Data+Anonymization+has+impacted+the+results) dependent) QUAL2) TTFit+<+quality)
likert+scale)
Ordinal+discrete+ TTFit+<+ease+of+use+Hard<
Q4.3.3) I+felt+more+training+was+necessary+to+use+cloud+computing) dependent) TRAI1)
likert+scale) ware)
Ordinal+discrete+ TTFit+<+ease+of+use+Hard<
Q4.3.4) I+felt+more+training+was+necessary+to+Big+Data+tools) dependent) TRAI2)
likert+scale) ware)
Delivering+the+results+in+a+timely+manner+was) Ordinal+discrete+
Q4.4) dependent) TIME1) TTFit+<+Time)
+ likert+scale)
How+would+you+rate+the+following+in+completing+your+task+ Ordinal+discrete+ TTFit+<+Ease+of+use+Hard<
Q4.5.1) dependent) EOUH1)
effectively+<+Cloud+computing+infrastructure+is+convenient+to+use) likert+scale) ware)
Using+cloud+computing+would+not+lead+to+technical+difficulties+in+ Ordinal+discrete+ TTFit+<+Ease+of+use+Hard<
Q4.5.2) dependent) EOUH2)
my+team.) likert+scale) ware)
I+was+able+to+use+Big+Data+platform+and+cloud+for+accessing+and+ Ordinal+discrete+ TTFit+<+Ease+of+use+Hard<
Q4.5.3) dependent) EOUS1)
analyzing+data.) likert+scale) ware+

$ 240$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

I+found+easy+to+use+my+information+system+to+extract/access+ Ordinal+discrete+ TTFit+<+Ease+of+use+Soft<

Q4.5.4) dependent) EOUS2)
Data+(e.g.:+Hadoop<NoSQL)) likert+scale) ware)
I+found+easy+to+use+my+information+system+to+use/implement+ Ordinal+discrete+ TTFit+<+Ease+of+use+Soft<
Q4.5.5) dependent) EOUS3)
modeling+technique) likert+scale) ware)
I+found+easy+to+use+my+information+system+to+perform+data+ Ordinal+discrete+ TTFit+<+Ease+of+use+Soft<
Q4.5.6) dependent) EOUS4)
interpretation+and+visualization) likert+scale) ware)
Perceived(Impacts)
What+impact+did+the+data+analytic+tools+you+chose+have+on+
Ordinal+discrete+
Q5.1.1) your+net+results+for+each+of+the+following+<$improved+the+quality+ dependent) PERF1) Perceived+Impacts)
likert+scale)
of+my+research)
The+data+infrastructure+and+applications+I+chose+has+allowed+me+ Ordinal+discrete+
Q5.1.2) dependent) PERF2) Perceived+Impacts)
to+improve+the+quality+of+my+results) likert+scale)
Ordinal+discrete+
Q5.1.3) Using+Big+Data+tools+improved+my+analytics+process+results.) dependent) PERF3) Perceived+Impacts)
likert+scale)
I+successfully+used+the+information+systems+to+perform+the+ Ordinal+discrete+
Q5.1.4) dependent) PERF4) Perceived+Impacts)
mobile+traffic+analysis) likert+scale)
Big+Data+and+cloud+technology+combined+help+me+to+accomplish+ Ordinal+discrete+
Q5.1.5) dependent) PERF5) Perceived+Impacts)
more+work+than+would+otherwise+be+possible) likert+scale)
Ordinal+discrete+
Q5.1.6) Big+Data+technology+helped+me+to+perform+my+job+better) dependent) PERF6) Perceived+Impacts)
likert+scale)
Utilization)
I+am+using+or+intend+to+use+Big+Data+and+cloud+technology+in+ Ordinal+discrete+
Q5.2.1) dependent) USE1) Utilization)
practice+when+I+deal+with+<+large+volume+of+data) likert+scale)
I+am+using+or+intend+to+use+Big+Data+and+cloud+technology+in+ Ordinal+discrete+
Q5.2.2+ dependent) USE2) Utilization)
practice+when+I+deal+with+<+high+velocity+data) likert+scale)
I+am+using+or+intend+to+use+Big+Data+and+cloud+technology+in+
Ordinal+discrete+
Q5.2.3) practice+when+I+deal+with+<+large+variety+of+unstructured+and+ dependent) USE3) Utilization)
likert+scale)
structured+data)
I+recommend+Big+Data+and+cloud+technology+to+my+peers+that+ Ordinal+discrete+
Q5.2.4) dependent) USE4) Utilization)
need+to+analyze+mobile+traffic+analysis+ likert+scale)
Ordinal+discrete+
Q5.2.5) Overall,+I+found+the+Big+Data+tools+technology+useful+in+my+job) dependent+ USE5) Utilization)
likert+scale)
Ordinal+discrete+
Q5.2.6) Overall,+I+found+the+cloud+technology+useful+in+my+job) dependent) USE6) Utilization)
likert+scale)

8.2.2! Data+Screening+

Data+screening+is+an+important+initial+step+of+data+analysis.+This+is+a+process+that+ensures+
that+data+are+clean+and+ready+for+analysis.+The+process+includes,+for+example,+the+evalua<
tion+of+missing+data+and+other+abnormalities+that+can+induce+an+analysis+bias.+As+the+next+
step,+the+researcher+needs+to+decide+what+to+do+with+data<specific+issues.+For+large+sam<
ples,+researchers+can+discard+missing+and+improper+data.+However,+this+might+be+an+issue+
for+smaller+samples.+Data+preparation+addresses+issues+related+to+missing+data,+outliers+
and+ standardizing+ variables+ [346].+ In+ addition,+ we+ suggest+ additional+ steps+ and+ recom<
mend+checking+the+variables’+linearity,+homoscedasticity+and+multicollinearity.+

$ 241$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

8.2.3! Missing+Data+

Missing+data+can+cause+several+problems+in+analyzing+the+data+especially+when+the+sam<
ple+is+relatively+limited.+In+this+study,+the+audience+is+mostly+academic+researchers+that+
understand+the+survey+requirement+and+they+are+more+sensitive+to+the+need+of+answer<
ing+the+questions.+Due+to+the+limited+sample+size+participating+to+the+NetMob<D4D+chal<
lenges,+ the+ survey’s+ settings+ required+ the+ respondents+ to+ address+ all+ the+ questions.+ Re<
quired+answers+can+be+an+issue+and+lead+to+random+answer+or+even+dropping+the+survey+
completely.+ In+ this+ specific+ research,+ respondents+ were+ active+ participants+ at+ the+
Netmob<D4D+ and+ presented+ their+ paper+ at+ the+ event.+ Therefore,+ the+ risk+ of+ misunder<
standing+the+questions+was+expected+to+be+rather+limited.++

In+the+survey,+15+entries+were+incomplete.+We+noted+that+all+the+respondents+stopped+at+
the+first+few+pages+(under+the+15%+threshold+completion+rate).+While+the+survey+notified+
in+the+first+page,+it+took+in+average+8+min+to+complete,+it+is+assumed+that+those+persons+
started+and+could+not+finish+or+lost+simply+interest.++As+a+result,+the+missing+data+cleaning+
was+limited.+

8.2.4! Outliers++

Using+the+Boxplot+feature+in+SPSS+predictive+analytics+software,+a+visual+representation+of+
the+ survey+ results+ was+ performed+ to+ identify+ possible+ outliers+ [347].+ Part+ of+ the+ data+
screening+ is+ to+ identify+ the+ outliers+ in+ the+ survey’s+ results+ and+ either+ remove+ them+ or+
down+weight+them+using+proper+estimation+methods.+According+to+Cousinau+and+Chartier+
[348],+outliers+can+be+found+in+variables+and+occur+when+the+observation+deviates+signifi<
cantly+ from+ the+ rest+ of+ the+ sample+ (2.5x+ standard+ deviation+ for+ samples+ under+ 80,+ 3x+
standard+deviation+for+samples+above+80).+The+outliers,+if+not+identified,+can+induce+bias+
in+the+analysis+and+skew+conclusions.++

$ 242$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

Consensus+is+that+outliers+should+not+be+removed+from+a+Likert+scale<based+survey,+Gas<
kin17+comments+that+“Answering)at)the)extreme)(1)or)5))is)not)really)representative)outlier)
behavior.”+Our+concern+was+focused+on+response+style+agreement+(tend+to+agree/disagree+
with+all+questions+regardless+of+their+content)+and+unengaged+respondents+who+respond+
'3,+3,+3,+3,...'+for+every+single+survey+item.+There+is+a+trade<off,+because+outliers+will+influ<
ence+small+datasets+and+removing+records+can+in+turn+affect+the+predictive+power.+A+visu<
al+inspection+of+the+data+led+to+the+removal+of+two+records+from+the+survey.++

8.2.4.1! Normality+

Normality+refers+to+the+distribution+of+the+data+for+a+particular+variable+and+is+assessed+
using+ shape,+ skewness+ and+ kurtosis.+ According+ to+ Hubert+ et) al.+ [349],+ survey+ data+ are+
often+ skewed+ and+ researchers+ must+ use+ appropriate+ transformations+ or+ special+ robust+
methods+to+address+skewed+data.+(Hubert+et)al.,)2008).+Skewness+criteria+include:+

!! If+the+skewness+value+is+greater+than+1,+the+data+is+positive+(right)+skewed.++
!! If+the+skewness+value+is+less+than+<1,+the+data+is+negative+(left)+skewed.+

!! If+the+absolute+value+of+the+skewness+is+greater+than+3+times+the+standard+error,+
the+data+is+skewed.+

!! If+the+absolute+value+of+the+kurtosis+is+greater+than+3+times+the+standard+error,+the+
data+has+kurtosis+issues.+

Literature+ [350]+ indicates+ a+ long<standing+ controversy+ regarding+ whether+ ordinal+ data+

(Likert+Scale)+converted+to+numbers+can+be+treated+as+interval+data.+That+is,+can+means,+
standard+deviations,+and+parametric+statistics,+which+depend+upon+data+that+are+normal<
ly+distributed,+be+used+to+analyze+ordinal+data.+Normal+distribution+is+a+continuous+dis<
tribution+while+a+7<point+Likert<type+scale+is+an+ordinal+variable,+so+by+definition,+it+is+not+
normally+distributed.+Likert+data+cannot+be+normally+distributed,+instead+Likert+data+are+
discrete+and+bounded.+Jamieson+[350]+comments+on+this+practice: It)has)become)com:
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$

17
http://statwiki.kolobkreations.com/index.php?title=Data_screening#Outliers
$ 243$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

mon)practice)to)assume)that)Likert:type)categories)constitute)interval:level)measurement).”+
We+also+note+that+Hair+et)al.+[333]+in+the+SmartPLS+book+analyze+skewness+and+kurtosis+
for+a+Likert+1<5+scale+dataset.++

Based+ on+ the+ previous+ statement,+ to+ address+ skewness,+ SPSS+ was+ used+ and+ the+ Likert+
scale+data+was+selected+again.+Only+one+variable+was+found+mildly+left+skewed+in+Task+6+
(+1.167),+and+kurtosis+was+found+in+Task+3+(<1.567)+and+Task+7+(<1.052).+Although+it+ex<
ceeds+ Hubert+ criteria,+ this+ is+ not+ a+ cause+ for+ concern,+ but+ the+ results+ are+ kept+ in+ mind+
throughout+the+analysis.+

8.2.5! Multicollinearity+

Multicollinearity+is+the+existence+of+linear+relationships+between+two+or+more+independ<
ent+ variables+ in+ a+ multiple+ linear+ regression+ model.+ According+ to+ Hair+ et) al.+ [345],+ “As)
multicollinearity)rises,)the)ability)to)define)any)variable's)effect)is)diminished.)The)addition)
of)irrelevant)or)marginally)significant)variables)can)only)increase)the)degree)of)multicollin:
earity,) which) makes) interpretation) of) all) variables) more) difficult.”+ Regarding+ measuring+
the+degree+of+multicollinearity+among+latent+variables,+Hair+et)al.+[345]+states+that+each+
indicator’s+variance+inflation+factor+(VIF)+value+should+be+less+than+5.+++

Multicollinearity+ can+ be+ assessed+ directly+ in+ SmartPLS+ <+ Inner+ VIF+ Values+ (Constructs)+
and+Outer+VIF+Values+(Variables)+<+and+is+particularly+important+for+formative+constructs+
as+variables+are+not+interchangeable.+The+VIF+values+were+calculated+using+SmartPLS+and+
vary+from+1.958+for+Task<TTF+to+2.805+for+Individual<TTF+indicating+some+level+of+multi<
collinearity+when+above+1+but+still+well+under+the+5+threshold.++

Table(24:++Inner+Values+<+Constructs+<+Variance+Inflation+Factors+
Big+data+ Cloud+ Task+
Perceived+
Technolo< Technolo< Individual+ Task+ Technolo< Utilization+
+ Impacts+
gy+ gy+ gy+Fit+

$ 244$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

Big+data+Technology++ 2.078+
+ + + + + +
Cloud+Technology++ 2.162+
+ + + + + +
Individual++ 2.805+
+ + + + + +
Perceived+Impacts+
+ + + + + + +
Task++ 1.958+
+ + + + + +
Task+Technology+Fit+ 2.304+ 1+
+ + + + +
Utilization+ 2.304+
+ + + + + +
+

A+detailed+assessment+is+performed+in+the+Formative+Constructs+Analysis+section.++

8.2.6! Sample+requirements+<+Reassessment+

One+of+the+first+steps+was+to+reassess+the+survey+size+requirements.+The+survey+was+sent+
to+ more+ than+ 300+ researchers.+ Although+ we+ had+ a+ high+ rate+ of+ return+ in+ our+ initial+ pre+
survey,+the+number+of+respondents+was+189+for+the+final+survey.+After+removing+the+in<
complete+and+potential+outliers,+the+final+number+was+162.+The+model+was+designed+with+
7+constructs,+the+largest+construct+Task<Technology+fit+has+19+formative+variables.+(Reas<
sessment+of+the+sample+size+requirements+is+needed+based+on+the+survey+results.+Current+
sample+after+data+cleaning+is+162.)+

According+to+Hair+Jr+et)al.+(2013),+in+PLS+SEM,+the+sample+size+is+determined+by+the+often<
cited+10+times+rule+(Barclay,+Higgins+and+Thompson)+which+indicates+that+the+sample+size+
should+be+equal+to+the+larger+of:++

10+times+the+largest+number+of+formative+indicators+used+to+measure+a+single+construct,+
or+ 10+ times+ the+ largest+ number+ of+ structural+ paths+ directed+ at+ a+ particular+ construct+ in+
the+structural+model.+Based+on+our+current+model,+we+have+22+indicators+pointing+to+the+
TTF+ constructs,+ so+ the+ rule+ of+ thumb+ indicates+ that+ the+ minimum+ sample+ size+ is+ 220.+
Therefore,+ a+ sample+ size+ of+ 162+ may+ not+ be+ sufficient+ for+ detecting+ small+ effects+ or+ for+
estimating+robust+parameters+from+which+we+can+draw+generalizable+conclusions.++

If+ the+ study+ doesn't+ have+ the+ necessary+ sample+ size,+ the+ statistical+ power+ goes+ down.+ If+
the+power+is+too+low+(<50%),+we+cannot+validly+conclude+from+a+nonsignificant+path+to+a+

$ 245$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

nonexistent+effect.+Thus,+only+the+significant+paths+in+the+model+can+be+interpreted,+but+
no+longer+the+nonsignificant+ones.+Alternative+solutions+suggest+the+model+could+be+divi<
ded+ in+ sub<models.+ Path+ coefficients+ estimates+ will+ get+ biased+ as+ a+ result+ and+ will+ be+
prone+ to+ report+ artifacts.+ This+ is+ particularly+ critical+ if+ there+ are+ high+ correlations+ bet<
ween+the+predictors.+

Hair+ et) al.+ [333]+ recommend+ to+ complement+ this+ rule+ of+ thumb+ with+ a+ more+ thorough+
approach+ and+ use+ power+ analysis+ (Cohen+ Tables)+ or+ G*Power+ tool+ to+ conduct+ a+ power+
analysis+with+some+assumptions+about+the+parameters+expected.++

We+calculated+the+minimum+sample+size+required+using+G*Power+software,+a+free+appli<
cation18+created+by+Universitat+Dusseldorf+Researchers.+G*Power+test+with+alpha+(0.05),+
power+(0.95)+and+a+medium+effect+(0.3)+size+requires+a+total+sample+size+of+at+least+111.+
For+ smaller+ effects,+ a+ smaller+ effect+ size+ (0.25)+ would+ require+ a+ sample+ size+ of+ 262.+ As+
mentioned+above,+outer+weights+might+be+affected+by+the+sample+limitation,+typically+ne<
gative+ signs+ may+ occur+ or+ the+ inability+ to+ detect+ the+ significance+ of+ the+ variables+ and+
constructs.+!

Initial+ testing+ in+ SmartPLS+ confirms+ that+ the+ TTF+ variables+ exhibit+ low+ outer+ weights+
(ACCE1,+COMP3,+EOUH2,+TIME1)+which+mean+that+there+will+not+be+significant+(T<Test)+
and+negative+signs+(EOUS2,+EOUS4,TRAI2,+COMP2)+indicating+possible+issues.+

There+are+several+ways+the+researcher+can+mitigate+this+issue,+either+by+reducing+the+ex<
planatory+power+to+80%+from+95%,+or+reducing+the+number+of+variables+pointing+to+the+
largest+construct.+

Researchers+ have+ different+ options+ to+ use+ if+ they+ find+ it+ necessary+ to+ assess+ the+ outer+
weights:++
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$

18
G*Power is a tool to compute statistical power analyses for many different t tests, F tests, χ2
tests, z tests and some exact tests. G*Power can also be used to compute effect sizes and to
display graphically the results of power analyses. http://www.gpower.hhu.de/en.html

$ 246$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

First,+Diamantopoulos+et)al.+[351]+suggest+that+indicators+can+be+aggregated+using+simple+
mean+or+weighted+mean+of+the+standardized+values+and+outcome+can+be+used+as+the+indi<
cator+of+the+latent+variables++in+the+SmartPLS.++

Another+option,+inspired+by+Cohen+[344]+[352],+involves+running+a+principal+component+
analysis+ with+ varimax+ rotation+ (orthogonal+ principal+ components),+ saving+ the+ factor+
scores+and+using+them+as+a+formative+indicator+of+the+latent+variables+in+the+SmartPLS.++

8.3! Results+

In+this+section,+we+present+the+results+of+our+data+analysis.+We+provide+the+basic+descrip<
tive+ statistics+ of+ the+ collected+ data+ and+ present+ the+ repondents+ profile.+ In+ the+ following+
subsections,+we+present+the+formative+measurement+models,+the+reflective+measurement+
models,+the+evaluation+of+the+overall+measurement+model+and+the+structural+model.++The+
table+below+summarizes+the+basic+profile+of+respondents.+

Table(25+Basic+Descriptive+Statistics:++Respondents+profile+
Number %
Function
PhD - Ms student from University 60 37%
Professor/ Researcher from University Dept/ Lab 68 42%
Other Researchers Private/Internat'l Institution and/or Non Gov Institu- 34 21%
n=162
tion
Origins
North America 44 27.2%
Europe 88 54.3%
Asia 20 12.3%
South Americas 5 3.09%
Middle East Africa 5 3.09%
n=162
main strategic task/goal
Mobility Analysis (Human Mobility, transportation, ..) 62 38.3%
Social Analysis (User interactions, Demographics, Environment, Epi- 78 48.1%
Network
demics) Analysis (Mobile demand, Networking solutions, Marketing 21 13%
Other
solutions, Privacy solutions 1 0.6%
n=162

$ 247$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

Respondents+profile+is+important+as+it+may+because+anything+that+relate+to+model+is+tied+
to+ the+ profile+ of+ the+ respondents,+ People+ with+ different+ functions,+ may+ respond+ diffe<
rently.++

The+ + data+ + sample+ + contains+ 77.5%+ academic+ researchers+ and+ 22.5%+ private+ institu<
tions/companies.+As+mentioned,+this+is+a+new+field+of+research+and+the+D4D+and+NetMob+
event+ is+ heavily+ geared+ to+ academic+ researchers.+ In+ addition,+ Orange+ ensured+ that+ data+
sets+were+used+only+in+academic+settings+and+not+for+commercial+purposes.+

The+country+of+origin+data+were+collapsed+by+region.+

In+addition,+the+main+strategic+goals+and+tasks+were+simplified+into+4+categories+in+order+
to+align+with+our+Large<scale+Mobile+Traffic+Analysis+Survey+[6].+

8.3.1! Formative+Measurement+Models+Evaluation+

8.3.1.1! Measurement+Analysis+of+TTF+Construct++

A+major+contribution+of+the+current+research+is+to+develop+a+valid+TTF+construct+to+eva<
luate+the+use+of+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+technology+in+mobile+traffic+analysis+set<
tings.+ To+ achieve+ that+ goal,+ we+ first+ consider+ the+ development+ of+ the+ TTF+ construct,+ its+
dimensionality+and+validity.++

In+order+to+address+any+concerns+with+the+sample+size,+we+conduct+factor+analyses+to+de<
termine+if+the+items+measuring+a+latent+variable+can+be+reduced+to+components.+We+ex<
pect+that+underlying+dimensions+can+be+identified+since+there+are+a+large+number+of+items+
being+used+to+measure+some+of+the+latent+variables.+Factor+analysis+is+conducted+to+pre<
pare+for+the+confirmatory+factor+analysis+where+structural+equation+modeling+is+applied+
to+estimate+the+conceptual+model.+

$ 248$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

Factor+Analysis++

Factor+analysis+is+a+statistical+method+used+to+describe+the+variability+between+observed,+
correlated+variables+in+terms+of+a+potentially+lower+number+of+unobserved+variables+cal<
led+factors.+Using+factor+analysis,+researchers+can+analyze+correlation+structures+between+
many+ variables,+ i.e.+ survey+ questions,+ and+ use+ a+ defined+ set+ of+ highly+ intercorrelated+
components+to+explain+these+variables.+

We+assume+that+the+dimensions+within+the+dataset+are+represented+by+these+components.+
According+to+Hair+et)al.+[333],+researchers+can+use+factor+analysis+to+reduce+the+number+
of+ variables,+ identify+ their+ underlying+ dimensions.+ Principal+ compenent+ analysis+ (PCA)+
minimizes+ issues+ with+ multicollinearity+ because+ it+ converts+ correlated+ items+ into+ new+
independent+ components.+ By+ using+ a+ PCA+ in+ this+ thesis,+ we+ identify+ the+ underlying+ di<
mensions+of+the+items+within+each+latent+variable+and+eliminate+the+redundant+items.+If+a+
solution+with+one+dimension+is+presented,+appropriateness+of+the+items+as+indicators+for+
the+latent+variables+is+ensured+and+confirmed+by+the+PCA.++

Various+criteria+and+procedures+can+be+used+in+concert+to+identify+the+number+of+compo<
nents+in+the+PCA.+In+this+study,+we+observed+the+communalities+first+to+determine+if+any+
items+had+communality+low+enough+that+it+should+be+taken+into+account+when+other+cri<
teria+was+assessed.+Generally,+communalities+should+be+0.5+or+greater,+since+that+figure+
indicates+that+at+least+50+%+of+the+item’s+variance+is+maintained+in+the+component+solu<
tion.+According+to+the+Kaiser+Guttman’s+eigenvalue+criterion,+components+are+considered+
significant+and+should+be+kept+if+they+have+eigenvalues+greater+than+1.+The+explained+va<
riance+should+be+greater+than+60%.+In+conjunction+with+the+Kaiser+Guttman’s+eigenvalue+
criterion,+the+number+of+components+that+the+items+are+allocated+into+can+be+seen+in+the+
shape+of+a+scree+plot.+The+number+of+components+suggested+for+the+solution+are+on+the+
left+ of+ the+ cutoff+ point+ in+ the+ curve.+ + + To+ assess+ the+ initial+ measurement+ scale,+ we+ con<
ducted+factor+analysis+with+Varimax+rotation.++

$ 249$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

The+Kaiser<Meyer<Olkin+(KMO)+and+Bartlett’s+test+statistics+are+assessed+to+determine+the+
appropriateness+of+using+factor+analysis.+Researchers+recognize+the+rule+of+thumb+that+a+
KMO+ value+ of+ 0.5+ and+ above+ indicates+ the+ appropriateness+ of+ a+ factor+ analysis.+ Resear<
chers+can+use+Bartlett’s+test+of+sphericity+to+determine+if+items+in+a+dataset+are+correlated.+
Correlation+is+indicated+by+a+significant+Bartlett’s+test+statistic+of+<0.05+among+items.+This+
correlation+is+an+assumption+for+conducting+a+factor+analysis.++

The+ appropriateness+ of+ factor+ analysis+ was+ evaluated+ by+ using+ the+ KMO+ and+ Bartlett’s+
test+of+sphericity.+The+overall+measure+of+sampling+adequacy+was+ensured+by+KMO+to+be+
0.766+(>+0.50)+and+the+Bartlett’s+test+provided+support+for+the+validity+of+the+instrument+
at+1298.9,+significant+at+P+=+0.000.+Six+factors+with+eigenvalues+greater+than+1+were+ex<
tracted+ (5.016,+ 2.628,+ 1.761,+ 1.273,+ 1.112+ and+ 1.017).+ The+ cumulative+ value+ of+ 67.40+%+
represents+the+sums+of+squared+loadings+from+the+six+factors+and+help+explain+the+total+
variance+in+the+data.++

Table(26+Results+of+TTF+Dimension+Reduction+of+19+TTF+Constructs+with+scale+refinement+

Initial+Eigenval< Rotation+Sums+of+
ues+ Squared+Loadings+
Load<
Component+ Items+ %+of+ %+of+ Cumu<
ings+
Total+ Vari< Total+ Vari< lative+
ance+ ance+ %+
EOUS2+ .894+
EOUS1+ .872+
TTF1+ EOUS3+ .851+ 5.016+ 26.399+ 4.118+ 21.672+ 21.672+
EOUS4+ .819+
TRAI1+ .659+
COMP1+ .797+
COMP2+ .709+
TTF2+ 2.628+ 13.830+ 2.329+ 12.257+ 33.929+
LOCA1+ .677+
ACCE1+ .570+
BDAT2+ .856+
TTF3+ BDAT1+ .710+ 1.761+ 9.268+ 2.220+ 11.685+ 45.614+
CURR1+ .682+
TRAI2+ .851+
TTF4+ 1.273+ 6.701+ 1.465+ 7.708+ 53.322+
COMP3+ .585+
EOUH1+ .724+
TTF5+ BDAT3+ .668+ 1.112+ 5.851+ 1.456+ 7.663+ 60.985+
EOUH2+ .538+
TTF6+ CURR2+ .650+ 1.017+ 5.351+ 1.219+ 6.416+ 67.401+

$ 250$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

TIME1+ .587+

Table+ 26+ shows+ the+ extracted+ 6+ factors.+ The+ factor+ loadings+ were+ reintegrated+ into+ the+
dataset+ as+ TTF1,+ TTF2,+ TTF3,+ TTF4,+ TTF5+ and+ TTF6.+ The+ model+ was+ recalculated+ in+
SmartPLS.+ The+ component+ TTF6+ (both+ variables+ CURR2+:+ Data+ Currency+ and+ TIME1:+
Timeliness+ are+ loading+ on+ this+ component)+ exhibited+ some+ negative+ weights.+ Because+
this+is+a+combination+of+variables,+sign+is+a+possible+issue.+After+further+testing,+but+also+a+
rational+evaluation+of+what+the+new+components+TTF6+mean,+we+removed+the+variables+
from+the+dataset.+As+a+result,+CURR2+and+TIME1+were+deleted+from+the+output+factors.+

The+second+run+without+the+2+variables+indicated+KMO+ensured+overall+measure+of+sam<
pling+adequacy+as+0.777+(>+0.50)+and+the+Bartlett’s+test+provided+support+for+the+validity+
of+the+instrument+at+1237.3+,+significant+at+P+=+0.000.+

Table+27+KMO+and+Bartlett's+Test+

Kaiser<Meyer<Olkin+Measure+of+Sampling+Adequacy.+ 0.777+
Bartlett's+Test+of+Sphericity+ Approx.+Chi<Square+ 1237.318+
df+ 136+
+ Sig.+ 0+
+
+

The+identified+compenents+were+converted+into+new+variables+to+represent+the+construct.+
This+enabled+us+to+use+the+results+from+the+PCA+analyses+in+the+subsequent+estimation+of+
the+conceptual+model,+for+the+latent+variables+with+more+than+one+component.+This+con<
versation+can+be+made+by+applying+three+techniques:++using+surrogate+variable+analysis,+
calculating+ a+ summated+ scale+ or+ computing+ factor+ scores+ in+ SPSS+ [333],+ [345].+ For+ this+
study,+we+compute+factor+scores+for+the+components+identified+from+the+principal+com<
ponent+ analysis.+ This+ technique+ is+ best+ suited+ for+ our+ study+ because+ it+ represents+ all+
items+loading+on+the+components+and+is+best+method+for+completing+data+reduction+and+
avoiding+problems+with+multicollinearity+(Hair+et)al.,+[345]).++

$ 251$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

The+next+run+of+factor+analysis+involved+the+remaining+17+items.+As+seen+in+Table+25,+six+
factors+based+on+an+eigenvalue+cut+off+of+1+were+yielded+from+an+exploratory+factor+ana<
lysis+with+a+Varimax+rotation.

Table(28+Rotated+Component+matrix+
+ Components+
+ +
Items+ 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ +
5+
EOUS2+ 0.894+
EOUS1+ 0.872+ + + + +
Ease+of+Use+(TTF1)+ EOUS3+ 0.851+ + + + +
EOUS4+ 0.819+ + + + +
TRAI1+ 0.659+ + + + +
COMP1+ +
0.797+ + + +
COMP2+ + 0.709+ + + +
Accessibility+(TTF2)+
LOCA1+ + 0.677+ + + +
ACCE1+ + 0.57+ + + +
BDAT2+ + +
0.856+ + +
Data+Processing+ + + + +
(TTF3)+ BDAT1+ 0.71+
CURR1+ + + 0.682+ + +
TRAI2+ + + +
0.851+ +
Training+(TTF4)+
COMP3+ + + + 0.585+ +
EOUH1+ + + + +
0.724+
Ease+of+Use+Platform+ + + + +
(TTF5)+ BDAT3+ 0.668+
EOUH2+ + + + + 0.538+
+ +
Extraction+Method:+Principal+Component+Analysis.++ + +
Rotation+Method:+Varimax+with+Kaiser+Normalization.+ + + + + +
Rotation+converged+in+6+iterations.+ + + + +
+

According+to+our+calculations,+67.339+%+of+the+cumulative+variance+was+explained+by+the+
refined+ model.+ The+ remaining+ items+ were+ confirmed+ into+ six+ factors.+ Both+ the+ KMO+
(0.777)+and+the+Bartlett’s+test+of+sphericity+(p+=+0.000)+were+significant.+

$ 252$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

Table( 29+ Final+ Results+ of+ TTF+ Dimension+ Reduction+ of+ 17+ Constructs:+ Final+ reliability+
testing+
Rotation+Sums+of+Squared+
Initial+Eigenvalues+
Loadings+
Component+ Items+ Loadings+ %+of+ Cumu<
%+of+
Total+ Total+ Vari< lative+
Variance+
ance+ %+
EOUS2+ .894+
EOUS1+ .872+
TTF1+ EOUS3+ .851+ 4.975+ 29.264+ 4.091+ 24.067+ 24.067+
EOUS4+ .819+
TRAI1+ .659+
COMP1+ .797+
COMP2+ .709+
TTF2+ 2.457+ 14.451+ 2.262+ 13.307+ 37.373+
LOCA1+ .677+
ACCE1+ .570+
BDAT2+ .856+
TTF3+ BDAT1+ .710+ 1.712+ 10.073+ 2.129+ 12.522+ 49.896+
CURR1+ .682+
TRAI2+ .851+
TTF4+ 1.193+ 7.02+ 1.522+ 8.951+ 58.847+
COMP3+ .585+
EOUH1+ .724+
TTF5+ BDAT3+ .668+ 1.11+ 6.531+ 1.444+ 8.492+ 67.339+
EOUH2+ .538+

After+refining+the+first+instrument,+we+retained+17+items+items+for+the+TTF+construct+Ease+
of+ Use+ comprises+ 5+ items+ (EOUS2,+ EOUS1,+ EOUS3,+ EOUS4,+ TRAI1),+ Data+ Accessibility+
comprises+4+items+(COMP1,+COMP2,+LOCA1,+ACCE1)+,+Data+Processing+comprises+3+items+
(BDAT2,+BDAT1,+CURR1),+Training+comprises+2+items+(TRAI2,+COMP3)+and+Ease+of+Use+
Platform+comprises+3+items+(EOUH1,+BDAT3,+EOUH2)..+

8.3.2! Formative+Measurement+Model+Evaluation+

Table+ 30+ shows+ the+ reliability+ and+ validity+ measures+ for+ the+ formative+ constucts.+ To+
check+the+significance+of+the+indicators’+effects,+we+performed+a+bootstrapping+routine+as+
a+resampling+procedure+with+5,000+subsamples.+Its+partial+effect+on+the+construct+as+well+
as+effects+of+the+other+indicators+on+the+construct+are+accounted+for+by+the+weights+of+the+

$ 253$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

indicators+ [333].+ With+ a+ suggested+ threshold+ of+ below+ 5,+ variance+ inflation+ factor+ (VIF)+
scores+are+calculated+to+test+for+multicollinearity+in+the+formative+indicators.+++

Table(30+Reliability+and+validity+measures+for+formative+constructs+

Latent(VariaC
Formative(Items( Weights( tCValue( VIF( 0.025( 0.975(
bles(
INDIV3+ <0.168****+ 1.872+ 2.06+ <0.343+ 0.006+
Individual+Char< INDIV4+ 0.523*+ 7.328+ 1.516+ 0.363+ 0.645+
acteristics+ INDIV5+ 0.727*+ 11.595+ 1.402+ 0.604+ 0.852+
INDIV6+ 0.023+ 0.257+ 1.536+ <0.157+ 0.192+
TASK1+ 0.409**+ 3.108+ 3.047+ 0.149+ 0.675+
TASK2+ 0.507*+ 4.038+ 3.255+ 0.242+ 0.759+
TASK4+ 0.155+ 0.654+ 1.436+ <0.121+ 0.243+
+Task+Character<
TASK6+ 0.386**+ 3.108+ 1.837+ 0.122+ 0.561+
istics+
TASK7+ 0.217***+ 1.948+ 1.434+ 0.000+ 0.357+
TASK8+ 0.087+ 0.189+ 2.401+ <0.193+ 0.254+
TASK9+ 0.203****+ 1.748+ 1.785+ <0.086+ 0.295+
TBD1+ 0.319***+ 2.384+ 2.882+ 0.057+ 0.580+
TBD2+ 0.242**+ 2.902+ 1.496+ 0.064+ 0.397+
Big+data+Tech< TBD3+ 0.527*+ 6.194+ 1.38+ 0.361+ 0.695+
nology+Charac<
TBD4+ 0.139****+ 1.795+ 1.444+ <0.016+ 0.283+
teristics+
TBD5+ 0.556*+ 5.069+ 2.145+ 0.333+ 0.762+
TBD6+ 0.363**+ 3.226+ 2.09+ 0.148+ 0.594+
TCL1+ 0.392*+ 3.228+ 2.782+ 0.148+ 0.612+
Cloud+Technolo< TCL2+ 0.170***+ 2.363+ 1.499+ 0.021+ 0.303+
gy+Characteris< TCL3+ 0.026+ 0.311+ 1.331+ <0.122+ 0.188+
tics+ TCL4+ 0.123+ 1.587+ 1.196+ <0.023+ 0.282+
TCL5+ 0.526*+ 4.937+ 2.516+ 0.309+ 0.729+
TTF1+ 0.648*+ 11.186+ 1+ 0.534+ 0.762+
TTF2+ 0.275*+ 6.023+ 1+ 0.192+ 0.372+
Task+Technology+
TTF3+ 0.570*+ 9.268+ 1+ 0.453+ 0.691+
Fit+
TTF4+ 0.175*+ 3.981+ 1+ 0.083+ 0.255+
TTF5+ 0.384*+ 7.935+ 1+ 0.292+ 0.483+
Notes:+ *+ Indicates+ significant+ paths+ p<+ 0.001,+ *+ *+ p<+ 0.01,+ ***+ paths+ p<+ 0.05+ .+ Based+ on+ outputs+ from+
SmartPLS+Excel+report.

Individual(Construct:+Both+indicators+INDIV4+and+INDIV5+related+to+the+level+of+expe<
rience+for+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+are+significant+on+the+Individual+Characteristics,+

$ 254$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

indicating+ that+ they+ contribute+ to+ the+ task<technology+ fit+ construct;+ however,+ the+ expe<
rience+dealing+with+mobile+data+traffic+analysis+is+raising+concerns+as+the+INDIV3+weight+
is+negative.+Negative+weight+indicates+a+potential+sign+issue,+for+example,+the+question+is+
negatively+ phrased,+ or+ a+ high+ VIF+ value+ may+ imply+ a+ multicollineraity+ issue.+ However,+
INDIV3+ indicators+ outerloading+ is+ positive+ and+ the+ VIF+ is+ within+ the+ acceptable+ range+
(2.06).+ According+ to+ Cenfetelli+ and+ Bassellier+ [353],+ negatively+ weighted+ items+ that+ are+
not+suppressors+and+are+not+collinear+should+be+included+if+they+continue+to+behave+diffe<
rently+ than+ other+ indicators.+ Indicators+ that+ are+ highly+ correlated+ are+ undesirable+ be<
cause+they+can+destablize+the+construct.+Researchers+can+use+the+variance+inflation+factor+
(VIF)+ statistic+ to+ determine+ if+ high+ correlations+ exist+ in+ formative+ measures+ and+ to+ de<
termine+the+presence+of+multicollinearity.+A+VIF+statistic+for+a+formative+measure+greater+
than+3.3+calls+for+researchers+to+determine+if+there+is+overlap+between+the+chosen+indica<
tors.+If+overlap+exists,+researchers+should+consider+carefully+the+removal+of+the+items+un<
derstanding+that+removal+could+alter+the+meaning+of+the+construct.+

As+shown+in+Table+30,+the+datasets+had+no+other+negative+weights,+so+it+is+reasonable+to+
determine+ that+ no+ suppressor+ effects+ were+ present.+ Furthermore,+ none+ of+ the+ negative+
weights+ were+ excluded+ from+ analysis+ since+ issues+ with+ multicollinearity+ were+ not+ pre<
sent.++

Task(Characteristics(Construct(:+Indicators+(TASK1,+TASK2,+TASK6,+TASK7)+are+signifi<
cant,+ respectively+ new+ task,+ adhoc+ non<routine+ problems,+ complex+ and+ interdependent+
tasks+contribute+to+the+task+characteristic+construct.+Task3+exhibit+high+mutlicollinearity+
(VIF+4.971)+and+negative+weight+(<0.264),+based+on+above+criteria,+we+decided+to+remove+
the+indicator.+

TaskCTechnology( Fit(:( The+ new+ subconstructs+ Ease+ of+ Use+ Software+ TTF1+ (EOUS2,+
EOUS1,+ EOUS3,+ EOUS4,+ TRAI1),+ Data+ Accessibility+ TTF2+ (COMP1,+ COMP2,+ LOCA1,+ AC<
CE1),+ Data+ Processing+ TTF3+ (BDAT2,+ BDAT1,CURR1),+ + Data+ Integration+ TTF4+ (TRAI2,+
COMP3)+and+Ease+of+Use+Data+Platform+TTF5+(EOUH1,+BDAT3,+EOUH2)+weights+are+sig<

$ 255$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

nificant+(p<0.001).+No+multicollinearity+issues+(VIF+values+are+1)+are+detected,+among+the+
five+indicators+forming+the+task+technology+fit+construct.+

Technology(Constructs,(Big(Data(and(Cloud(Computing(:(All+Big+Data+technology+indi<
cators+ have+ positive+ weights+ and+ demonstrate+ a+ positive+ effect+ on+ the+ construct.+ The+ t<
values+for+the+four+indicators+are+all+over+the+critical+t<value+of+1.96+(p+<+0.05),+but+TBD4+
(p<0.1)+showing+that+these+indicators+are+significant+measures.+Multicollinearity+is+sligh<
tly+high+for+TBD1+at+2.882+but+still+under+3.++On+the+other+hand,+Cloud+Computing+Techno<
logy+construct+TCL3+(Cloud+Security),+TCL4+(Cloud+Cost)+are+below+significant+levels.+Ou<
terloadings+are+also+low+(0.355+and+0.34)+indicating+that+the+indicators+have+no+signifi<
cant+impact+on+the+construct.+As+a+result,+a+determination+needs+to+be+made+to+remove+or+
keep+the+indicator+as+part+of+the+structural+model.+We+have+to+keep+in+mind+that+the+en<
tire+construct+might+be+altered+if+a+formative+indicator+is+removed+[326].++

8.3.3! Reflective+Measurement+Models+

Our+ Task<Technology+ Fit+ model+ has+ two+ latent+ variables+ with+ reflective+ measurements+
models+ Perceived+ Impacts+ and+ Utilization.+ For+ the+ reflective+ measurement+ models,+ we+
need+the+estimates+for+the+relationships+between+the+reflective+latent+variables+and+their+
indicators.++

The+outer+loadings+of+the+reflective+constructs+Perceived+Impacts+and+Utilization+are+not+
all+meeting+the+threshold+value+of+0.7.+Indicators+PERF1+and+PERF2+indicates+0.667+and+
0.639,+ USE4+ (0.574)+ and+ USE6+ (0.672),+ as+ the+ indicators+ are+ interchangeables+ previous+
research+indicates+that+these+variables+may+be+deleted+in+order+to+improve+the+composite+
reliability+of+the+construct.+In+our+case,+we+ran+the+model+without+the+indicators+PERF1,+
PERF2,+ USE4+ and+ USE6.+ Results+ show+ a+ minimal+ variation+ in+ the+ Perceived+ Impact+ and+
Utilization+composite+reliability+which+already+above+0.7,+Path+loadings+TTF<>+PERF+in<
creased+slightly+0.026,+TTF<>USE+on+the+other+hand+decreased+by+0.01.+Removing+USE4+
decrease+USE6+outer+loadings+to+0.592+from+0.672;+this+would+imply+to+remove+it+as+well.+
Considering+ that+ other+ constructs,+ outer+ weights+ were+ not+ impacted+ significantly,+ and+
$ 256$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

since+ we+ want+ to+ ensure+ we+ capture+ the+ total+ and+ indirects+ effects,+ PERF1,+ PERF2+ and+
USE6+indicators+were+maintained+in+the+model.+USE4+indicator+was+removed.+

In+order+to+evaluate+of+internal+consistency+reliability,+Hair+et)al.+suggest+to+use+the+com<
posite+reliability+(CR+in+the+table)+indicators+rather+than+Cronbach+Alpha+as+it+takes+into+
account+the+differnt+outerloadings+of+the+indicator+variables.+Perceived+Impacts+and+Utili<
zation+constructs+composite+reliability+are+high+(respectively+0.886+and+0.885)+and+satis<
factory,+according+to+Nunnally+and+Bernstein+[354].+

Convergent+and+discriminant+validity+can+be+assessed+in+two+ways.+First,+we+determine+if+
the+AVE+of+each+construct+is+larger+than+its+correlation+with+the+other+constructs.+Second,+
we+check+to+see+if+each+item+has+a+higher+loading+(calculated+as+the+correlation+between+
the+factor+scores+and+the+standardized+measures)+on+its+assigned+construct+than+on+the+
other+constructs.+Table+31+presents+a+summary+of+the+results+for+the+reflective+measure<
ment+models.+Convergent+validity+is+directly+extracted+from+SmartPLS+applications,+both+
Utilization+and+Perceived+Impacts+are+above+0.5.+Utilization+(AVE=0.611)+and+Perceived+
Impact+(0.568)+are+above+the+recommended+0.5+threshold;+therefore,+the+two+reflective+
constructs+meet+the+convergent+validity+requirements.+

Table(31+Results+summary+for+reflective+measurement+models.+
Discriminant((
Latent(Variables( Reflective(Items( Loadings( CR( AVE( Validity(
USE1+ 0.811+
USE2+ 0.715+
USE3+ 0.803+
Utilization+ 0.885+ 0.611+ yes+
USE4+ 0.573+
USE5+ 0.854+
USE6+ 0.672+
PERF1+ 0.667+
PERF2+ 0.637+
PERF3+ 0.795+
Perceived+Impact+ 0.886+ 0.568+ yes+
PERF4+ 0.737+
PERF5+ 0.842+
PERF6+ 0.824+

$ 257$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

As+the+next+steps,+we+want+to+ensure+that+the+discriminant+validity+is+addressed+in+table+
32,+using+the+Fornell<Larcker+criterion+and+the+cross+loadings.+Fornell<Larcker+criterion+
implies+ that+ the+ square+ root+ of+ the+ AVE+ for+ each+ construct+ should+ be+ higher+ than+ the+
construct’s+highest+correlation+with+any+construct+in+the+model.+Put+simply,+the+construct+
shares+ more+ variance+ with+ its+ indicators+ than+ with+ any+ other+ constructs.+ Correlations+
from+both+row+and+column+are+lower+than+the+reflective+construct+square+root+AVE.++

Table(32+Fornell<Larcker+Criterion,+Correlation+of+the+Latent+Variables+
Big+data+ Cloud+ Task+
Perceived+
Technolo< Technolo< Individual+ Task+ Technolo< Utilization+
Impacts++
++ gy+ gy+ gy+Fit+
Big+data+
**+
Technology+ + + + + + +
Cloud+Tech<
0.526+ **+
nology++ + + + + +
Individual++
0.678+ 0.71+ **+
+ + + + +
Perceived+
0.594+ 0.585+ 0.617+ 0.754*(
Impacts++ + + +
Task++
0.613+ 0.586+ 0.623+ 0.453+ **+
+ + +
Task+Tech<
0.803+ 0.808+ 0.802+ 0.747+ 0.736+ **+
nology+Fit+ +
Utilization+
0.557+ 0.688+ 0.492+ 0.724+ 0.408+ 0.752+ 0.782*(
+
*+AVE+Square+root+ +
**+Formative+Constructs+ +
+ + + + +
According+ to+ Henseler+ et) al.+ [332],+ [355],+ researchers+ should+ check+ the+ heterotrait<
monotrait+ ratio+ of+ correlations+ (HTMT)+ because+ it+ has+ demonstrated+ superior+ perfor<
mance+ to+ the+ Fornell<Larcker+ criterion+ and+ cross<loadings.+ They+ suggest+ that+ Fornell<
Larcker+criterion+and+cross<loadings+do+not+reliably+detect+a+lack+of+discriminant+validity+
in+common+research+situations.+The+HTMT+criterion+for+Utilization<>Perceived+Impacts+is+
HTMT=0.786;+t<stat+:17.998,+p<0.000+and+below+the+maximum+of+0.9;+therefore,+the+pre<
viously+established+discriminant+validity+between+the+two+constructs+is+confirmed.++

$ 258$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

8.3.4! Evaluation+of+the+Overall+Measurement+Model+

In+our+thesis,+we+checked+the+properties+of+the+overall+measurement+model+in+terms+of+
reliability,+ convergent+ validity+ and+ discriminant+ validity+ by+ using+ confirmatory+ factor+
analysis+(CFA).+The+overall+model+was+assessed+by+using+Partial+Least+Square++to+estimate+
the+parameters+in+the+outer+and+inner+model.+The+inner+model+approximation+was+calcu<
lated+ by+ applying+ PLS+ path+ modeling+ with+ a+ path+ weighting+ scheme.+ Afterward,+ nonpa<
rametric+ bootstrapping+ was+ applied+ with+ 5,000+ replications+ (as+ n=162)+ to+ obtain+ the+
standard+errors+of+the+estimates+(Chin,+1998+[343];+Vinzi,+2005+[334]).++

As+shown+in+Table+30,+item+loadings+of+all+the+reflective+constructs+were+greater+than+0.7+
and+ deemed+ significant+ at+ P+ <+ 0.01,+ according+ to+ our+ CFA+ results.+ The+ average+ variance+
extracted+(AVEs)+cutoff+value+is+0.5+and+the+composite+reliabilities+(CRs)+cut+off+value+is+
0.7.+In+our+study,+the+cut+off+values+in+each+instance+were+exceeded.+Since+all+the+reflective+
indicators+ load+ much+ higher+ on+ their+ hypothesized+ factor+ than+ on+ other+ factors,+ we+ de<
termined+ that+ there+ is+ convergent+ validity.+ When+ we+ considered+ technology+ and+ indivi<
dual+ characteristics+ –+ our+ formative+ constructs,+ we+ examined+ factor+ weights,+ instead+ of+
factor+ loadings,+ which+ represent+ the+ contribution+ of+ each+ indicator+ to+ the+ respective+
construct.+Table+33+also+shows+that+the+formative+items+significantly+contribute+to+their+
respective+constructs+as+they+are+significant+at+P+<+0.05+(Chin,+[343]+1998).+When+multi<
collinearity+ among+ the+ formative+ items+ was+ assessed,+ only+ minimum+ collinearity+ was+
detected+with+the+VIF+ranging+between+1.050+and+1.442.

Table(33+Summary+Table:+Psychometrics+properties+from+latent+variables+using+Partial+
Least+Square+Analysis+

Latent(Variables( Formative(Items( Weights( tCValue( VIF(

INDIV3+ <0.168****+ 1.872+ 2.06+
Individual+Char< INDIV4+ 0.523*+ 7.328+ 1.516+
acteristics+ INDIV5+ 0.727*+ 11.595+ 1.402+
INDIV6+ 0.023+ 0.257+ 1.536+
+Task+Character< TASK1+ 0.409**+ 3.108+ 3.047+
istics+ TASK2+ 0.507*+ 4.038+ 3.255+

$ 259$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

TASK4+ 0.155+ 0.654+ 1.436+

TASK6+ 0.386**+ 3.108+ 1.837+
TASK7+ 0.217***+ 1.948+ 1.434+
TASK8+ 0.087+ 0.189+ 2.401+
TASK9+ 0.203****+ 1.748+ 1.785+
TBD1+ 0.319***+ 2.384+ 2.882+
TBD2+ 0.242**+ 2.902+ 1.496+
Big+data+Technol<
TBD3+ 0.527*+ 6.194+ 1.38+
ogy+Characteris<
tics+ TBD4+ 0.139****+ 1.795+ 1.444+
TBD5+ 0.556*+ 5.069+ 2.145+
TBD6+ 0.363**+ 3.226+ 2.09+
TCL1+ 0.392*+ 3.228+ 2.782+
TCL2+ 0.170***+ 2.363+ 1.499+
Cloud+Technology+
Characteristics+ TCL3+ 0.026+ 0.311+ 1.331+
TCL4+ 0.123+ 1.587+ 1.196+
TCL5+ 0.526*+ 4.937+ 2.516+
TTF1+ 0.648*+ 11.186+ 1+
TTF2+ 0.275*+ 6.023+ 1+
Task+Technology+
TTF3+ 0.570*+ 9.268+ 1+
Fit+
TTF4+ 0.175*+ 3.981+ 1+
TTF5+ 0.384*+ 7.935+ 1+
Latent(Variables( Reflective(Items( Loadings( CR( AVE(
USE1+ 0.811+
USE2+ 0.715+
Utilization+ USE3+ 0.803+ 0.885+ 0.611+
USE5+ 0.854+
USE6+ 0.672+
+ +

PERF1+ 0.667+
PERF2+ 0.637+
Perceived+Im< PERF3+ 0.795+
0.886+ 0.568+
pacts+ PERF4+ 0.737+
PERF5+ 0.842+
PERF6+ 0.824+
+
In+Table+33,+we+ensured+discriminant+validity+by+calculating+the+square+root+of+the+AVEs+
that+ exceed+ the+ intercorrelations+ of+ the+ construct+ with+ the+ other+ constructs.+ With+ evi<
dence+ of+ adequate+ reliability,+ convergent+ validity+ and+ discriminant+ validity,+ the+ mea<
surement+model+was+considered+satisfactory.+In+addition,+the+parameters+of+TTF+and+the+
technology+construct+are+both+estimated+as+second+order+models+in+this+study.+++Software+

$ 260$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

Ease+of+Use+has+the+most+significant+weight+of+the+overall+TTF+construct,+followed+by+Ac<
cessibility,+Data+Processing,+Data+Integration+and+Data+Platform.+++

8.3.5! Structural+Model+Estimation+Results+

Through+our+calculations,+we+determine+that+the++construct++measures++are++reliable++and++
valid.+ Afterward,+ the+ structural+ model+ results+ have+ to+ be+ assessed+ along+ with+ the+ rele<
vance+of+significant+relationships.++

In+ order+ to+ interpret+ the+ results+ and+ draw+ conclusions,+ an+ analysis+ of+ the+ relative+ im<
portance+of+relationships+is+required.+A+bootstrapping+procedure+using+5,000+subsamples+
is+used+to+compute+the+significance+of+the+structural+coefficients+for+each+path+in+the+mo<
del+and+the+respective+t<values+(Hair+et)al.,++2014).++

Table(34+Path+Coefficients,+Standard+Errors+and+T<Tests.+

Confidence(Intervals(
T(StatisC
Standard(
Path(CoefC tics(
Paths(In(the(Research(Model( Error( P(Values(
ficients( (|O/STER
(STERR)(
R|)( 2.50%( 97.50%(

Big(data(Technology((C>(Task(
0.375+ 0.05+ 7.552+ 0+ 0.277+ 0.475+
Technology(Fit(

Cloud(Technology((C>(Task(
0.399+ 0.042+ 9.579+ 0+ 0.309+ 0.472+
Technology(Fit(

Individual((C>(Task(Technology(
0.154+ 0.054+ 2.862+ 0.004+ 0.057+ 0.264+
Fit(

Task((C>(Task(Technology(Fit( 0.176+ 0.05+ 3.486+ 0+ 0.076+ 0.274+

Task(Technology(Fit(C>(PerC
0.466+ 0.073+ 6.342+ 0+ 0.336+ 0.619+
ceived(Impact(

Task(Technology(Fit(C>(UtilizaC
0.755+ 0.034+ 22.436+ 0+ 0.688+ 0.82+
tion(

Utilization(C>(Perceived(Impact(( 0.37+ 0.077+ 4.804+ 0+ 0.206+ 0.51+

The+structural+relation+results+were+interpreted+by+the+standardized+solution+estimated+
by+PLS.+The+R2+values+for+the+endogenous+latent+variables+(task+technology+fit,+perceived++

$ 261$
 Data+Analysis+and+Results+

impact+ and+ utlization)+ are+ also+ provided+ in+ Table+ 35.+ The+ model+ explains+ a+ substantial+
portion+ of+ the+ variance+ of+ the+ perceived+ impact+ construct.+ All+ seven+ causal+ paths+ are+
specified+ in+ the+ proposed+ model+ and+ all+ are+ statistically+ significant+ (p+ <0.01).Table+ 35+
shows+the+paths+in+the+research+model+that+reflect+the+significant+positive+impact+of+task+
(H1),+technology+(H2),+and+individual+(H3)+characteristics+on+TTF+for+mobile+traffic+ana<
lysis.+Our+results+confirm+the+significance+of+TTF+on+individual’s+perceived+impacts+(H4)+
and+ utilization+ (H5).+ These+ findings+ also+ confirm+ the+ positive+ impact+ of+ using+ Big+ Data+
and+cloud+technology++on+individual+perceived+impacts+(H6).+++++In+this+thesis,+the+TTF+mo<
del+ was+ used+ to+ explore+ its+ predictive+ power+ in+ terms+ of+ the+ use+ of+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+
technology+by+mobile+traffic+analysis+researchers.+The+paths+indicated+in+the+model+are+
all+significant+in+terms+of+the+direct+and+indirect+effects+of+the+TTF+of+Big+Data+and+cloud+
technology.+The+entire+model+accounts+for+87%+of+the+variance+of+perceived+performance+
in+achieving+mobile+traffic+analysis+tasks;+this+demonstrates+the+efficacy+of+the+model.+To++
test+ + this,+ + a+ + correlation+ + analysis+ + is+ + conducted,+ + observing+ + no+ + association+ + or+ + rela<

Figure+35+Final+Structural+Model+Results+

$ 262$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

tionship++between++the++two++constructs.++

Based+on+our+results,+we+determine+that+task<technology+fit+is+a+suitable+theoretical+fra<
mework+for+assessing+the+adoption+of+Big+Data+and+cloud+technology++by+researchers.++

The+direct+effects+of+antecedents+on+the+TTF+(task,+technology+and+individual)+were+exa<
mined+in+relation+to+existing+TTF+literature.+As+predicted,+task+(0.176),+Big+Data+techno<
logy+ (0.375),+ Cloud+ Computing+ technology+ (0.399)+ and+ individual+ (0.154)+ had+ a+ signifi<
cant+influence+on+conducting+mobile+traffic+analysis;+TTF+accounted+for+87+%+of+the+va<
riance+ in+ TTF.+ The+ results+ are+ consistent+ with+ Dishaw+ &+ Strong+ [153];+ Goodhue+ &+
Thompson+[18],+McGill+&+Klobas+[285];+Staples+&+Seddon+[268]+findings.+

TTF+impacted+Utilization+and+Perceived+Impacts/Performance+significantly.+Utilization+to+
Perceived+Impacts+is+a+particularly+strong+relationship+(β+=+0.370),+while+TTF+to+Percei<
ved+Impact+(β+=+0.466)+and+Utilization+(β+=+0.750)+were+also+significant.+These+findings+
reinforce+ that+ Utilization+ is+ an+ important+ construct+ in+ information+ systems+ research+
when+investigating+adoption,+acceptance+and+diffusion.+++

A+ mediation+ test+ is+ necessary+ to+ confirm+ nomological+ validity+ for+ the+ structural+ model++
(Lowry+&+Gaskin,+2014).+In+the+mediation+test,+the+strength+of+the+mediator+variables+–+in+
this+case+the+constructs+–+are+examined+to+determine+the+cause<effect+relationships+bet<
ween+the+variables+and+how+strongly+they+affect+each+other.+According+to+Hair+et+al.,+the+
best+way+to+test+mediating+effects+is+to+bootstrap+the+sampling+distribution+of+the+indirect+
effect,+which+can+be+applied+to+small+sample+sizes+with+confidence+and+therefore+is+well+
suited+ for+ the+ PLS<SEM+ method.+ The+ results+ for+ the+ structural+ model+ are+ presented+ in+
table+36.+++

The+indirect+effects+are+all+significant.+We+note+that+Task+to+Perceived+Impact+and+Task+to+
Utilization+show+significant+indirect+effect,+similarly+Individual+to+Perceived+Impacts+and+
Individual+to+Utilization+has+a+significant+indirect+effect.+However,+Technology+(Big+Data+
and+ cloud)+ has+ a+ stronger+ indirect+ effect+ on+ Perceived+ Impacts+ and+ Utilization+ than+ on+
any+of+the+other+constructs.++
$ 263$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

Table(36+Structural+Model+Direct+and+Indirect+and+Total+Effects+

Dependent( Indirect( Direct(EfC

(Independent(Variable( Total(Effects(
Variable( Effects( fects(

Perceived+Impact+Characteristics+ 0.28+(7.156)+ 0.28+(7.156)+

+

Big(data(
Task+Technology+Fit+ 0.386+(7.669)+
+
0.386+(7.669)+
Technology(

Utilization+ 0.291+(6.895)+ 0.291+(6.895)+

+

Perceived+Impact+Characteristics+ 0.296+(8.805)+ 0.296+(8.805)+

+

Cloud(TechC
Task+Technology+Fit+ 0.396+(9.709)+ 0.396+(9.709)+
nology( +

Utilization+ 0.298+(9.072)+ 0.298+(9.072)+

+

Perceived+Impact+Characteristics+ 0.114+(2.847)+ 0.114+(2.847)+

+
Individual(
CharacterisC Task+Technology+Fit+ 0.153+(2.847)+
+
0.153+(2.847)+
tics(
Utilization+ 0.115+(2.831)+ 0.115+(2.831)+
+

Perceived+Impact+Characteristics+ 0.129+(3.363)+ 0.129+(3.363)+

+

Task(CharacC
Task+Technology+Fit+ 0.172+(3.390)+ 0.172+(3.390)+
teristics( +

Utilization+ 0.129+(3.411)+ 0.129+(3.411)+

+

Perceived+Impact+Characteristics+ 0.747+(25.449)+
+
0.747+(25.449)+
Task(TechC
nology(Fit(
Utilization+ 0.752+(22.34)+ 0.752+(22.34)+
+

Utilization( Perceived+Impact+Characteristics+ 0.374+(5.029)+ 0.374+(5.029)+

+

$ 264$
Data+Analysis+and+Results+

8.4! Conclusion+

In+Chapter+8,+we+covered+the+steps+in+the+data+analysis+process.+In+the+data+preparation+
phase,+ we+ explained+ the+ important+ of+ data+ editing+ and+ coding.+ Specifically,+ we+ showed+
the+ data+ coding+ used+ for+ our+ study,+ which+ involves+ assigning+ alphanumeric+ codes+ to+
answers+so+that+statistical+techniques+can+be+applied.+We+also+described+the+data+scree<
ning+process+and+the+importance+of+addressing+missing+data.+In+addition,+we+covered+the+
data<screening+ step+ of+ identifying+ outliers+ and+ explain+ the+ importance+ of+ checking+ for+
normality,+linearity+and+multicollinearity.+The+chapter+concluded+with+a+summary+of+the+
basic+profile+of+the+survey+respondents.+In+Chapter+9,+we+will+discuss+the+factors+impac<
ting+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ technologies+ adoption.+ We+ will+ outline+ the+ implications+ of+ the+
adoption+ and+ use+ of+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ technology+ adoptionts+ in+ the+ scope+ of+ mobile+
traffic+ analysis.+ Then,+ we+ will+ summarize+ the+ key+ research+ findings,+ contributions+ (to+
both+theory+and+practice)+and+limitations+and+provide+some+recommendations+on+future+
research.+
$

!
$
$

$ 265$
 !

! Discussion+and+Conclusion++

The+last+chapter+of+this+thesis+provides+a+high<level+discussion+of+the+results,+factors,+im<
plications,+findings,+conclusions,+contributions,+limitations+and+recommendations+for+fu<
ture+research.+In+Section+9.1,+we+discuss+the+achieved+results+impacting+the+decisions+to+
adopt+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud.+ In+ addition,+ we+ discuss+ the+ factors+ impacting+ the+ decision+ to+
adopt+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ technologies.+ For+ instance,+ our+ research+ reveals+ that+ when+
working+ together,+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ computing+ technology+ are+ exponentially+ more+
powerful+than+either+of+them+alone.+This+chapter+also+covers+the+implications+of+adoption+
and+use+of+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technology+Tools+ in+the+scope+of+mobile+traffic+analysis.+
We+learn+that+companies+becoming+increasingly+aware+of+the+value+they+can+derive+from+
Big+Data+will+spur+the+creation+of+cloud<based+services+to+meet+those+needs.+Past+research+
findings+and+findings+from+our+research+are+explained+in+the+context+of+seven+hypotheses+
that+were+tested.+In+Section+9.4,+We+summarize+the+key+research+findings,+contributions+
(to+both+theory+and+practice)+and+limitations.+We+outline+the+implications+of+the+adoption+
and+use+of+Big+Data+and+cloud+technology+adoptions+in+the+scope+of+mobile+traffic+analysis+
and+illustrate+these+observations+with+recommendations+based+on+two+use+cases.+In+addi<
tion,+ we+ summarize+ our+ recommendations+ on+ features+ and+ processes+ that+ will+ increase+

267$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

the+ effectiveness+ of+ the+ data+ scientists.+ Finally,+ we+ provide+ some+ recommendations+ on+
future+ work+ that+ can+ contribute+ to+ the+ ongoing+ quest+ to+ determine+ how+ Big+ Data+ and+
cloud+computing+can+contribute+to+the+tasks+undertaken+by+data+scientists+as+well+as+how+
best+to+use+cloud+and+Big+Data+technologies+to+perform+tasks+that+will+affect+data<driven+
decision+making.++

9.1! Achieved+Results+Impacting+Decisions+to+Adopt+Big+Data+and+Cloud+

When+ considering+ the+ seven+ constructs+ introduced+ in+ Section+ 6.3,+ a+ variety+ of+ results+
were+achieved.+In+these+hypotheses,+we+addressed+the+current+research+gaps+by+seeking+
to+evaluate+the+TTF+in+relation+to+the+mobile+traffic+analytics+process,+Big+Data+applica<
tions,+cloud+infrastructure,+the+individual+characteristics+related+to+the+data+scientist,+uti<
lization+ and+ perceived+ impact/results.+ In+ addition,+ we+ illustrated+ the+ proposed+ concep<
tual+model,+the+task<Big+Data/cloud+computing+technology+fit+model,+based+on+Goodhue’s+
original+TTF.+In+the+proposed+model,+we+addressed+the+two+technologies+together+for+the+
first+time+in+the+context+of+mobile+service+providers.++

9.1.1! Task++<>+TTF+Constructs+

H1:( The( characteristics( of( the( task( that( the( subjects( performed( –( mobile( traffic(
analytics(–(will(have(a(positive(impact(on(determining(the(taskCtechnology(fit.((

As+we+hypothesized,+task+is+positively+related+to+the+task<technology+fit.+Study+respond<
ents+ acknowledged+ that+ analyzing+ mobile+ traffic+ data+ is+ a+ complex,+ multistep+ approach+
that+ inherently+ implies+ dealing+ with+ a+ process+ rather+ than+ a+ repetitive+ task.+ When+ we+
consider+ the+ characteristics+ of+ task,+ ad+ hoc+ non<routineness+ and+ complexity+ are+ two+ of+
the+most+important+factors+of+the+task+construct.++

Like+us,+Goodhue+also+found+that+ad+hoc+non<routineness+and+complexity+are+important+
task+ construct+ factors.+ In+ addition,+ he+ found+ that+ the+ more+ interdependent+ the+ task+ the+
more+likely+the+user+will+be+frustrated+by+incompatibilities.+Unlike+Goodhue,,+researchers+

$ 268$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

Jarvenpaa+ and+ Staples+ [315]+ stated+ that+ individuals+ involved+ in+ interdependent+ tasks+
have+a+higher+probability+of+using+knowledge+sharing+technology+than+people+who+work+
alone.+Gribbins+et)al.+focus+on+the+process+and+its+activities.+They+argue+“process)interde:
pendency) can) be) a) function) of) the) type) or) the) level) of) interdependency) among) activities)
within) a) process.”+ Interestingly,+ the+ collaboration<task+ interdependence+ indicator+ is+ not+
significant,+although+we+expected+it+to+be.+In+our+research,+we+found+that+D4D+mobile+traf<
fic+analysis+papers+presented+at+the+MIT+event+were+represented+as+being+co<written.+The+
situation+is+unclear,+but+we+suspect+that+either+the+question+was+not+clearly+understood+
or+co<workers+segregated+the+tasks.++

Based+ on+ our+ findings,+ practitioners+ should+ consider+ focusing+ on+ the+ entire+ Big+ Da<
ta/cloud+computing+process+as+opposed+to+individual+tasks.+They+need+to+ensure+that+the+
mission<critical+ aspects+ of+ infrastructure+ setup/design+ algorithm+ and+ data+ analy<
sis/visualization+are+taken+into+account.+When+considering+the+adoption+of+cloud<based+
Big+Data,+the+success+of+the+overall+process+is+more+significant,+and+therefore+more+im<
portant+to+consider,+than+the+individual+data+analysis+tasks+undertaken+by+the+data+scien<
tists+and+the+programs+that+run+over+the+infrastructure.+

Table+37+Summary+of+the+Task+Characteristics+Measurements$

Latent(VariaC
Items+ Weights+ tCValue+
bles+
AdHoc+/+Non+Routine+task+ 0.409**+ 3.108+

Task+Complexity+ 0.507*+ 4.038+

+
Collaboration/Task+Inter< 0.155+ 0.654+
dependence+
Task+Characteris<
tics+ Setup+Infrastructure+ 0.386**+ 3.108+
Design+Algorithm+ 0.217***+ 1.948+

Programming+ 0.087+ 0.189+

+
Data+Analysis+and+Visuali< 0.203****+ 1.748+
zation+

$ 269$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

In+our+case,+individuals+indicated+that+their+contribution+to+some+of+the+task,+such+as+set<
up+ environment+ (mean+ 3.744)+ and+ programming+ (mean+ 3.888),+ were+ limited.+ This+ is+
again+consistent+with+the+idea+that+the+cloud+computing+and+programming+tools+might+be+
available+from+previous+projects+and+that+the+researchers+are+leveraging+the+same+envi<
ronment.+When+analyzing+the+contribution+of+the+individuals+to+the+different+tasks,+all+are+
significant+ except+ programming+ (environment+ setup,+ algorithm+ design,+ programming,+
data+analysis),+which+indicates+that+this+specific+variable+doesn’t+correlate+well+with+TTF.++

Unlike+Goodhue+[18],+we+didn’t+consider+authorization+for+access,+although+this+might+be+
a+ relevant+ indicator+ within+ an+ enterprise.+ The+ data+ availability+ did+ not+ present+ re<
strictions.+This+finding+is+also+aligned+by+the+fact+that+cloud+computing+security+was+not+
an+ important+ factor.+ This+ is+ consistent+ with+ the+ idea+ that+ data+ scientists+ have+ a+ holistic+
approach+to+the+analytical+process+as+a+non+routine+task,+and+at+the+same+time,+they+are+
less+concerned+by+operational+enterprise+requirements+to+access+the+data+or+security.++

D’Ambra+et)al.+[229]+suggest+that+as+tasks+are+becoming+more+complex,+users’+perception+
of+the+TTF+would+decrease.+In+the+case+of+data+science,+and+particularly+Big+Data,+this+as<
sumption+is+invalid.+D’Ambra+is+approaching+task+from+a+Taylorism+perspective.+That+is,+
the+goal+is+to+eliminate+complexity+to+make+tasks+easier.+By+its+very+nature,+data+science+is+
extremely+complex+and+its+users,+data+scientists,+have+the+knowledge+and+mindset+to+nav<
igate+that+complexity.+The+goal+is+not+to+eliminate+the+complexity+but+to+harness+the+com<
plexity+in+a+meaningful+way.+For+the+time+being,+and+due+to+the+recency+of+Big+Data+tech<
nology,+ we+ defined+ the+ technology+ construct+ by+ using+ the+ volume,+ variety+ and+ velocity+
formative+variable.+In+addition,+we+describe+Hadoop+as+a+generic+open+source+framework+
that+ encompasses+ a+ large+ number+ of+ applications.+ This+ implies+ that+ individuals+ had+ to+
make+choices+and+select+components+that+were+not+necessarily+the+most+efficient;+how<
ever,+as+they+gain+experience,+they+may+choose+different+approaches+to+mitigate+the+vol<
ume,+variety+and+velocity+depending+on+their+priorities.++

$ 270$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

Lastly,+ we+ believe+ our+ survey+ presents+ valuable+ information+ when+ the+ user+ is+ in+ a+ less+
constrained+environment.+D4D+researchers+had+access+to+university+and+research+center+
as+ well+ as+ external+ resources+ such+ as+ Amazon+ Cloud,+ for+ example.+ Big+ Data+ tools+ are+
mainly+open+sources.+In+an+enterprise+setting,+cost+and+security+constraints+might+affect+
their+choice+of+tools.+This+is+different+from+the+Goodhue+study+that+he+conducted+in+firms+
that+already+had+a+technology+environment+and+well+established+processes+and+tasks.+We+
believe+that+this+study+could+be+improved+with+a+higher+granularity+of+the+Big+Data+con<
struct+to+refine+the+task<technology+fit.+

9.1.2! Technology+<>+TTF+Constructs+

H2:( ( Use( of( Big( Data( tools( significantly( and( positively( affects( the( user’s( effectiveC
ness(of(Big(Data(applications(and(use(will(be(positively(related(to(TTF.((

The+datasets+confirmed+that+using+Big+Data+tools+have+positive+significance+within+the+
TTF+construct.+Therefore,+this+hypothesis+was+confirmed+by+the+data+collected+during+the+
main+study.++

When+ considering+ Big+ Data+ technology,+ and+ as+ illustrated+ in+ Table+ 38,+ all+ the+ Big+ Data+
variables+loaded+significantly,+indicating+that+the+construct+in+this+current+form+captures+
well+the+causal+functions+or+characteristics+of+Big+Data+technology.+Hadoop+Tools+(0.319),+
Programming+Tools+(0.242),+Real+Time+Database+(0.527),+Scalable+Database+(0.556)+and+
Structured+ and+ Unstructured+ capable+ Database+ (0.363)+ all+ have+ positive+ significance+
within+the+TTF+construct.+However,+Visualization+has+the+lowest+significance+(0.139)+and+
loading+(0.531),+indicating+that+this+variable+is+less+important+for+researchers.++

Table+38+Summary+of+the+Big+Data+Technology+Measurements$

Latent(VariaC
Items+ Weights+ tCValue+
bles+
Big+Data+Tech<
Hadoop+Tools+ 0.319***+ 2.384+
nology+Character<
istics+ Programming+tools+ 0.242**+ 2.902+

$ 271$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

Real+Time+Database++ 0.527*+ 6.194+

Visualization+tools+ 0.139****+ 1.795+

Scalable+Database+ 0.556*+ 5.069+

+
Structured+and++Unstruc<
tured+Database+ 0.363**+ 3.226+
+

•! Our+findings+are+in+line+with+Esteves+and+Curto+[95]+who+found+that+volume+and+ve<
locity+are+key+to+Big+Data+adoption.++

•! As+ expected,+ Scalable+ and+ Real<Time+ Database+ capabilities+ have+ the+ highest+ signifi<
cance+and+loadings.+More+surprisingly+is+the+Structured/Unstructured+Database+(Va<
riety)+indicator.+As+previous+researchers+found,+variety+is+not+seen+as+having+as+signif<
icant+of+an+impact;+however,+it+could+become+more+significant+as+more+and+different+
types+of+unstructured+data+are+used.+From+a+qualitative+perspective,+we+analyzed+over+
200+mobile+traffic+data+analysis+papers,+and+we+have+identified+consistently+the+use+of+
external+data+(ie:+Worldbank,+Africa+Pop+–+a+mapping+tool,+Weather,+CDC,+…).+We+see+
this+ as+ a+ potential+ limitation,+ or+ issue,+ because+ this+ would+ mean+ that+ either+ the+ sur<
veyed+ people+ didn’t+ properly+ understand+ the+ question+ or+ they+ assimilated+ the+ un<
structured/structured+data+to+social+media,+such+as+Facebook+and+Twitter.++

•! In+ addition,+ in+ our+ pre<test+ survey,+ we+ specifically+ asked+ if+ the+ researchers+ used+ ex<
ternal+ data+ to+ enrich+ their+ analysis.+ Results+ have+ shown+ that+ they+ used+ significantly+
the+ data+ sources+ recommended+ by+ NetMob/D4D+ organizers+ (ie:+ Worldbank,+ Africa+
Pop+–+a+mapping+tool,+Weather,+CDC,+…).+However,+almost+no+researchers+used+social+
media+as+a+data+source.+We+believe+using+the+term+Unstructured/Structured+data+to+
simplify+the+variable+had+a+negative+affect+on+the+comprehension+of+the+variables+and+
therefore+affected+the+results.+

$ 272$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

H3:((Use(of(cloud(infrastructure(significantly(and(positively(affects(the(implementaC
tion(effectiveness(of(Big(Data(applications(and(use(will(be(positively(related(to(TTF.((

As+shown+in+Table+39,+our+study+results+show+a+positive+relationship+between+technology+
and+TTF;+therefore,+this+hypothesis+is+confirmed.+Specifically,+processing+power+(0.392)+
and+simplicity+(0.526)+are+seen+as+significant+factors+of+cloud+technology+adoption.+These+
results+ are+ supported+ by+ previous+ research+ results+ (Goodhue,+ [18]+ 1995;+ Goodhue+ and+
Thompson,+[18],+1995;+Dishaw+and+Strong,+[153],+1999).+++

Table+39+Summary+of+the+Cloud+Computing+Technology+Measurements$

Latent(VariaC
Items+ Weights+ tCValue+
bles+
Scalability/High+processing+ 0.392*+ 3.228+
Collaborative+Platform+ 0.170***+ 2.363+
Cloud+Technology+
Security+ 0.026+ 0.311+
Characteristics+
Cost+ 0.123+ 1.587+
Availability+ 0.526*+ 4.937+
+

When+ considering+ cloud+ computing+ technology,+ security+ (0.026)+ and+ low+ financial+ cost+
(0.123)+are+not+significant+and+do+not+impact+the+researchers+decision+to+adopt+technolo<
gy+ to+ complete+ the+ task.+ These+ exogenous+ variables+ may+ need+ to+ be+ checked+ again+ in+ a+
different+study+to+validate+their+level+of+or+lack+of+importance+at+the+individual+level.+For+
instance,+the+lack+of+concern+with+security+could+be+due+to+the+fact+that+this+was+an+ad+hoc+
project+and+was+not+operationalized+by+mobile+service+providers.++

The+cost+related+finding+is+counterintuitive,+but+after+careful+consideration+of+the+causal+
effects,+ we+ believe+ that+ in+ the+ scope+ of+ mobile+ traffic+ data+ analysis,+ costs+ may+ not+ have+
been+ an+ object+ for+ the+ researcher+ because+ the+ researcher+ was+ part+ of+ the+ university+ or+
institution+and+costs+impact+were+not+relevant+for+this+project.+These+findings+are+in+line+
with+Opitz+et)al.+[22]+and+Koehler+et)al.+[129]:++Cloud+adoption+is+not+driven+by+price+or+

$ 273$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

cost+savings.+As+a+result,+we+may+decide+to+remove+the+indicator+in+future+models.+How<
ever,+ we+ have+ to+ keep+ in+ mind+ the+ consequences+ of+ removing+ a+ formative+ indicator+ as+
explained+by+Hair+et)al.+[333]+in+previous+research.+

Practitioners+should+consider+that+using+Big+Data+as+a+Service+enables+the+data+scientist+
to+use+a+wide+variety+Big+Data+functions+in+the+cloud.+This+can+range+from+the+supply+of+
data+to+the+analytical+tools+with+which+to+clean+the+data+to+the+tools+needed+to+actually+
analyze+the+data+and+develop+actionable+intelligence+from+it.+By+using+Big+Data+as+a+Ser<
vice,+enterprises+–+large+and+small+–+can+achieve+the+benefits+that+come+from+implemen<
ting+Big+Data+strategies+without+having+to+invest+in+the+infrastructure+(both+budget+and+
expertise)+that+enable+those+strategies.+In+addition,+some+Big+Data+as+a+Service+offerings+
include+ advisory+ and+ consulting+ services+ to+ help+ faciliate+ the+ tasks+ the+ data+ scientists+
have+to+undertake.+Big+Data+as+a+Service+solutions+make+Big+Data+projects+viable+for+en<
terprises+that+would+have+previous+found+them+unattainable.+

9.1.1! Individual+<>+TTF+Construct+

H5:((Individual(characteristics(related(to(the(role(of(a(data(scientist,(experience(and(
competency(will(contribute(positively(to(TTF.(

The+datasets+achieved+by+this+study+partially+support+this+hypothesis+with+Big+Data+and+
cloud+computing+competencies+being+found+significant+and+experience+and+competency+
in+mobile+traffic+analysis+being+found+insignificant,+as+detailed+in+Table+40.+

Table+40+Summary+of+the+Individual+Characteristics+Measurements+

Latent(
Variables( Items( Weights( tCValue(
Experience+mobile+traffic+analysis+ 0.168****+ 1.872+
Individual++
Big+Data+Competency+ 0.523*+ 7.328+
Character<
Cloud+Technology+Competency++ 0.727*+ 11.595+
istics+
Competency+mobile+traffic+analysis+ 0.023+ 0.257+

$ 274$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

The+initial+test+survey+showed+that+individuals+did+not+have+extensive+experience+in+mo<
bile+traffic+data.+This+can+be+explained+by+mobile+data+being+a+new+field+of+research.+This+
finding+is+also+confirmed+in+our+final+survey.+We+found+that+mobile+traffic+data+analysis+
competency+is+not+a+significant+indicator+of+the+individual+characteristics.++

•! Our+study+found+that+competency+in+Big+Data+has+significant+weight.+This+finding+im<
plies+that+the+user+had+some+knowledge+in+manipulating+large+amounts+of+data.+Since+
the+ NetMob/D4D+ Challenge+ required+ people+ to+ deal+ with+ billions+ of+ records,+ indivi<
duals+that+participated+had+existing+knowledge+of+and+the+capacity+to+deal+with+this+
requirement.++

•! Competency+in+cloud+computing+has+an+even+higher+weight+than+Big+Data+and+contri<
butes+positively+to+individual+characteristics.+This+finding+implies+that+technology+as<
similation+ is+ higher+ for+ cloud+ along+ with+ prior+ experience+ in+ using+ –+ or+ at+ least+ un<
derstanding+ –+ the+ benefits+ associated+ with+ cloud+ computing.+ + The+ significance+ (or+
weight)+ difference+ can+ be+ explained+ by+ cloud+ computing+ being+ an+ older+ technology+
than+Big+Data.+

•! The+mobile+traffic+competency+indicator+is+significant+albeit+weak.+Since+this+is+a+new+
field+ of+ research,+ experience+ from+ the+ researchers+ was+ limited+ and+ this+ finding+ was+
clearly+reflected+in+the+indicators.+As+a+result,+experience+in+analyzing+mobile+traffic+
data+has+low+significance.++

•! As+found+in+our+initial+study,+literature+on+data+scientists+is+extremely+limited.+Daven<
port+[93]+describes+the+data+scientist+role+as+a+code+writer+who+understands+the+Ha<
doop+ framework,+ typically+ with+ a+ strong+ computing+ field+ background.+ According+ to+
him,+data+scientists,+unlike+their+predecessors,+need+to+be+able+to+tell+the+“Data+Story.”++

•! Goodhue+[18]+argues+that+characteristics+such+as+training,+computer+experience+and+
motivation+ can+ influence+ how+ easily+ and+ well+ technology+ is+ used.+ Further,+ Goodhue+
proposes+that+“individuals+who+are+more+competent,+better+trained+or+more+familiar+

$ 275$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

with+their+information+systems+will+be+better+able+to+successfully+identify,+access+and+
interpret+ needed+ data.”+ Similarly,+ D’Ambra+ and+ Wilson+ [290]+ establish+ support+ for+
their+hypothesis:++“Individual+skills+and+experience+will+be+positively+relate+to+TTF.”++

•! Characteristics+ of+ the+ individual+ –+ training,+ computer+ experience+ and+ motivation+ –+

could+ affect+ how+ easily+ and+ well+ individuals+ will+ use+ technology,+ according+ to+
Goodhue.+We+found+that+lack+of+experience+did+not+negatively+impact+the+use+of+cloud+
computing+or+Big+Data+technology.+

•! Furthermore,+ regarding+ research+ by+ Gebauer+ et+ al.+ [356],+ we+ found+ differences+ bet<
ween+competence+(skills)+and+experience.+In+our+research,+we+found+that+though+indi<
viduals+did+not+have+extensive+experience+in+mobile+data+traffic,+their+competency+in+
both+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+technology+contributed+positively+to+TTF.+++

Taking+these+findings+into+account,+practitioners+should+focus+on+individuals+that+are+da<
ta+scientists+with+existing+skills+in+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing.+In+addition,+they+should+
ensure+that+the+data+scientists+have+expertise+in+implementing+effective+analytics.+

9.1.2! TTF+<>+Utilization+and+Perceived+Impacts+

H6(–(TTF(is(positively(related(to(perceived(impact;(results(will(have(impact(on(deC
termining(the(subjects’(perceived(impacts(or(realized(benefits.(

The+datasets+achieved+by+this+study+support+this+hypothesis+with+the+performance+cons<
truct+having+a+very+strong+correlation+to+TTF.+The+high+factors+infuencing+this+outcome+
are+ from+ respondents+ indicating+ that+ they+ can+ do+ more+ work+ with+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+
than+would+otherwise+be+possible+and+that+Big+Data+helps+with+analytics.++
$

$ 276$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

Table+41+Summary+of+the+Perceived+Impacts+Measurements$

Latent(
Items+ Loadings+ CR+
Variables+
Quality+of+Research+ 0.667+
Quality+of+the+Results+ 0.637+
Help+improve+the+ana<
0.795+
Perceived+ lytics+Process+Results+
0.886+
Impacts+
Help+be+more+productive+ 0.737+
Help+accomplish+more+
work+
0.842+

Help+perform+better+ 0.824+
+

H7(–(Utilization(of(Big(Data(and(Cloud(Computing(has(a(positive(impact(on(individC
ual(perceived(impacts(or(realized(benefits.((

Both+ of+ the+ hypotheses+ for+ utilization+ are+ supported+ with+ the+ study+ results+ supporting+
the+ positive+ relationship+ between+ TTF+ and+ perceived+ impacts.+ The+ utilization+ construct+
exhibits+high+composite+reliability,+R2)(56%),+indicating+a+satisfactory+explanation+power.+
This+finding+indicates+that+the+data+scientists+have+included+Big+Data+and+cloud+technolo<
gy+in+a+satisfactory+manner+as+part+of+their+work+process.+The+TTF+–+utilization+path+loa<
ding+is+highly+significant+(0.795).+In+this+instance,+TTF+contributes+strongly+to+utilization+
of+Big+Data+and+cloud+technology.+This+indicates+that,+in+the+scope+of+this+study,+the+actual+
utilization+of+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+is+regarded+as+necessary++(emphasize+the+fit+
between+ the+ required+ task+ and+ the+ technology).+ It+ also+ outlines+ that+ mobile+ data+ traffic+
analysis+can+only+be+accomplished+if+researchers+are+using+technology+that+includes+the+
ability+ to+ handle+ large+ volumes+ of+ data+ and+ adequate+ processing+ power,+ two+ key+ an<
tecedents+of+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+technology.++

$ 277$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

Table+42+Summary+of+the+Utilization+Measurements$

Latent(
Items+ Loadings+ CR+
Variables+
Use+Big+Data+and+Cloud+–+high+
volume+data+ 0.811+
Use+Big+Data+and+Cloud+–+high+
velocity+data+ 0.715+
Recommend+use+of+Big+Data+
Utilization+ and+Cloud+to+peers+ 0.803+ 0.885+
Big+Data+technology+is+useful+in+
my+job+ 0.854+
Cloud+technology+is+useful+for+
my+job+ 0.672+
+

Indirect+ effects+ indicate+ that+ Big+ Data+ is+ contributing+ an+ even+ higher+ effect+ than+ cloud+
computing.+Given+the+previous+literature,+our+findings+are+consistent.++

In+the+context+of+mobile+traffic+analysis,+TTF+is+a+strong+predictor+of+utilization,+as+well+
perceived+impacts.+Perceived+impacts+in+this+study+had+an+R2)value+of+61%.+In+compari<
son,+the+perceived+impacts+rate+was+16%+in+the+Goodhue+and+Thompson+study+and+50%+
in+the+D’Ambra+study.+Taking+that+into+account,+our+model+has+a+satisfactory+explanatory+
power+ for+ predicting+ perceived+ impacts.+ Therefore,+ our+ model+ explains+ the+ perceived+
impacts+when+researchers+use+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+technology+as+their+infor<
mation+systems.+

Our+findings+related+to+utilization+and+perceived+impacts+are+supported+by+literature+and+
empirical+data.+Since+the+findings+have+adequate+reliability+and+validity,+entities+can+use+
our+findings+as+a+way+to+evaluate+perceived+impacts.+

Practitioners+should+consider+that+the+adoption+of+Big+Data+and+cloud+will+increase+utili<
zation+ and+ generate+ significant+ Quality+ and+ Effectiveness+ impacts+ for+ data+ scientists+
working+on+the+task.+At+the+same+time,+they+should+understand+that+perceived+impact+is+
less+important+than+adopting+the+right+tool.+

$ 278$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

9.1.3! Findings+Summary+

Table+ below+ provides+ a+ summary+ of+ the+ previous+ research+ findings+ and+ our+ findings+
based+ on+ testing+ the+ eight+ hypotheses+ in+ this+ study.+ Within+ these+ eight+ hypotheses,+ we+
evaluate+the+TTF+in+relation+to+the+mobile+traffic+analytics+process,+Big+Data+tools,+cloud+
computing+ infrastructure,+ individual+ characteristics+ related+ to+ the+ data+ scientist,+ per<
ceived+impact/results+and+the+perceived+impact+of+Big+Data+variables+–+velocity,+variety+
and+volume.+

Table+43+Overview+of+the+hypotheses+testing+

The+characteristics+of+the+task+the+subjects+performed+–+
H1( mobile+traffic+analytics+–+will+have+a+positive+impact+on+ Supported(
determining+the+task+technology+fit.+
Use+of+Hadoop,+programming+and+visualization+tools+
H2( significantly+and+positively+affects+the+implementation+
Supported(
+ effectiveness+of+Big+Data+applications+and+use+will+be+
positively+related+to+TTF.+

Use+of+cloud+infrastructure+significantly+and+positively+
H3(
affects+the+implementation+effectiveness+of+Big+Data+ Supported(
+
applications+and+use+will+be+positively+related+to+TTF.+

Individual+characteristics+related+to+the+role+of+a+data+
H4:((( Partially(
scientist,+experience+and+competency+will+contribute+
+ Supported(
positively+to+TTF.+

H5(
TTF+is+positively+related+to+perceived+impact+/results.+ Supported(
+

H6( TTF+Variables+such+Velocity,+variety+and+volume+affect+ Partially(

+ utilization+and+perceived+impacts.+ Supported(

$ 279$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

9.2! Discussion+ of+ Factors+ Impacting+ Big+ Data+ and+ Cloud+ Technologies+
Adoption++

In+our+research,+we+explored+the+factors+impacting+adoption+of+Big+Data+and+cloud+tech<
nologies.+The+very+nature+of+Big+Data+lends+itself+to+be+paired+with+cloud+computing+tech<
nology+ in+ order+ to+ have+ systems+ and+ infrastructure+ robust+ enough+ to+ process+ the+ vast+
amounts+of+data+that+collaborative+organizations+need+to+analyze+for+data<driven+decision+
making.+Our+research+revealed+that+when+working+together,+Big+Data+and+cloud+compu<
ting+technology+are+exponentially+more+powerful+than+either+of+them+alone.++

For+Big+Data,+we+learned+that+Big+Data+analytics+is+a+complex+process+that+requires+hu<
man+expertise,+namely+data+scientists,+in+addition+to+robust+systems+and+infrastructure.+
In+addition,+volume,+velocity+and+variety+are+key+Big+Data+characteristics+to+consider.+

During+ our+ study,+ we+ reviewed+ the+ main+ theoretical+ paradigms+ for+ cloud+ computing+
technology+ at+ the+ organization’s+ level+ –+ Diffusion+ of+ Innovation,+ Technology<
Organization<Environment,+ Technology+ Acceptance+ Model+ and+ Task<Technology+ Fit.+
Each+of+these+constructs+has+something+in+common.+As+they+exist,+they+misrepresent+the+
value+of+the+fit+by+only+taking+into+account+a+single+technology+construct.++

To+try+to+address+this,+Gebauer+et)al.+[293]+integrated+research+from+organizational+tasks,+
mobile+technology+and+task<technology+fit+to+create+a+profile+of+TTF+for+mobile+IS+to+sup<
port+managerial+tasks.+By+studying+216+mobile+users,+the+researchers+use+the+TTF+model+
to+try+to+match+mobile+technologies+with+user+tasks+and+a+mobile+use+context.+However,+
the+results+show+little+direct+support+of+a+three<way+match+between+these+dimensions.+

Technology+maturity+should+be+taken+into+account+when+considering+the+relatively+nas<
cent+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing,+particularly+as+the+technologies+relate+to+mobile+traf<
fic+analysis.+Whereas+mature+technology+has+been+in+use+and+evolving+(as+well+as+improv<
ing)+for+many+years+or+even+decades,+the+technologies+that+we+are+researching+are+only+
just+now+becoming+mainstream+in+large+enterprises+and+being+used+enough+to+start+living+
up+to+their+potential.+Even+the+role+of+the+data+scientist+is+so+new+that+some+organizations+

$ 280$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

are+still+relying+on+traditional+data+analysts+to+try+to+fill+the+role+of+the+data+scientist.+

Research+by+Nance+and+Straub+[277]+suggests+that+immediate+learning+effort+is+another+
major+ antecedent+ to+ technology+ adoption.+ That+ is,+ inadequate+ staff+ capabilities+ and+ ha<
ving+to+learn+how+to+use+the+technology+to+complete+a+task+could+be+a+barrier+to+adoption.+
Furthermore,+ they+ find+ that+ another+ factor+ that+ impacts+ adoption+ is+ the+ users’+ level+ of+
personal+ experience+ with+ the+ technology.+ This+ adoption+ barrier+ could+ be+ minimized+ by+
companies+using+data+scientists+and+related+data+analytic+functions+as+opposed+to+asking+
other+individuals+to+perform+tasks+related+to+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing.+However,+as+
long+as+perceived+usefulness+matches+the+objective+assessment+of+TTF,+the+TTF+may+in<
fluence+the+individual’s+choice+of+whether+or+not+to+use+IT.+

In+our+new+conceptual+model+–+the+task<Big+Data/cloud+computing+technology+fit+model,+
based+ on+ Goodhue’s+ TTF,+ we+ address+ these+ weaknesses+ by+ considering+ Big+ Data+ and+
cloud+computing+technology+together+for+the+first+time,+particularly+in+the+context+of+mo<
bile+service+providers.+Goodhue’s+TTF+model+establishes+the+relationship+between+higher+
fit+between+task+and+technology+and+better+individual+performance.+Though+the+TTF+mo<
del+does+not+include+the+word+“individual”+in+its+name,+Goodhue+conceded+that+the+deci<
sion+ not+ to+ include+ it+ was+ based+ on+ simplicity+ and+ that+ individual<task<technology+ fit+ is+
perhaps+a+more+accurate+label.+

The+proposed+model+addresses+experience+as+the+individual+characteristic.+For+task,+we+
considered+ Goodhue’s+ two<dimensional+ construct+ of+ task+ characteristics:+ + non<
routineness+ and+ interdependence,+ as+ they+ relate+ to+ Big+ Data+ processing,+ and+ add+ rele<
vance,+originally+studied+by+Vankatesh+and+Davis+[149].+For+technology,+we+consider+five+
subconstructs+ related+ to+ technology+ platform+ (Big+ Data)+ and+ technology+ infrstructure+
(cloud+computing+intention+to+use).+In+addition,+we+consider+nine+TTF+factors:++locatabili<
ty,+ authorization,+ compatibility,+ data+ characteristics,+ information+ quality,+ ease+ of+ use+
(hardware),+ease+of+use+(software)+and+timeliness.+

$ 281$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

9.3! Implications+of+the+Adoption+and+Use+of+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Technolo<
gy+Tools+in+the+Scope+of+Mobile+Traffic+Analysis++

In+our+research,+we+examined+the+implications+of+adopting+and+using+Big+Data+and+cloud+
technology+tools+in+the+scope+of+mobile+traffic+analysis.++

The+complementarity+of+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+technology+clearly+lends+itself+to+
combining+IaaS,+PaaS+and+Saas,+adding+a+massive+amount+of+data+and+creating+Big+Data+as+
a+ Service.+ As+ companies+ become+ increasingly+ aware+ of+ the+ value+ they+ can+ achieve+
through+the+effective+use+of+Big+Data,+cloud<based+services+to+meet+these+growing+needs+
will+be+created.+Companies+that+do+not+have+the+internal+resources+in+the+terms+of+data+
scientists+to+gain+the+full+benefit+of+Big+Data+will+be+able+to+turn+to+Big+Data+as+a+Service+
providers+that+include+data+scientists+as+part+of+the+overall+service.++

As+ noted+ earlier,+ researchers+ have+ argued+ that+ with+ the+ vast+ sources+ of+ data+ in+ various+
formats,+the+growth+in+data+traffic+and+the+volume+of+data+being+processed+that+traditio<
nal+IT+architecture+is+unable+to+adequately+manage+the+Big+Data+issue.+Further,+they+pro<
pose+that+Big+Data+problems+need+to+be+solved+by+cloud+computing+technology+and+that+
will+result+in+Big+Data+subsequently+promoting+the+practical+use+and+implementation+of+
cloud+computing.++

As+ Assunção+ et) al.+ [17]+ argue,+ there+ are+ challenges+ that+ need+ to+ be+ overcome+ to+ make+
clouds+the+ideal+platform+for+Big+Data+analytics.+They+identify+data+management,+integra<
tion,+ processing+ and+ security+ as+ key+ challenges+ for+ hosting+ Big+ Data+ analytics+ on+ public+
clouds.+ To+ address+ this+ concern,+ the+ researchers+ propose+ that+ each+ cloud+ deployment+
model+ –+ private,+ public+ and+ hybrid+ –+ be+ considered+ when+ looking+ for+ complementarity+
between+Big+Data+and+cloud.+As+cloud+computing+and+Big+Data+continue+on+the+trajectory+
toward+maturity,+Big+Data+as+a+Service+could+start+to+play+a+meaningful+role,+particularly+
with+mobile+service+providers.+

$ 282$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

9.4! Conclusion,+Contributions,+Limitations+and+Future+Work++

The+ final+ section+ highlights+ the+ key+ findings+ and+ contributions+ this+ study+ has+ made+ to+
theory+and+practice+and+the+implications+for+current+and+future+research.+This+study+has+
limitations+and+those+are+acknowledged.+Finally,+some+ideas+for+future+research+are+pre<
sented+in+the+area+of+using+a+Big+Data+and+cloud+technology+adoption+tool+in+the+scope+of+
mobile+traffic+analysis.+

9.4.1! Research+Problem++

While+the+research+on+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+technology+has+grown+exponentially+
in+the+last+5+years,+most+research+either+focuses+on+technical+aspects+of+the+technology+or+
identifies+ the+ possible+ challenges+ for+ enterprises.+ While+ a+ few+ examples+ deal+ with+ IT+
adoption,+such+as+Opitz+[22]+and+Stieninger+[23]+for+cloud+computing+and+Pozzi+[24]+for+
Big+Data,+those+researchers+do+not+address+both+technologies+together.+This+issue+is+fur<
ther+ compounded+ by+ the+ lack+ of+ studies+ regarding+ mobile+ service+ providers’+ IT+ needs.+
Hence,+the+cloud+computing+and+Big+Data+technology+adoption+research+scarcity+presents+
an+academic+challenge+that+will+be+addressed+in+the+context+of+the+mobile+service+provid<
ers’+IT+needs.++

To+address+the+research+problem,+this+thesis+studied+two+new+technologies+–+cloud+com<
puting+and+Big+Data+–+through+the+lens+of+past+research+by+such+social+science+giants+as+
Goodhue+ and+ Davis+ as+ well+ as+ more+ recent+ influencers+ such+ as+ Thompson,+ Venkatesh,+
Dishaw+and+Strong+as+well+as+DeLone+and+McLean.+Their+models+of+user+acceptance+were+
rigorously+considered+in+order+to+determine+how+they+could+contribute+to+the+develop<
ment+of+a+new+model+to+address+the+characteristics+and+challenges+of+these+new+technol<
ogies.+

This+thesis+sought+to+answer+our+research+question:+

N! “To)what)extent)does)cloud)computing)and)Big)Data)technology)contribute)to)the)tasks)
undertaken)by)data)scientists?”)

$ 283$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

We+summarize+our+key+findings:+

Our+research+and+study+uncovered+several+notable+main+and+secondary+findings.++

N! The+main+finding+can+be+explained+as:++“The+end+justifies+the+means.”+In+the+scope+of+
mobile+traffic+analysis,+using+Big+Data+and+cloud+technology+in+concert+with+one+an<
other+ is+ required.+ If+ we+ want+ to+ progress,+ we+ have+ to+ not+ only+ use,+ but+ also+ master+
both+of+those+technologies.++This+is+a+requirement+to+evolve+data<driven+decision+mak<
ing+for+mobile+service+providers.+Just+as+we+have+no+choice+but+to+use+the+Internet,+Big+
Data+and+cloud+computing+technology+will+become+mandatory.++
!! Secondarily,+and+contrary+to+the+current+hype,+we+found+that+only+data+value+
and+data+velocity+contribute+to+the+task<technology+fit.++
!! Further,+the+idea+of+the+Data+scientist,+as+defined+in+section+3.9.1,+ is+unrealis<
tic.+Organizations+should+become+much+more+specific+about+the+role+of+the+da<
ta+scientist+and+the+resulting+expectations.++
!! Finally,+ individual+ experience+ and+ competency+ reflect+ the+ technology+ adop<
tion.+ Cloud+ technology+ exhibits+ higher+ significance+ than+ Big+ Data,+ which+ ex<
emplifies+ that+ technology+ maturity+ increases+ the+ fit.+ In+ addition,+ adoption+
should+be+facilitated+with+a+tight+integration+between+Big+Data+and+cloud.+We+
found+that+the+use+of+cloud+infrastructure+very+significantly+and+positively+af<
fects+ the+ implementation+ effectiveness+ of+ Big+ Data+ applications+ and+ use+ will+
be+positively+related+to+TTF.+

•! In+ the+ setting+ of+ a+ new+ research+ field+ and+ new+ technology,+ data+ scientists+ are+ more+
likely+to+choose+their+technology+to+address+complex+and+non<routine+tasks.++

•! Ease+of+Use+of+Hardware+and+Software+are+key+TTF+antecedents.+This+implies+that+Da<
ta+scientist+would+benefits+from+higher+level+of+integration+of+both+technologies.+

•! Individual+experience+and+competency+reflect+the+technology+adoption.+Cloud+techno<
logy+exhibits+higher+significance+than+Big+Data,+which+exemplifies+that+technology+ma<
turity+increases+the+fit.+

$ 284$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

•! Adoption+ should+ be+ facilitated+ with+ a+ tight+ integration+ between+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud.+
We+found+that+the+use+of+cloud+infrastructure+very+significantly+and+positively+affects+
the+implementation+effectiveness+of+Big+Data+applications+and+use+will+be+positively+
related+to+TTF.++

9.4.2! Research+Methodology+

Our+ research+ used+ a+ quantitative+ methodology+ and+ operationalized+ using+ a+ cross<

sectional+ survey+ so+ temporal+ consistency+ could+ be+ maintained+ for+ all+ the+ variables.+ Alt<
hough+it+would+be+valuable+to+measure+the+evolution+over+time+of+the+technology+adop<
tion+of+mobile+service+providers,+the+cross<sectional+survey+allowed+us+to+determine+the+
state+of+use+at+a+given+time+as+well+as+the+relative+strength+between+the+factors+that+is+ap<
propriate+to+answer+the+initial+objectives.+This+could+help+us,+upon+validation,+to+support+
more+refined+hypotheses+for+future+research.+The+adoption+of+the+quantitative+methodol<
ogy+is+motivated+in+our+case+by+our+ability+to+address+this+issue+in+an+objective+manner+
and+to+overcome+some+of+the+constraints,+such+as+working+at+Orange+Business+Services,+
or+dealing+with+uncertainty+on+how+to+use+technology+and+for+what+purpose.++

Informal+Interviews+of+industry+experts+indicated+that+mobile+service+providers+capabili<
ties+to+extract+and+analyze+mobile+traffic+data+were+still+limited+to,+for+example,+measur<
ing+customer+churn,+and+had+not,+at+the+time+of+the+study,+yet+fully+leveraged+cloud+and+
Big+Data+technologies+to+develop+new+services.+Further+discussions+were+initiated+with+a+
few+other+fellow+researchers+and+led+to+a+brainstorm+about+possible+solutions.++

In+order+to+uncover+what+is+needed+to+create+a+new+user<technology+adoption+model,+we+
studied+ scientific+ research+ on+ mobile+ traffic+ analysis+ as+ it+ relates+ to+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+
computing.+We+considered+existing+architectures+and+their+limitations+as+well+as+the+cur<
rent+ research+ on+ cloud<based+ architectures+ and+ current+ conclusions.+ In+ order+ to+ gain+ a+
thorough+ understanding+ of+ Big+ Data+ and+ how+ it+ should+ be+ addressed,+ we+ delved+ into+
knowledge+discovery+and+data+mining,+defined+the+data+value+chain,+identified+major+Big+

$ 285$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

Data+ tools+ and+ explained+ the+ main+ challenges+ of+ Big+ Data+ analysis+ and+ the+ criticisms+ of+
the+previous+research.+In+addition,+we+discussed+the+previous+adoption+models+(or+their+
modified+versions)+–+Technology+Acceptance+Model+(TAM),+TAM3+and+Task<Technology+
Fit+(TTF)+–+that+researchers+usually+use+when+studying+Technology.+

Based+on+a+thorough+evaluation+of+the+previous+user<+technology+adoption+models+and+a+
survey+ of+ data+ scientists,+ we+ proposed+ a+ framework+ along+ with+ proposed+ factors+ and+
characteristics+ for+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ computing,+ task,+ technology,+ individual,+ TTF+ and+
utilization.++

9.4.3! Research+Contributions+and+Implications+

9.4.3.1! +Contribution+to+theory+

The+ present+ study+ makes+ significant+ contributions+ and+ has+ implications+ for+ mobile+ ser<
vice+providers.++

•! The+ previous+ well<known+ research+ from+ Goodhue+ [18]+ was+ quite+ broad+ and+ at<
tempted+ to+ measure+ the+ success+ of+ information+ systems,+ in+ general.+ This+ study+ exa<
mines+specifically+the+task<technology+fit+perspective+of+cloud<based+Big+Data+techno<
logy+and+what+impact+they+have+on+individual+performance.+This+study+is+also+the+first+
to+elaborate+the+TTF+model+to+include+subconstructs+particularly+related+to+Big+Data+
and+cloud+computing.+As+a+result,+this+thesis+expands+the+existing+body+of+knowledge+
related+to+the+TTF+model+and+our+abilty+to+understand+how+TTF+and+utilization+com<
bines+to+create++perceived+impacts.+Because+the+theory+of+task<technology+fit+does+not+
provide+meaningful+direction+on+how+to+apply+it+to+various+combinations+of+task+and+
technology,+its+usefulness+is+limited+in+its+original+form.+By+creating+the+new+task<Big+
Data/cloud+ computing+ technology+ fit+ model,+ we+ expand+ the+ traditional+ TTF+ model+
and+ overcome+ its+ rigidness+ by+ effectively+ addressing+ technology+ through+ five+ sub<
constructs+ related+ to+ technology+ platform+ (Big+ Data)+ and+ technology+ infrastructure+
(cloud+computing+intention+to+use).+

$ 286$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

•! Our+ research+ showed+ that+ when+ working+ together,+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ computing+
technology+are+exponentially+more+powerful+than+either+of+them+alone.+Based+on+a+li<
terature+ review,+ we+ believe+ that+ this+ is+ the+ first+ academic+ research+ that+ focuses+ on+
measuring+the+impact+of+a+new+technology,+Big+Data,+on+a+user’s+work.+In+the+opera<
tionalization+of+his+model,+Goodhue+[18]+defined+the+task+output+as+data+that+enabled+
decision<making.+ In+ our+ research,+ we+ not+ only+ adopt+ and+ analyze+ Goodhue+ TTF’s+
constructs,+but+also+add+new+constructs+specific+to+Big+Data.++

•! Our+ other+ contribution+ to+ the+ research+ is+ focused+ on+ TTF+ antecedents.+ We+ showed+
that+the+complementarity+of+technologies+(Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+combined)+
might+ be+ an+ important+ factor+ leading+ to+ adoption+ and+ usage+ and+ as+ a+ result+ lead+ to+
more+ tuned+ theoretical+ models.+ We+ specifically+ assessed+ the+ impact+ of+ Big+ Data+ and+
cloud+computing+adoption+on+data+scientists+analyzing+mobile+traffic+data.+

•! Nance+ and+ Straub+ [278]+ stated+ a+ factor+ that+ impacts+ adoption+ is+ the+ users’+ level+ of+
personal+experience+with+the+technology.++This+adoption+barrier+could+be+minimized+
by+companies+using+data+scientists+and+related+analytical+functions+as+opposed+to+as<
king+other+individuals+to+perform+tasks+related+to+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing.+This+
study+determined+that+there+was+a+correlation+between+TTF+and+the+individual’s+Big+
Data+ experience+ although+ the+ respondent’s+ experience+ with+ mobile+ traffic+ analysis+
was+a+low+factor.++

9.4.3.2! Contribution+to+practice+

This+thesis+contributes+to+practice+by+establishing+a+new+model+that+can+be+retested+using+
broader+audiences+of+data+scientists.+Experts+will+argue+that+based+on+their+experience,+
Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+are+by+design+facilitating+adoption.+However,+the+outcomes+
of+ this+ study+ highlight+ adoption<related+ nuances,+ in+ particular+ related+ to+ the+ particular+
subconstructs+ that+ were+ studied.+ For+ instance,+ contrary+ to+ popular+ belief,+ the+ respon<

$ 287$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

dents+were+not+concerned+with+cost+and+security+when+using+the+cloud.+Respondents+in<
dicated+ that+ they+ can+ do+ more+ work+ with+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ than+ would+ otherwise+ be+
possible+and+that+Big+Data+helps+with+data+analytics.++

Summarizing+the+key+takeaways+for+practitioners:+

•! Practitioners+should+consider+focusing+on+the+entire+Data+Analytics+process+as+oppo<
sed+ to+ successive+ tasks.+ They+ need+ to+ ensure+ that+ the+ mission<critical+ aspects+ of+ in<
frastructure+ setup/design+ algorithm+ and+ data+ analysis/visualization+ are+ taken+ into+
account.+ When+ considering+ the+ adoption+ of+ cloud<based+ Big+ Data,+ the+ success+ of+ the+
overall+ process+ is+ more+ significant,+ and+ therefore+ more+ important+ to+ consider,+ than+
the+individual+data+analysis+tasks+undertaken+by+the+data+scientists+and+the+programs+
that+run+over+the+infrastructure.+

•! Practitioners+should+consider+that+using+Big+Data+as+a+Service+enables+the+data+scien<
tist+ to+ use+ a+ wide+ variety+ Big+ Data+ functions+ in+ the+ cloud.+ This+ can+ range+ from+ the+
supply+of+data+to+the+analytical+tools+with+which+to+clean+the+data+to+the+tools+needed+
to+actually+analyze+the+data+and+develop+actionable+intelligence+from+it.+By+using+Big+
Data+as+a+Service,+enterprises+–+large+and+small+–+can+achieve+the+benefits+that+come+
from+implementing+Big+Data+strategies+without+having+to+invest+in+the+infrastructure+
(both+budget+and+expertise)+that+enable+those+strategies.+In+addition,+some+Big+Data+
as+ a+ Service+ offerings+ include+ advisory+ and+ consulting+ services+ to+ help+ faciliate+ the+
tasks+the+data+scientists+have+to+undertake.+Big+Data+as+a+Service+solutions+make+Big+
Data+ projects+ viable+ for+ enterprises+ that+ would+ have+ previous+ found+ them+ unattai<
nable.+

•! Practitioners+should+focus+on+individuals+that+are+data+scientists+with+existing+skills+in+
Big+Data+and+cloud+computing.+In+addition,+they+should+ensure+that+the+data+scientists+
have+expertise+in+implementing+effective+analytics.+

$ 288$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

•! Practitioners+ should+ consider+ that+ the+ adoption+ of+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ will+ increase+
utilization+and+help+improve+the+analytics+Process+Results+and+Effectiveness+(Help+ac<
complish+ more+ work)+ impacts+ for+ data+ scientists+ working+ on+ the+ task.+ At+ the+ same+
time,+they+should+understand+that+perceived+impact+is+less+important+than+adopting+
the+right+tool.+

•! Practitioners+should+prioritize+Big+Data+real<time+and+volume+capabilities+as+the+key+
determinants+of+Big+Data+adoption.++

9.4.4! USE+CASE+1+Mobile+Provider+++

A+ mobile+ company+ requested+ support+ to+ address+ the+ increasing+ amount+ of+ data+ gene<
rated+ by+ its+ mobile+ customers.+ The+ provider+ indicated+ that+ the+ current+ data+ infrastruc<
ture+was+unable+to+address+the+exponential+subscriber+growth+and+the+resulting+CDR+and+
XDR.+The+IT+organization+estimated+that+the+number+of+mobile+events+was+13+billion+per+
day+and+the+current+volume+would+increase+about+35%+per+year+in+the+next+3<5+years.+In+
addition,+ the+ BI+ system+ could+ not+ scale+ any+ further.+ Another+ significant+ issue+ was+ han<
dling+streaming+data+with+the+current+architecture+in+place.+Data+availability+was+signifi<
cantly+ impacted+ and+ consequently+ data+ analytics+ could+ not+ be+ performed+ in+ a+ timely+
manner.+For+example,+the+company+was+unable+to+push+recommendations+to+customers+
and+data+being+used+for+traffic+information+and+location<based+marketing+was+losing+its+
value.+

In+addition,+the+sheer+volume+of+data+led+to+other+challenges+such+as+storing+and+retrie<
ving+data+in+a+cost<effective+manner.++

We+attempted+to+leverage+our+model+and+findings+to+design+a+solution+that+address+those+
challenges;+ however,+ the+ large+ scale+ and+ the+ complexity+ of+ an+ architecture+ linking+ the+

$ 289$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

analytics+ part+ as+ well+ as+ billing,+ rules+ engines,+ policy+ manager+ and+ preprocessing+ made+
the+application+of+our+model+difficult.++

The+ recommendation+ was+ made+ to+ replicate+ preprocessed+ CDRs+ used+ by+ the+ mission<
critical,+real<time+engine+(policy,+rule+engine,+billing)+and+dump+the+data+into+a+Hadoop<
based+repository.+As+a+result,+we+mitigated+the+risk+of+congestion+and+optimized+real<time+
processing.+The+Hadoop+repository+enabled+the+ingestion+of+external+information,+inclu<
ding+CRM,+BI+and+customer+profiles,+to+complement+CDR+data.+As+a+result,+the+Data+Scien<
tists+ could+ leverage+ data+ into+ immediate+ knowledge+ including+ the+ analysis+ of+ historical+
data.+The+architecture+also+enabled+the+support+of+concurrent+complex+queries,+which+is+
required+when+data+scientists+are+analyzing+data+for+different+purposes.+++

We+ recommended+ a+ number+ of+ features+ and+ processes+ to+ increase+ the+ effectiveness+ of+
the+data+scientists:++

•! Develop+and+identify+the+feasibility+and+value+of+use+cases+that+deliver+value+to+the+

customer+ or+ can+ be+ monetized+ through+ marketing+ services.+ It+ was+ suggested+ to+
segregate+ the+ real<time+ analytics+ (using+ decentralized+ architecture)+ from+ batch+
analytics+(centralized).+

•! A+cloud+infrastructure+was+recommended+to+support+the+overall+architecture.+Due+

to+the+size+of+the+requirements,+the+company+is+running+its+own+cloud/datacenter+
to+ensure+performance+as+well+as+security+of+the+data.+

We+ also+ recommended+ focusing+ on+ the+ ease+ of+ use+ and+ training+ support+ for+ the+ data+
scientist.+ In+ all+ consideration,+ this+ was+ an+ extremely+ complex+ project+ that+ encompasses+
several+ IT+ layers+ and+ makes+ addressing+ the+ data+ scientists’+ specific+ requirements+ diffi<
cult.+++

$ 290$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

9.4.5! USE+CASE+2+US+COMPANY++

+The+customer+is+looking+to+leverage+aggregated+CDR+for+location<based+marketing+and+is+
looking+for+a+unique+way+to+analyze+behavioral+data.+The+data+will+be+used+to+deliver+real<
time+information+on+display+(city+and+road+side+ad+boards).+Use+includes+traffic+analysis+
in+a+given+location,+Events+attendance,+Retail+activities.+

The+customer+is+acquiring+the+dataset+from+a+mobile+CDR+provider.+The+CDR+are+anony<
mized+ by+ the+ third+ party+ and+ rolled+ out+ over+ a+ 90<day+ period.+ As+ this+ is+ a+ startup+ com<
pany,+the+objective+is+to+minimize+the+data+flow+and+pull+aggregated+data+(through+com<
plex+queries).+Some+of+the+findings+included:+

•! Volume+is+problematic+as+the+source+generates+over+petabytes+of+data+per+month+

and+cannot+be+dealt+with+by+traditional+IT+systems.++

•! Anonymization+ is+ a+ limiting+ factor+ because+ it+ results+ in+ the+ company+ not+ being+

able+to+track+the+user.+Anonymization+rotating+identity+is+slowing+down+the+real<+
time+aspect+of+the+processing.+

Proposed-Lambda-Architecture
Batch&Layer
Batch-compute
Geo-Spatial-&-Temporal-Analytic-
Daily Report
(Home,-Work,-Aggregated-
Monthly Load Locations)
120TB/day
Result-1…
HW-Tables Result-2..-Etc..

etc… 2PB/day-
uncompressed Query

HDFS-blocks
(transform) Html-User-
Web-Service
Interface-
Daily-
Monthly- Inputs
Extract Spark,-MongoDb
HW-tables generated-from-CDR-
10TB/month- Data-every-hour-
Aggregated/Compressed used-for-RealTime
report
Save-and-rollover-24-
Inputs hours-worth-of-data
Processor
CDR-Data (hourly) Spark Data-archived-into-
MongoDb realtime HDFS-daily
5TB/hour HDFS
Archive
Real&time&Layer
+

$ 291$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

Figure+20+Use+case:+Proposed+Cloud+Based+Big+Data+Architecture.19$

The+ customer+ needed+ the+ ability+ to+ augment+ current+ the+ CDR+ dataset+ with+ external+
sources+such+census+data,+weather+data+and+traffic+data+to+increase+data+monetization.+

We+used+Lambda+Architecture20,+to+separate+batch+and+Real<time+data.+A+higher+integra<
tion+ level+ of+ the+ infrastructure+ was+ suggested+ to+ host+ the+ data+ in+ the+ cloud+ and+ use+ Big+
Data+ to+ accelerate+ data+ processing.+ The+ platform+ encompasses+ a+ cloud<based+ solution+
with+Haddop,+8<node+cluster,+so+this+provides+the+ability+to+scale+the+solution+as+the+com<
pany+grows.++

As+a+first+step,+data+scientists+would+identify+the+most+relevant+use+cases,+connecting+di<
rectly+ to+ the+ platform.+ An+ R+ server+ was+ setup+ to+ allow+ algorithms+ and+ data+ processing.+
The+visualization+tool,+a+generic+open+source+tool,+would+be+used+as+a+front+end+for+adver<
tising+companies+to+track+trends+and+recommendations+systems.+As+a+second+step,+it+was+
determined+that+the+overall+analytics+process+could+be+automated+in+order+to+minimize+
the+user+interaction+as+much+as+possible.+++

In+conclusion,+this+use+case+was+much+more+tangible+and+in+line+with+our+model+imple<
mentation.+Part+of+the+recommendation+was+to+make+as+much+as+possible+abstraction+of+
the+cloud+Big+Data+platform+so+the+company+could+focus+on+developing+and+monetizing+
advanced+ analytics.+ Interestingly,+ this+ approach+ led+ to+ further+ discussions+ about+ fully+
automating+the+process+end+to+end+and+essentially+getting+rid+of+the+data+scientists+once+
the+platform+is+fully+operationalized.++
$

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
19
Legend+:+HW+:+Hardware,+CDR+:+Call+Detail+Records,+HDFS+:+Hadoop+Distributed+file+system

20
Lambda+architecture+is+a+Hadoop+data<processing+architecture+used+to+balance+latency,+throughput,+and+
fault<tolerance+by+using+batch+as+well+as+real<time+stream+processing+to+provide+views+of+online+data.+The+
two+view+outputs+may+be+joined+before+presentation.+(adapted++from+Wikipedia+definition,+
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_architecture)

$ 292$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

9.4.6! Research+Limitations++

This+thesis+makes+a+contribution+to+the+body+of+evaluation+research,+particularly+user+
adoption+studies+in+mobile+traffic+analysis,+but+has+several+limitations+that+are+addressed+
below.++

•! Mobile+service+providers+have+been+very+protective+of+the+CDR.+The+market+is+essen<
tially+ concentrated+ with+ less+ than+ a+ thousand+ companies+ worldwide.+ Hence,+ the+
research+ specifically+ focused+ on+ CDR+ is+ still+ very+ limited.+ The+ first+ identified+ paper+
was+published+in+1997,+and+Orange–MIT+Challenge+was+one+of+the+first+to+provide+a+
broad+accessibility+of+CDR+data+to+the+research+community.+In+fact,+about+half+of+the+
current+papers+find+their+source+in+Orange+CDR+data.+

•! The+ second+ issue+ is+ data+ anonymization.+ Governments+ mandate+ that+ data+ shall+ be+
anonymized+in+a+way+that+prevent+reidentification+of+individuals.+Obviously,+the+lack+
of+granularity+may+have+a+significant+impact+on+the+ability+to+extract+and+analyze+data+
in+ innovative+ ways.+ Keeping+ in+ mind+ these+ restrictions,+ the+ survey+ was+ addressing+
researchers+ from+ top+ universities+ across+ the+ world.+ This+ means+ that+ the+ population+
surveyed+ has+ a+ level+ of+ knowledge+ and+ cognitive+ capabilities+ that+ can+ vary+ signifi<
cantly+from+the+business+environment.+About+79%+of+the+individuals+are+students+and+
professors+ or+ from+ academic+ institutions.+ + Therefore,+ there+ is+ a+ possible+ bias+ in+ the+
study+that+might+affect+the+adoption+factors.+For+example,+we+highlighted+the+fact+that+
two+of+cloud+adoption+determinants+such+as+low+financial+cost+and+security+were+im<
portant+ for+ decision+ makers.+ These+ determinants+ were+ not+ significant+ for+ the+ sur<
veyed+individuals.++

•! Another+limitation+is+the+source+and+number+of+responses+in+this+survey,+which+is+re<
latively+ limited+ due+ to+ the+ specificity+ of+ the+ research.+ All+ of+ the+ survey+ respondents+
were+ participants+ of+ the+ MIT+ NetMob+ and+ the+ Orange+ Data+ for+ Development+ Chal<
lenge.+ We+ took+ these+ limitations+ into+ consideration+ in+ our+ analysis+ and+ validated+ or+
crosschecked+ our+ interpretations.+ However,+ it+ is+ worth+ noting+ that+ several+ resear<

$ 293$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

chers+have+addressed+conducting+research+with+a+limited+sample+and+have+found+that+
data+can+still+be+reliable+indicators+for+interpretation+even+if+limited+in+numbers.+Col<
loquially,+the+individuals+surveyed+may+be+“made+from+the+same+mold.”+We+note+that+
on+ our+ model+ albeit+ validated,+ some+ constructs+ R+ square+ extracted+ are+ high.+ This+
mean+that+the+questions+may+not+separate+enough+the+perception+of+the+fit+(Everyone+
“agree+“…).+ In+ turn,+ this+ limits+ the+ ability+ to+ differentiate+ the+ strentgh+ of+ the+ cons<
tructs.++

•! In+ addition,+ Orange+ has+ been+ very+ conscious+ to+ share+ the+ data+ for+ the+ purpose+ of++
economic+ development+;+ therefore,+ any+ papers+ that+ would+ not+ contribute+ to+ social+
economic+development+were+rejected.+However,+based+on+the+paper+“Large+Scale+Data+
Analysis”+(Ribot+2015,+[6]),+we+determined+that+CDR+data+could+be+used+for+more+ne<
farious+purposes+such+as+political,+military+and+intelligence+to+manipulate+and+moni<
tor+ individual+ social+ behaviors.+ By+ definition,+ this+ implies+ another+ bias+ on+ how+ CDR+
can+be+dealt++with+and+affects+how+to+process+the+data+and+the+technology.+

•! Another+possible+limitation+is+due+to+the+field+of+Big+Data+and+cloud+computing+being+
so+new.+We+focused+on+Big+Data,+a+term+that+has+myriad+different+definitions.+As+de<
tailed+in+section+3.2,+the+definition+and+interpretation+varies+from+one+researcher+to+
another.+Additionally,+the+term+Big+Data+is+evolving+overtime.+Choosing+to+use+a+diffe<
rent+definition+than+the+one+used+in+this+thesis+could+lead+to+incompatible+findings.++

9.4.7! Recommendations+for+Future+Work+

We+believe+the+proposed+model+can+be+generalized+enough+to+extend+the+recommenda<
tions+ to+ companies+ who+ intend+ to+ adopt+ Big+ Data+ and+ cloud+ computing+ as+ part+ of+ their+
new+IT+capabilities.+With+his+model,+Goodhue+[18]+wanted+to+address+the+lack+of+conside<
ration+for+task+in+the+assumption+previous+researchers+were+making+regarding+“better”+
information+systems+and+services+leading+to+higher+user+evaluations.++

$ 294$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

We+ addressed+ this+ thesis+ from+ a+ management+ perspective+ as+ well+ from+ an+ information+
systems+ perspective.+ We+ envision+ a+ number+ of+ possible+ extensions+ of+ this+ work+ from+ a+
horizontal+point+of+view.+That+is+understanding+the+data+analytics+process+for+mobile+traf<
fic+data+from+end+to+end+and+proposing+an+operationalization+of+the+model.+

In+addition,+we+propose+a+more+verticalized+approach+that+focuses+on+improving+and+re<
fining+our+proposed+model+from+a+theoretical+point+of+view+and+links+it+more+effectively+
to+the+organizational+level.++

EndCtoCEnd(Modelization(of(Large(Scale(Mobile(traffic(analysis(using(Big(Data(and(
Cloud(Technologies(

The+ evolution+ of+ research+ that+ has+ been+ conducted+ previously,+ including+ this+ thesis,+ as+
well+as+work+currently+in+progress+is+illustrated+in+Figure+21.+In+this+thesis,+we+looked+at+
the+role+and+requirements+of+the+data+scientist,+the+mobile+traffic+data+analysis+process,+
Big+Data+determinants+of+adoption+at+the+user+level+and+cloud+computing+determinants+of+
adoption.+In+an+earlier+research+paper,+we+studied+large<scale+mobile+traffic+analysis+as+a+
research+field.++

Focus&of&this& Large&Scale&Mobile& Data&Representation

thesis Traffic&Analysis& Work&in&progress
Research&Paper&Ribot (2015)

Data&Scientist&Role&and&Requirements. Research&Field
5 Big&Data&and&Cloud&Competency • Evolution&and&driving&factors&
• Literature&classification&
Mobile&Traffic&Data&Analysis&Process Data&Visualization&
5 Task&Complexity Mobile&traffic&data&collection Network&Graph
5 Non&Routine&Approach • Cellular&Network&Architecture
• Mobile&traffic&probes&
Big&Data&Determinants&of&Adoption&at&the& • Mobile&traffic&anonymization Data&Reporting
user&level.
5 High&Volume&ingestion&capabilities Domain&of&Application&of&CDR&Analysis& Performance&Metrics
5 Real5Time&processing • Social&Analysis
5 User&Interactions
Cloud&Computing&Determinants&of& 5 Demographics Linked&Data
Adoption.
5 Processing&Power/Scalability
5 Environment
5 Epidemics&Model
Semantic&Web&
5 Availability& • Mobility&Analysis sharing
5Human&Mobility
5Transportation&Systems Future&Research
• Network&Analysis
5Mobile&Demand
5Technologies

$ 295$
Future&Research&
Model&Validation&and&Operationalization&in&the&context&of&the&organization
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

Figure+21+Evolution+of+Big+Data+and+Cloud+Computing+Research+applied+to+Large+Scale+
Mobile+Data+Analysis+Developed+for+this+research++

In+that+paper+[6],+mobile+traffic+data+collection+and+the+domain+of+application+of+CDR+ana<
lytics+was+also+studied,+including+social+analysis,+mobility+analysis+and+network+analysis.+
Currently,+related+research+is+being+undertaken+to+study+and+normalize+data+visualization+
(network+graph),+data+reporting+(performance+metrics)+and+linked+data+on+the+semantic+
web+(sharing)+in+the+context+of+Large+Scale+Mobile+Data+Analysis.+

Extending(Big(Data(and(Cloud(technology(TTF(to(the(organization:((As+far+as+future+
research+ goes,+ from+ a+ managerial+ perspective,+ we+ hope+ that+ the+ results+ from+ our+ study+
can+be+applied+along+with+the+current+findings+to+provide+a+better+understanding+of+Big+
Data+and+Cloud+requirements+from+the+users,+the+task+and+the+IT+tools+used.+In+turn,+this+
may+lead+to+new+implications+for+organizations+in+(re)defining+the+role+of+the+user+(data+
scientist)+ by+ either+ better+ organizing+ the+ human+ resources+ scarcity,+ subdividing+ the+
tasks,+ensuring+technology+ease+of+use++or+providing+better+training,+for+example.+Findings+
could+ also+ help+ in+ articulating+ a+ better+ architecture+ and+ improved+ solutions+ for+ mobile+
services+providers.+

Evolution(of(Big(Data(and(Cloud(technology(adoption:(+In+future+research,+it+would+be+
valuable+to+measure+the+evolution+over+time+of+the+Big+Data+and+Cloud+technology+adop<
tion+of+mobile+service+providers.+However,+the+cross<sectional+survey+allows+us+to+deter<
mine+the+state+of+use+at+a+given+time+as+well+as+the+relative+strength+between+the+factors+
that+are+appropriate+to+answer+the+initial+objectives.+Therefore,+we+can+use+our+findings+
to+create+more+refined+hypotheses+for+future+research.++

•! The+same+study+should+be+repeated+with+the+next+MIT+NetMob+and+Orange+Data+for+
Development+Challenge.+Additionally,+researchers+can+use+this+proposed+model+to+in<

$ 296$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

vestigate+factors+influencing+the+adoption+of+cloud<based+Big+Data+technology+in+a+wi<
der+global+audience+of+data+scientists.+

•! Researchers+ could+ extend+ this+ study+ by+ analyzing+ the+ interaction+ between+ different+
characteristics+and+variables,+since+the+impact+of+the+attributes+would+be+different+at+
different+stages+of+the+IT+adoption+process.+Using+the+findings,+researchers+could+per<
form+a+meta<analysis+to+identify+the+strength+and+magnitude+of+all+the+individual+cha<
racteristics+we+identified+in+this+study.++

Expanding(on(Data(Scientist(and(Big(Data(adoption(determinants:++As+a+new+techno<
logy,+obviously+there+are+wealth+of+opportunities+to+develop+and+expand+research+around+
Big+Data+:+

•! The+definition+of+data+scientist,+as+we+analyzed+it,+reflects+the+lack+of+maturity+in+
Big+ Data+ and+ cloud.+ Therefore,+ there+ are+ expectations+ for+ the+ data+ scientist+ to+
"choose”++ the+ technology.+ As+ open+ source+ and+ ubiquitous+ technology+ continue+ to+
evolve,+and+based+on+these+findings,+we+believe+that+the+data+scientist+will+focus+on+
tools+that+favor+ease+of+use+for+both+hardware+and+software.+

•! As+ defined+ in+ Chapter+ 3,+ the+ role+ of+ the+ data+ scientist+ is+ inherently+ broad.+ When+
asked+about+Big+Data+competency,+chances+are+that+we+will+get+a+positive+answer.+
Within+the+role+of+the+data+scientist,+previous+researchers+have+identified+multiple+
subgroup+and+have+acknowledge+that+data+scientists+have+two+levels+of+exertise+.+
In+ some+ cases,+ data+ scientists+ are+ scientists+ first+ and+ then+ gained+ industry+
knowledge,+and+in+other+cases,+they+were+in+an+industry<+or+tools<driven+position+
and+developed+their+scientific+skills.+We+could+argue+that+organizations+need+to+be+
more+conscious+that+a+super+data+scientist+is+a+fallacy+and+should+focus+on+being+
much+more+specific+about+the+data+scientist+role+and+expectations.+In+essence,+they+
should+come+back+to+task+divisions+that+are+repeatable+and+with+limited+complexi<
ty.+ We+ could+ argue+ about+ that+ being+ possible+ or+ not+ but+ the+ most+ interesting+ as<
pect+of+it+is:+can+we+simply+do+abstraction+of+technology+altogether.+Based+on+our+

$ 297$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

findings,+data+scientists+defined+technology+by+ease+of+use+of+hardware+/software+
and+the+ability+to+process+large+volumes+of+data+realtime+in+the+cloud.+

Technology( Abstraction:( + We+ suggest+ that+ the+ automation+ of+ those+ components,+ and+
therefore+the+abstraction+of+setting+up,+configuring+and+transforming+data+could+be+com<
pletely+offset+or+at+least+minimized.+This+is+in+line+with+a+suggestion+from+Davenport+that+
the+ lack+ “data”+ knowledgeable+ resources+ need+ to+ be+ addressed.+ Automation+ of+ the+ full+
process+then+could+be+the+answer.+

Additional+research+from+a+management+perspective+may+help+understand+in+more+detail+
the+ IT+ choice+ versus+ the+ IT+ usage.+ Brynjolfsson+ in+ his+ Big+ Data+ Course+ at+ MIT+ used+ the+
metaphor+of+factories+adopting+the+electric+engine.+He+argues+that+immediate+(organiza<
tional)+benefits+were+not+realized+because+the+supply+chain+was+organized+around+a+large+
steam+engine.+First,+the+line+of+production+had+to+be+completely+reorganized+in+order+for+
the+ factory+ to+ reap+ the+ benefits+ of+ increased+ value+ and+ decreased+ cost+ from+ the+ imple<
mentation+of+the+smaller+electric+engine.++

Similarly,+we+believe+that+our+findings,+and+the+example+of+the+use+cases,+show+that+we+
should+ automate+ the+ analytics+ process+ end<to<end+ in+ order+ to+ give+ a+ clear+ example+ of+
reorganization+ needs.+ In+ this+ thesis,+ we+ focused+ our+ efforts+ at+ the+ individual+ level+ and+
should+pursue+further+research+at+the+theoretical+level+to+validate+our+findings.(

Task( driven( theories:( ( Further+ research+ could+ expand+ the+ proposed+ model+ to+ include+
the+TAM,+to+study+the+individual+acceptance+of+the+new+technology+based+on+the+respon<
dents’+beliefs+and+attitudes+toward+using+the+technology.++

To+conclude,+our+goal+in+this+thesis+was+to+study+to+what+extent+two+new+technologies+–
cloud+ computing+ and+ Big+ Data+ –+ contribute+ to+ the+ tasks+ undertaken+ by+ data+ scientists,+
particularly+as+it+relates+to+mobile+traffic+data.+From+our+findings,+we+endeavored+to+fill+
the+gaps+and+weaknesses+in+previous+research+and+develop+a+new+user+adoption+model,+

$ 298$
Discussion+and+Conclusion+

the+task<Big+Data/cloud+computing+technology+fit+model,+based+on+the+task<technology+fit+
model.+This+model+addresses+factors+and+characteristics+for+Big+Data+and+cloud+compu<
ting+together+for+the+first+time.+Specifically,+we+used+our+model+as+a+diagnostic+tool+to+de<
termine+whether+cloud<based+Big+Data+technology+would+address+the+needs+of+data+sci<
entists.+By+addressing+current+research+gaps+and+evaluating+TTF+in+relation+to+the+mobile+
traffic+analytics+process,+Big+Data+applications,+cloud+infrastructure,+the+individual+char<
acteristics+related+to+data+scientists,+perceived+impact+results+and+the+perceived+impact+of+
Big+Data+variables,+we+achieved+that+goal.++

$ 299$
References+

References+

+
[1]+ GSMA,+“The+Mobile+Economy+2014,”+pp.+1–44,+Feb.+2014.+
[2]+ E.+Bouillet,+R.+Kothari,+V.+Kumar,+L.+Mignet,+and+S.+Nathan,+Bouillet:)Experience)
report:)Processing)6)billion...):)Google)Scholar.+Proc.+6th+ACM+Internat.+Conf+…,+
2012.+
[3]+ T.+Davenport,+Big)Data)at)Work.+Harvard+Business+Review+Press,+2014.+
[4]+ K.+C.+Cox,+S.+G.+Eick,+G.+J.+Wills,+and+R.+J.+Brachman,+“Brief+Application+Descrip<
tion;+Visual+Data+Mining:+Recognizing+Telephone+Calling+Fraud,”+Data)Mining)
and)Knowledge)Discovery,+vol.+1,+no.+2,+pp.+225–231,+Jan.+1997.+
[5]+ M.+Richeldi+and+A.+Perrucci,+“Mining+Mart+Evaluation+Report,”+Deliverable)D17,+
2002.+
[6]+ S.+Ribot,+M.+Fiore,+D.+Naboulsi,+and+R.+Stanica,+“Large<Scale+Mobile+Traffic+Analy<
sis:+A+Survey,”+IEEE)Commun.)Surv.)Tutorials,+no.+1,+pp.+124–161,+Jan.+2016.+
[7]+ M.+Tizzoni,+P.+Bajardi,+A.+Decuyper,+G.+K.+K.+King,+C.+M.+Schneider,+V.+Blondel,+Z.+
Smoreda,+M.+C.+González,+and+V.+Colizza,+“On+the+use+of+human+mobility+proxy+
for+the+modeling+of+epidemics,”+arXiv.org,+vol.+q<bio.PE,+no.+7.+p.+e1003716,+27<
Sep<2013.+
[8]+ F.+Calabrese,+F.+C.+Pereira,+G.+Di+Lorenzo,+L.+Liu,+and+C.+Ratti,+“The+geography+of+
taste:+analyzing+cell<phone+mobility+and+social+events,”+MIT)Press,+pp.+1–17,+Feb.+
2010.+
[9]+ Y.+Hui,+M.+Liu,+and+P.+Hui,+“Analysis+of+New+Strategies+for+Resources+Allocation+
and+Infrastructure+Development+in+Côte+d'Ivoire+by+Mapping+Telecommunica<

$ 300$
References+

tion+Densities,”+Netmob)2013):)D4D,+May+2013.+
[10]+ T.+H.+Davenport+and+J.+E.+Short,+The)New)Industrial)Engineering.+Nabu+Press,+
1990.+
[11]+ C.+M.+Christensen+and+M.+Overdorf,+“Meeting+the+challenge+of+disruptive+
change,”+Harvard)Business)Review,+vol.+78,+no.+2,+pp.+66–77,+2000.+
[12]+ C.+Deng,+“Federated+Cloud+based+Big+Data+Platform+in+Telecommunications,”+
Aug.+2012.+
[13]+ L.+Yu,+J.+Zheng,+W.+C.+Shen,+B.+Wu,+B.+Wang,+L.+Qian,+and+B.+R.+Zhang,+BC:PDM:)da:
ta)mining,)social)network)analysis)and)text)mining)system)based)on)cloud)compu:
ting.+New+York,+New+York,+USA:+ACM,+2012,+pp.+1496–1499.+
[14]+ B.+Theeten,+I.+Bedini,+P.+Cogan,+A.+Sala,+and+T.+Cucinotta,+“Towards+the+optimiza<
tion+of+a+parallel+streaming+engine+for+telco+applications,”+Bell)Labs)Tech.)J.,+vol.+
18,+no.+4,+pp.+181–197.+
[15]+ E.+E.+Schadt,+M.+D.+Linderman,+J.+Sorenson,+L.+Lee,+and+G.+P.+Nolan,+“Computa<
tional+solutions+to+large<scale+data+management+and+analysis,”+Nature)Publish:
ing)Group,+vol.+11,+no.+9,+pp.+647–657,+Sep.+2010.+
[16]+ D.+Agrawal,+S.+Das,+and+A.+El+Abbadi,+“Big+data+and+cloud+computing:+current+
state+and+future+opportunities,”+EDBT)2011,+2011.+
[17]+ M.+D.+Assuncao,+R.+N.+Calheiros,+S.+Bianchi,+M.+A.+S.+Netto,+and+R.+Buyya,+“Big+Data+
Computing+and+Clouds:+Trends+and+Future+Directions,”+arXiv.org,+vol.+cs.DC.+17<
Dec<2013.+
[18]+ D.+Goodhue+and+R.+L.+Thompson,+“Task<technology+fit+and+individual+perfor<
mance,”+MIS)Quarterly,+1995.+
[19]+ F.+D.+Davis,+R.+P.+Bagozzi,+and+P.+R.+Warshaw,+“User+acceptance+of+computer+
technology:+a+comparison+of+two+theoretical+models,”+Manage)Sci,+1989.+
[20]+ V.+Venkatesh,+M.+G.+Morris,+G.+B.+Davis,+and+F.+D.+Davis,+“User+acceptance+of+in<
formation+technology:+Toward+a+unified+view.,”+MIS)Quarterly,+2003.+
[21]+ E.+M.+Rogers,+Diffusion)of)Innovations,)5th)Edition.+Simon+and+Schuster,+2003.+
[22]+ “Technology+acceptance+of+cloud+computing:+empirical+evidence+from+German+
IT+departments,”+)th)HICSS,+pp.+1593–1602,+2012.+
[23]+ M.+Stieninger,+D.+Nedbal,+W.+Wetzlinger,+and+G.+Wagner,+“Impacts+on+the+Organi<
zational+Adoption+of+Cloud+Computing:+A+Reconceptualization+of+Influencing+
Factors,”+Procedia)…,+vol.+16,+pp.+85–93,+2014.+
[24]+ G.+Pozzi,+F.+Pigni,+and+C.+Vitari,+“Explaining+Big+Data+Impact+on+Healthcare+Or<
ganization:+A+Technology+Affordance+Approach+,”+adfa)Springer:Verlag)Berlin)
Heidelberg,+pp.+1–8,+Nov.+2013.+
[25]+ G.+C.+Fox,+Large)scale)data)analytics)on)clouds.+New+York,+New+York,+USA:+ACM,+
2012,+pp.+21–24.+

$ 301$
References+

[26]+ V.+D.+Blondel,+A.+Decuyper,+and+G.+Krings,+“A+survey+of+results+on+mobile+phone+
datasets+analysis,”+arXiv.org,+vol.+physics.soc<ph.+11<Feb<2015.+
[27]+ A.+Kushwaha,+R.+Das,+and+C.+Sharma,+“Trusted+Third+Party<based+CDR+Manage<
ment+System,”+Journal)of)Telecommunication,)Electronic)and)Computer)Engineer:
ing)(JTEC),+vol.+6,+no.+1,+pp.+43–46,+2014.+
[28]+ G.+K.+Zipf,+Human)Behavior)and)the)Principle)of)Least)Effort.+Martino+Fine+Books,+
2012.+
[29]+ V.+Soto,+V.+Frias<Martinez,+J.+Virseda,+and+E.+Frias<Martinez,+“Prediction+of+Socio<
economic+Levels+Using+Cell+Phone+Records,”+User)Modeling,)Adaption)and)Per:
sonalization,+vol.+6787,+no.+35,+pp.+377–388,+2011.+
[30]+ Fabio+Pinelli,+G.+Di+Lorenzo,+and+F.+Calabrese,+“Evaluating+urban+sensing+appli<
cations+using+actively+and+passively<generated+mobile+phone+location+data,”+
Netmob)2011,+2015.+
[31]+ P.+Wang,+T.+Hunter,+A.+M.+Bayen,+K.+Schechtner,+and+M.+C.+González,+“Understand<
ing+Road+Usage+Patterns+in+Urban+Areas,”+Scientific)Reports,+vol.+2,+pp.+1–6,+Dec.+
2012.+
[32]+ S.+V.+Wunnava,+K.+Yen,+T.+Babij,+R.+Zavaleta,+R.+Romero,+and+C.+Archilla,+“Travel+
Time+Estimation+Using+Cell+Phones+(TTECP)+for+Highways+and+Roadways,”+Na:
tional)Academy)of)Sciences,+Jan.+2007.+
[33]+ F.+Zabadi,+Business)Intelligence)Process)for)Telecommunication)Industry.+CDC+
Press,+2015,+pp.+1–10.+
[34]+ T.+Ishaya+and+M.+Folarin,+“A+service+oriented+approach+to+Business+Intelligence+
in+Telecoms+industry,”+Telematics)and)Informatics,+vol.+29,+no.+3,+pp.+273–285,+
Aug.+2012.+
[35]+ Y.+de+Montjoye,+Z.+Smoreda,+R.+Trinquart,+C.+Ziemlicki,+and+V.+Blondel,+“D4D<
Senegal:+The+Second+Mobile+Phone+Data+for+Development+Challenge,”+Netmob)
2013):)D4D,+pp.+1–11,+Jul.+2014.+
[36]+ S.<Y.+Hung,+D.+C.+Yen,+and+H.<Y.+Wang,+“Applying+data+mining+to+telecom+churn+
management,”+Expert)Systems)With)Applications,+vol.+31,+no.+3,+pp.+515–524,+Oct.+
2006.+
[37]+ R.+Yrjo+and+D.+Rushil,+Cloud)computing)in)mobile)networks;)Case)MVNO.+IEEE,+
2011,+pp.+253–258.+
[38]+ C.+C.+Shih+and+C.+W.+Huang,+“Efficiently+scheduling+Cloud+resources+for+peak+or+
urgent+events+in+telecom+system.,”+APNOMS,+pp.+1–6,+2013.+
[39]+ E.+Letouze,+“The+Politics+and+Ethics+of+CDR+Analytics,”+Data)PoP)Alliance)World)
Bank)Group,+pp.+1–23,+Dec.+2014.+
[40]+ H.+Zang+and+J.+Bolot,+“Anonymization+of+location+data+does+not+work:+A+large<
scale+measurement+study,”+presented+at+the+MobiCom’11,+2011.+
[41]+ Y.<A.+de+Montjoye,+C.+A.+Hidalgo,+M.+Verleysen,+and+V.+D.+Blondel,+“Unique+in+the+

$ 302$
References+

Crowd:+The+privacy+bounds+of+human+mobility,”+Scientific)Reports,+vol.+3,+Mar.+
2013.+
[42]+ D.+Delen+and+H.+Demirkan,+“Data,+information+and+analytics+as+services,”+Deci:
sion)Support)Systems,+vol.+55,+no.+1,+pp.+359–363,+Apr.+2013.+
[43]+ A.+McAfee+and+E.+Brynjolfsson,+“Big+Data:++The+Management+Revolution+,”+Har:
vard)Business)Review,+2012.+
[44]+ W.+Fan+and+A.+Bifet,+“Mining+big+data:+current+status,+and+forecast+to+the+future,”+
SIGKDD)Explorations)Newsletter,+vol.+14,+no.+2,+pp.+1–5,+Apr.+2013.+
[45]+ C.+L.+P.+Chen+and+C.<Y.+Zhang,+“Data<intensive+applications,+challenges,+tech<
niques+and+technologies:+A+survey+on+Big+Data,”+Information)Sciences,+vol.+275,+
no.+C,+pp.+314–347,+Aug.+2014.+
[46]+ F.+Diebold,+“On+the+Origin+(s)+and+Development+of+the+Term”+Big+Data”,”+Penn)
Institute)for)Economic)Research,+2012.+
[47]+ D.+Boyd+and+K.+Crawford,+“Critical+questions+for+big+data:+Provocations+for+a+cul<
tural,+technological,+and+scholarly+phenomenon,”+Information,+2012.+
[48]+ L.+Manovich,+“Trending:+the+promises+and+the+challenges+of+big+social+data,”+
2011.+
[49]+ S.+M.+Weiss+and+N.+Indurkhya,+Predictive)Data)Mining.+Morgan+Kaufmann,+1998.+
[50]+ F.+X.+Diebold,+“‘Big+Data’Dynamic+factor+models+for+macroeconomic+measure<
ment+and+forecasting,”+Penn)Institute)for)Economic)Research,+2003.+
[51]+ F.+Schomm,+F.+Stahl,+and+G.+Vossen,+“Marketplaces+for+data:+an+initial+survey,”+
SIGMOD)Record,+vol.+42,+no.+1,+pp.+15–26,+May+2013.+
[52]+ M.+Pospiech+and+C.+Felden,+“A+Descriptive+Big+Data+Model+Using+Grounded+The<
ory,”+presented+at+the+CSE+'13:+Proceedings+of+the+2013+IEEE+16th+International+
Conference+on+Computational+Science+and+Engineering,+2013,+pp.+878–885.+
[53]+ H.+Chen,+R.+Chiang,+and+V.+C.+Storey,+“Business+Intelligence+and+Analytics:+From+
Big+Data+to+Big+Impact.,”+MIS)Quarterly,+2012.+
[54]+ M.+Pospiech+and+C.+Felden,+“Big+data–a+state<of<the<art,”+AMCIS)2012)Proceed:
ings,+2012.+
[55]+ M.+Franklin,+“Big+Data+Research+in+the+AMPLab+and+Beyond",”+UC)Berkeley,+pp.+
1–25,+Dec.+2013.+
[56]+ S.+Madden,+“From+Databases+to+Big+Data,”+Internet)Computing,)IEEE,+vol.+16,+no.+
3,+pp.+4–6,+2012.+
[57]+ B.+Baesens,+“Transformational+Issues+of+Big+Data+and+Analytics+in+Networked+
Business,”+MIS)Quarterly,+pp.+1–3,+Jan.+2014.+
[58]+ K.+Reda,+A.+Febretti,+A.+Knoll,+J.+Aurisano,+J.+Leigh,+A.+Johnson,+M.+E.+Papka,+and+M.+
Hereld,+“Visualizing+Large,+Heterogeneous+Data+in+Hybrid<Reality+Environ<
ments,”+Computer)Graphics)and)Applications,)IEEE,+vol.+33,+no.+4,+pp.+38–48,+

$ 303$
References+

2013.+
[59]+ D.+Fisher,+R.+DeLine,+M.+Czerwinski,+and+S.+Drucker,+“Interactions+with+big+data+
analytics,”+interactions,+vol.+19,+no.+3,+p.+50,+May+2012.+
[60]+ D.+Agrawal,+“Big+Data+and+Cloud+Computing:+New+Wine+or+just+New+Bottles?,”+
pp.+1–2,+Aug.+2010.+
[61]+ F.+Provost+and+T.+Fawcett,+“Data+Science+and+its+Relationship+to+Big+Data+and+
Data<Driven+Decision+Making,”+Big)Data,+2013.+
[62]+ J.+Han,+M.+Kamber,+and+J.+Pei,+Data)Mining:)Concepts)and)Techniques.+Elsevier,+
2011.+
[63]+ F.+Mitchell,+“Use+of+Artificial+Intelligence+in+Digital+Forensics:+An+Introduction,+
The,”+Digital)Evidence)&)Elec)Signature)L)Rev,+2010.+
[64]+ U.+Fayyad,+G.+Piatetsky<Shapiro,+and+P.+Smyth,+“The+KDD+process+for+extracting+
useful+knowledge+from+volumes+of+data,”+Commun.)ACM,+1996.+
[65]+ D.+Kiron+and+R.+Shockley,+“Creating+business+value+with+analytics,”+MIT)Sloan)
management)review,+2011.+
[66]+ A.+Radhakrishnan,+X.+Zu,+and+V.+Grover,+“A+process<oriented+perspective+on+dif<
ferential+business+value+creation+by+information+technology:+An+empirical+in<
vestigation,”+Omega,+vol.+36,+no.+6,+pp.+1105–1125,+Dec.+2008.+
[67]+ R.+Sharma,+S.+Mithas,+and+A.+Kankanhalli,+“Transforming+decision<making+pro<
cesses:+a+research+agenda+for+understanding+the+impact+of+business+analytics+on+
organisations,”+Eur)J)Inf)Syst,+vol.+23,+no.+4,+pp.+433–441,+Jun.+2014.+
[68]+ R.+Sharma,+“Creating+Value+from+Business+Analytics+Systems:+The+Impact+of+
Strategy,”+Eur)J)Inf)Syst,+2011.+
[69]+ S.+LaValle,+E.+Lesser,+and+R.+Shockley,+“Big+data,+analytics+and+the+path+from+in<
sights+to+value,”+MIT)Sloan)management)review,+2014.+
[70]+ S.+Kandel,+A.+Paepcke,+J.+M.+Hellerstein,+and+J.+Heer,+“Enterprise+Data+Analysis+
and+Visualization:+An+Interview+Study,”+Visualization)and)Computer)Graphics,)
IEEE)Transactions)on,+vol.+18,+no.+12,+pp.+2917–2926,+2012.+
[71]+ U.+P.<S.+G.+S.+P.+Fayyad,+“Knowledge+Discovery+and+Data+Mining:,”+pp.+1–7,+Sep.+
2003.+
[72]+ D.+J.+Abadi,+“Data+Management+in+the+Cloud:+Limitations+and+Opportunities,”+pp.+
1–10,+Mar.+2009.+
[73]+ J.+Davey,+F.+Mansmann,+J.+Kohlhammer,+and+D.+Keim,+“Visual+Analytics:+Towards+
Intelligent+Interactive+Internet+and+Security+Solutions,”+in+The)Future)Internet,+
vol.+7281,+no.+9,+Berlin,+Heidelberg:+Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg,+2012,+pp.+93–
104.+
[74]+ C.+L.+P.+Chen+and+C.<Y.+Zhang,+“Data<intensive+applications,+challenges,+tech<
niques+and+technologies:+A+survey+on+Big+Data,”+Information)Sciences,+vol.+275,+

$ 304$
References+

no.+C,+pp.+314–347,+Aug.+2014.+
[75]+ R.+Cattell,+“Scalable+SQL+and+NoSQL+data+stores,”+SIGMOD)Record,+vol.+39,+no.+4,+
pp.+12–27,+May+2011.+
[76]+ E.+Begoli,+“A+Short+Survey+on+the+State+of+the+Art+in+Architectures+and+Platforms+
for+Large+Scale+Data+Analysis+and+Knowledge+Discovery+from+Data,”+pp.+1–7,+Jul.+
2012.+
[77]+ W.+Lin+and+J.+Liu,+“Performance+Analysis+of+MapReduce+Program+in+Heterogene<
ous+Cloud+Computing,”+JNW,+vol.+8,+no.+8,+pp.+1–8,+Aug.+2013.+
[78]+ L.+Lessig,+Code.+Lawrence+Lessig,+2006.+
[79]+ H.+U.+Buhl,+M.+Röglinger,+F.+Moser,+and+J.+Heidemann,+“A+Fashionable+Topic+
with(out)+Sustainable+Relevance+for+Research+and+Practice?+,”+Wirtschaftsinf,+
vol.+55,+no.+2,+pp.+63–68,+Feb.+2013.+
[80]+ R.+Kitchin,+“Big+Data,+new+epistemologies+and+paradigm+shifts,”+Big)Data)&)Soci:
ety,+vol.+1,+no.+1,+pp.+1–12,+Apr.+2014.+
[81]+ L.+Floridi,+“Big+Data+and+Their+Epistemological+Challenge,”+Philos.)Technol.,+vol.+
25,+no.+4,+pp.+435–437,+Nov.+2012.+
[82]+ J.+Choo+and+H.+Park,+“Customizing+Computational+Methods+for+Visual+Analytics+
with+Big+Data,”+IEEE)Computer)Graphics)and)Applications,+vol.+33,+no.+4,+Jul.+
2013.+
[83]+ J.+C.+Wallis,+E.+Rolando,+and+C.+L.+Borgman,+“If+We+Share+Data,+Will+Anyone+Use+
Them?+Data+Sharing+and+Reuse+in+the+Long+Tail+of+Science+and+Technology,”+
PLoS)ONE,+vol.+8,+no.+7,+p.+67332,+Jul.+2013.+
[84]+ C.+Tenopir,+S.+Allard,+K.+Douglass,+A.+U.+Aydinoglu,+L.+Wu,+E.+Read,+M.+Manoff,+and+
M.+Frame,+“Data+Sharing+by+Scientists:+Practices+and+Perceptions,”+PLoS)ONE,+
vol.+6,+no.+6,+p.+21101,+Jun.+2011.+
[85]+ E.+Pisani+and+C.+AbouZahr,+“Sharing+health+data:+good+intentions+are+not+
enough,”+World)Health)Organization,+2010.+
[86]+ D.+Boyd+and+K.+Crawford,+“Six+provocations+for+big+data,”+Symposium)on)the)Dy:
namics)of)the)Internet)and)Society,+2011.+
[87]+ E.+Pariser,+The)Filter)Bubble.+Penguin,+2011.+
[88]+ K.+Lewis,+J.+Kaufman,+M.+Gonzalez,+A.+Wimmer,+and+N.+Christakis,+“Tastes,+ties,+
and+time:+A+new+social+network+dataset+using+Facebook.com,”+Social)Networks,+
vol.+30,+no.+4,+pp.+330–342,+Oct.+2008.+
[89]+ T.+Emmens+and+A.+Phippen,+Evaluating)Online)Safety)Programs.+Harvard+Berk<
man+Center+for+Internet+and+Society.[23+…,+2010.+
[90]+ D.+J.+Leinweber,+Nerds)on)Wall)Street.+John+Wiley+and+Sons,+2009.+
[91]+ A.+Swan+and+S.+Brown,+“The+skills,+role+and+career+structure+of+data+scientists+
and+curators:+An+assessment+of+current+practice+and+future+needs,”+London:)JISC)

$ 305$
References+

Retrieved)September,+2008.+
[92]+ H.+Harris,+P.+Murphy,+and+M.+Vaisman,+“Analyzing_the_Analyzers,”+Strata,+pp.+1–
40,+Jun.+2013.+
[93]+ T.+H.+Davenport,+“Data+Scientist:+The+Sexiest+Job+of+the+21st+Century,”+Apr.+2014.+
[94]+ L.+G.+Tornatzky,+M.+Fleischer,+and+A.+K.+Chakrabarti,+The)processes)of)technologi:
cal)innovation.+Free+Press,+1990.+
[95]+ J.+Esteves+and+J.+Curto,+“A+Risk+and+Benefits+Behavioral+Model+to+Assess+Inten<
tions+to+Adopt+Big+Data,”+Journal)of)Intelligence)Studies)in)Business,+pp.+1–10,+
Mar.+2015.+
[96]+ F.+Germann,+G.+L.+Lilien,+and+A.+Rangaswamy,+“Intern.+J.+of+Research+in+Market<
ing,”+International)Journal)of)Research)in)Marketing,+vol.+30,+no.+2,+pp.+114–128,+
Jun.+2013.+
[97]+ T.+C.<K.+Huang,+C.<C.+Liu,+and+D.<C.+Chang,+“International+Journal+of+Information+
Management,”+International)Journal)of)Information)Management,+vol.+32,+no.+3,+
pp.+257–270,+Jun.+2012.+
[98]+ T.<C.+Lin+and+C.<C.+Huang,+“Understanding+knowledge+management+system+us<
age+antecedents:+An+integration+of+social+cognitive+theory+and+task+technology+
fit,”+Information)&)Management,+vol.+45,+no.+6,+pp.+410–417,+Sep.+2008.+
[99]+ T.+Kamioka+and+T.+Tapanainen,+“Organizational+use+of+big+data+and+competitive+
advantage+–+exploration+of+antecedents,”+Association)for)Information)Systems,+
pp.+1–17,+Jul.+2014.+
[100]+ W.+H.+Delone,+“The+DeLone+and+McLean+model+of+information+systems+success:+
a+ten<year+update,”+Journal)of)Management)Information)Systems,+2003.+
[101]+ R.+Tijsen,+M.+Spruit,+and+M.+vandeRidder,+“BI<FIT:+The+fit+between+Business+In<
telligence+end<users,+tasks+and+technologies,”+Utrecht)University,+pp.+1–14,+Feb.+
2015.+
[102]+ H.+Liu,+“Big+Data+Drives+Cloud+Adoption+in+Enterprise,”+Internet)Computing,)
IEEE,+vol.+17,+no.+4,+pp.+68–71,+2013.+
[103]+ Y.<W.+Chang,+P.<Y.+Hsu,+and+W.<L.+Shiau,+“An+empirical+study+of+managers’+usage+
intention+in+BI,”+Cogn)Tech)Work,+Apr.+2013.+
[104]+ T.+Grubljesic+and+J.+Jaklic,+“Business+Intelligence+Acceptance<The+prominence+of+
organizational+factors,”+SSRN)Journal,+pp.+1–31,+Feb.+2015.+
[105]+ H.+Demirkan+and+D.+Delen,+“Leveraging+the+capabilities+of+service<oriented+deci<
sion+support+systems:+Putting+analytics+and+big+data+in+cloud,”+Decision)Support)
Systems,+vol.+55,+no.+1,+pp.+412–421,+Apr.+2013.+
[106]+ G.+Im+and+A.+Raven,+“Fit+and+social+construction+in+knowledge+management+sys<
tems.,”+ECIS,+2003.+
[107]+ B.+Men+and+T.+S.+H.+Teo,+“Knowledge+portals+in+Chinese+consulting+firms:+a+task–

$ 306$
References+

technology+fit+perspective,”+Eur)J)Inf)Syst,+vol.+17,+no.+6,+pp.+557–574,+Dec.+2008.+
[108]+ A.+R.+Hevner,+S.+T.+March,+and+J.+Park,+“Design+Science+in+Information+Systems+
Research,”+MIS)Quarterly,+vol.+28,+pp.+75–105,+Feb.+2004.+
[109]+ L.+M.+Vaquero,+L.+Rodero<Merino,+and+J.+Caceres,+“A+break+in+the+clouds:+towards+
a+cloud+definition,”+ACM)SIGCOMM)…,+vol.+27,+no.+2,+pp.+4–5,+2008.+
[110]+ C.+Gong,+J.+Liu,+Q.+Zhang,+H.+Chen,+and+Z.+Gong,+“The+Characteristics+of+Cloud+
Computing,”+presented+at+the+2010+International+Conference+on+Parallel+Pro<
cessing+Workshops+(ICPPW),+pp.+275–279.+
[111]+ D.+Agrawal,+S.+Das,+and+A.+El+Abbadi,+“Big+data+and+cloud+computing:+current+
state+and+future+opportunities,”+EDBT)2011,+2011.+
[112]+ P.+Mell+and+T.+Grance,+“The+NIST+definition+of+cloud+computing+(draft),”+NIST)
special)publication,+2011.+
[113]+ M.+Armbrust,+A.+Fox,+and+R.+Griffith,+“Above+the+clouds:+A+Berkeley+view+of+cloud+
computing,”+Dept.)Electrical)Eng.)and)Comput.)Sciences,)University)of)California,)
Berkeley,)Tech.)Rep.)UCB/EECS,+vol.+28,+2009.+
[114]+ P.+Mell+and+T.+Grance,+“Effectively+and+Securely+Using+the+Cloud+Computing+Par<
adigm,”+pp.+1–93,+Mar.+2010.+
[115]+ R.+Buyya,+C.+S.+Yeo,+S.+Venugopal,+J.+Broberg,+and+I.+Brandic,+“Cloud+computing+
and+emerging+IT+platforms:+Vision,+hype,+and+reality+for+delivering+computing+
as+the+5th+utility,”+Future)Generation)Computer)Systems,+vol.+25,+no.+6,+pp.+599–
616,+Jun.+2009.+
[116]+ L.+Youseff,+M.+Butrico,+and+D.+Da+Silva,+“Toward+a+Unified+Ontology+of+Cloud+
Computing,”+Grid)Computing)Environments)Workshop,)2008.)GCE)'08,+pp.+1–10,+
2008.+
[117]+ D.+Androcec,+N.+Vrcek,+and+J.+Seva,+“Cloud+Computing+Ontologies:+A+Systematic+
Review,”+MOPAS))The)Third)International)Conference)on)Models)and)Ontology:
based)Design)of)Protocols,)Architectures)and)Services,+pp.+1–6,+Mar.+2015.+
[118]+ C.+Weinhardt,+A.+Anandasivam,+B.+Blau,+N.+Borissov,+T.+Meinl,+W.+Michalk,+and+J.+
Stößer,+“Cloud+Computing+–+A+Classification,+Business+Models,+and+Research+Di<
rections,”+Bus.)Inf.)Syst.)Eng.,+vol.+1,+no.+5,+pp.+391–399,+Sep.+2009.+
[119]+ R.+Gupta,+H.+Gupta,+and+M.+Mohania,+“Cloud+Computing+and+Big+Data+Analytics:+
What+Is+New+from+Databases+Perspective?,”+in+Pervasive)Computing,+vol.+7678,+
no.+5,+P.+Floréen,+A.+Krüger,+and+M.+Spasojevic,+Eds.+Berlin,+Heidelberg:+Springer+
Berlin+Heidelberg,+2012,+pp.+42–61.+
[120]+ W.+Tian+and+Y.+Zhao,+“Big+Data+Technologies+and+Cloud+Computing,”+in+Opti:
mized)Cloud)Resource)Management)and)Scheduling,+Elsevier,+2015,+pp.+17–49.+
[121]+ I.+A.+T.+Hashem,+I.+Yaqoob,+N.+B.+Anuar,+S.+Mokhtar,+A.+Gani,+and+S.+U.+Khan,+“The+
rise+of+‘big+data’+on+cloud+computing_+Review+and+open+research+issues,”+Infor:
mation)Systems,+vol.+47,+no.+c,+pp.+98–115,+Jan.+2015.+

$ 307$
References+

[122]+ D.+Talia,+“Clouds+for+Scalable+Big+Data+Analytics,”+IEEE)Computer)Society)Press,+
vol.+46,+no.+5,+pp.+98–101,+May+2013.+
[123]+ C.+Ji,+Y.+Li,+W.+Qiu,+U.+Awada,+and+K.+Li,+“Big+Data+Processing+in+Cloud+Computing+
Environments,”+presented+at+the+2012+12th+International+Symposium+on+Perva<
sive+Systems,+Algorithms,+and+Networks+(I<SPAN),+pp.+17–23.+
[124]+ D.+Durkee,+“Why+cloud+computing+will+never+be+free,”+Commun.)ACM,+vol.+53,+no.+
5,+pp.+62–69,+May+2010.+
[125]+ A.+Abdollahzadehgan,+“To+assess+impact+of+organizational+factors+on+cloud+com<
puting+adoption+in+SMEs,”+Universiti)Teknologi)Malaysia,+Jul.+2013.+
[126]+ G.+Jung,+N.+Gnanasambandam,+and+T.+Mukherjee,+“Synchronous+Parallel+Pro<
cessing+of+Big<Data+Analytics+Services+to+Optimize+Performance+in+Federated+
Clouds,”+presented+at+the+2012+IEEE+5th+International+Conference+on+Cloud+
Computing+(CLOUD),+pp.+811–818.+
[127]+ D.+J.+Abadi,+D.+Carney,+U.+etintemel,+M.+Cherniack,+C.+Convey,+S.+Lee,+M.+Stone<
braker,+N.+Tatbul,+and+S.+Zdonik,+“Aurora:+a+new+model+and+architecture+for+data+
stream+management,”+The)VLDB)Journal)The)International)Journal)on)Very)Large)
Data)Bases,+vol.+12,+no.+2,+pp.+120–139,+Aug.+2003.+
[128]+ P.<F.+Hsu,+S.+Ray,+and+Y.<Y.+Li<Hsieh,+“Examining+cloud+computing+adoption+in<
tention,+pricing+mechanism,+and+deployment+model,”+International)Journal)of)In:
formation)Management,+vol.+34,+no.+4,+pp.+474–488,+Aug.+2014.+
[129]+ P.+Koehler,+A.+Anandasivam,+M.+A.+Dan,+and+C.+Weinhardt,+“Cloud+Services+from+a+
Consumer+Perspective.,”+AMCIS,+2010.+
[130]+ A.+Lin+and+N.<C.+Chen,+“Cloud+computing+as+an+innovation:+Percepetion,+attitude,+
and+adoption,”+International)Journal)of)Information)Management,+vol.+32,+no.+6,+
pp.+533–540,+Dec.+2012.+
[131]+ M.+G.+Avram,+“Advantages+and+Challenges+of+Adopting+Cloud+Computing+from+an+
Enterprise+Perspective,”+Procedia)Technology,+vol.+12,+pp.+529–534,+2014.+
[132]+ S.+C.+Misra+and+A.+Mondal,+“Identification+of+a+company’s+suitability+for+the+adop<
tion+of+cloud+computing+and+modelling+its+corresponding+Return+on+Invest<
ment,”+Mathematical)and)Computer)Modelling,+vol.+53,+no.+3,+pp.+504–521,+Feb.+
2011.+
[133]+ J.+Lumsden+and+A.+Gutierrez,+“Understanding+the+determinants+of+Cloud+Compu<
ting+Adoption+within+the+UK+,”+European,)Mediterranean)Middle)Eastern)Confer:
ence)on)Information)Systems,+pp.+1–16,+Oct.+2013.+
[134]+ M.+Stieninger,+D.+Nedbal,+W.+Wetzlinger,+G.+Wagner,+and+M.+A.+Erskine,+“Impacts+
on+the+Organizational+Adoption+of+Cloud+Computing:+A+Reconceptualization+of+
Influencing+Factors,”+Procedia)Technology,+vol.+16,+pp.+85–93,+2014.+
[135]+ N.+Phaphoom,+X.+Wang,+S.+Samuel,+S.+Helmer,+and+P.+Abrahamsson,+“A+survey+
study+on+major+technical+barriers+affecting+the+decisionto+adopt+cloud+services,”+

$ 308$
References+

The)Journal)of)Systems)&)Software,+vol.+103,+no.+C,+pp.+167–181,+May+2015.+
[136]+ J.+A.+González<Martínez,+M.+L.+Bote<Lorenzo,+E.+Gómez<Sánchez,+and+R.+Cano<
Parra,+“Cloud+computing+and+education:+A+state<of<the<art+survey,”+Computers)&)
Education,+vol.+80,+no.+C,+pp.+132–151,+Jan.+2015.+
[137]+ N.+Alkhater,+R.+Walters,+and+G.+Wills,+“An+investigation+of+factors+influencing+an+
organisation's+intention+to+adopt+cloud+computing,”+Information)Society)(i:
Society),+2014.+
[138]+ M.+Z.+Nkhoma+and+D.+P.+T.+Dang,+“Contributing+Factors+of+Information+Security+
Investments+in+South+East+Asia+SMBs:+A+Technology<Organisational+<
Environment+Approach,”+International)Journal)of)Information)Security)and)Pri:
vacy,+vol.+7,+no.+1,+pp.+30–44,+Jan.+2013.+
[139]+ F.+T.+Neves,+F.+C.+Marta,+A.+M.+R.+Correia,+and+M.+C.+Neto,+“The+adoption+of+cloud+
computing+by+SMEs:+identifying+and+coping+with+external+factors.,”+2011.+
[140]+ M.+Bohm,+“Cloud+Computing+and+Computing+Evolution,”+Economics)of)Grids,)
Clouds,)Systems,)and)Services,+pp.+1–28,+Sep.+2009.+
[141]+ P.+Gupta,+A.+Seetharaman,+and+J.+R.+Raj,+“The+usage+and+adoption+of+cloud+com<
puting+by+small+and+medium+businesses,”+International)Journal)of)Information)
Management,+vol.+33,+no.+5,+pp.+861–874,+Oct.+2013.+
[142]+ T.+Oliveira,+M.+Thomas,+and+M.+Espadanal,+“Assessing+the+determinants+of+cloud+
computing+adoption:+An+analysis+of+the+manufacturing+and+services+sectors,”+In:
formation)&)Management,+vol.+51,+no.+5,+pp.+497–510,+Jul.+2014.+
[143]+ Y.<W.+Chang,+P.<Y.+Hsu,+and+W.<L.+Shiau,+“An+empirical+study+of+managers’+usage+
intention+in+BI,”+Cogn)Tech)Work,+vol.+16,+no.+2,+pp.+247–258,+Apr.+2013.+
[144]+ N.+A.+Sultan,+“Reaching+for+the+cloud ,+How+SMEs+can+manage,”+International)
Journal)of)Information)Management,+vol.+31,+no.+3,+pp.+272–278,+Jun.+2011.+
[145]+ S.+B.+Chebrolu,+“How+Do+Cloud+Capabilities+Impact+Various+Aspects+of+IT+Effec<
tiveness?,”+presented+at+the+CLOUD+'12:+Proceedings+of+the+2012+IEEE+Fifth+In<
ternational+Conference+on+Cloud+Computing,+2012,+pp.+932–940.+
[146]+ A.+Khajeh<Hosseini,+D.+Greenwood,+and+I.+Sommerville,+“Cloud+Migration:+A+Case+
Study+of+Migrating+an+Enterprise+IT+System+to+IaaS,”+arXiv.org,+vol.+cs.DC.+18<
Feb<2010.+
[147]+ C.+Low,+Y.+Chen,+and+M.+Wu,+“Understanding+the+determinants+of+cloud+compu<
ting+adoption,”+Industrial)Management)&)Data)Systems,+vol.+111,+no.+7,+pp.+1006–
1023,+Aug.+2011.+
[148]+ S.+R.+Tehrani+and+F.+Shirazi,+“Factors+Influencing+the+Adoption+of+Cloud+Compu<
ting+by+Small+and+Medium+Size+Enterprises+(SMEs),”+presented+at+the+Proceed<
ings+of+the+16th+International+Conference+on+Human+Interface+and+the+Man<
agement+of+Information.+Information+and+Knowledge+in+Applications+and+Ser<
vices,+Cham,+2014,+vol.+8522,+no.+60,+pp.+631–642.+

$ 309$
References+

[149]+ F.+D.+Davis,+“Perceived+usefulness,+perceived+ease+of+use,+and+user+acceptance+of+
information+technology,”+MIS)Quarterly,+vol.+13,+no.+3,+Sep.+1989.+
[150]+ V.+Venkatesh+and+F.+D.+Davis,+“A+Model+of+the+Antecedents+of+Perceived+Ease+of+
Use:+Development+and+Test*,”+Decision)Sciences,+vol.+27,+no.+3,+pp.+451–481,+
1996.+
[151]+ E.+Udoh,+“Technology+Acceptance+Model+Applied+to+the+Adoption+of+Grid+and+
Cloud+Technology,”+International)Journal)of)Grid)and)High)Performance)Compu:
ting,+vol.+4,+no.+1,+pp.+1–20,+Jun.+2015.+
[152]+ W.<W.+Wu,+L.+W.+Lan,+and+Y.<T.+Lee,+“Exploring+decisive+factors+affecting+an+or<
ganization's+SaaS+adoption:+A+case+study,”+International)Journal)of)Information)
Management,+pp.+1–8,+Apr.+2011.+
[153]+ M.+T.+Dishaw+and+D.+M.+Strong,+“Extending+the+technology+acceptance+model+
with+task–technology+fit+constructs,”+Information)&)Management,+1999.+
[154]+ C.<W.+Chen,+Y.<C.+Shiue,+and+P.<Y.+Shih,+“Why+firms+do+not+adopt+SaaS,”+African)
Journal)of)Business)Management,+pp.+pp.+6443–6449,+2011.+
[155]+ P.+Stamas,+“The+Business+Transformation+Payoffs+of+Cloud+Services+at+Mohawk,”+
MIS)Quarterly,+pp.+1–2,+Nov.+2014.+
[156]+ Y.+Wu,+C.+G.+Cegielski,+B.+T.+Hazen,+and+D.+J.+Hall,+“Cloud+Computing+in+Support+of+
Supply+Chain+Information+System+Infrastructure:+Understanding+When+to+go+to+
the+Cloud,”+Journal)of)Supply)Chain)Management,+vol.+49,+no.+3,+pp.+25–41,+Jul.+
2013.+
[157]+ S.+Trigueros<Preciado,+D.+Pérez<González,+and+P.+Solana<González,+“Cloud+com<
puting+in+industrial+SMEs:+identification+of+the+barriers+to+its+adoption+and+ef<
fects+of+its+application,”+Electron)Markets,+vol.+23,+no.+2,+pp.+105–114,+2013.+
[158]+ A.+Benlian+and+T.+Hess,+“Opportunities+and+risks+of+software<as<a<service:+Find<
ings+from+a+survey+of+IT+executives,”+Decision)Support)Systems,+vol.+52,+no.+1,+pp.+
232–246,+Dec.+2011.+
[159]+ J.<W.+Lian,+D.+C.+Yen,+and+Y.<T.+Wang,+“An+exploratory+study+to+understand+the+
critical+factors+affecting+the+decision+to+adopt+cloud+computing+in+Taiwan+hospi<
tal,”+International)Journal)of)Information)Management,+vol.+34,+no.+1,+pp.+28–36,+
Feb.+2014.+
[160]+ A.+Khajeh<Hosseini,+I.+Sommerville,+and+I.+Sriram,+“Research+Challenges+for+En<
terprise+Cloud+Computing,”+arXiv.org,+vol.+cs.DC.+19<Jan<2010.+
[161]+ D.+C.+Chou,+“Cloud+computing:+A+value+creation+model,”+Computer)Standards)&)
Interfaces,+vol.+38,+no.+C,+pp.+72–77,+Oct.+2014.+
[162]+ M.+Maurer,+V.+C.+Emeakaroha,+I.+Brandic,+and+J.+Altmann,+“Cost<benefit+analysis+
of+an+SLA+mapping+approach+for+defining+standardized+Cloud+computing+
goods,”+Future)Generation)Computer)Systems,+vol.+28,+no.+1,+pp.+39–47,+Jan.+2012.+
[163]+ P.+Brebner,+“Modeling+Cloud+Cost+and+Performance,”+Annual)International)Con:

$ 310$
References+

ference)on)Cloud)Computing)and)Virtualization)CCV,+pp.+1–8,+May+2010.+
[164]+ A.+Greenberg,+J.+Hamilton,+D.+A.+Maltz,+and+P.+Patel,+“The+cost+of+a+cloud:+research+
problems+in+data+center+networks,”+ACM)SIGCOMM)Computer)Communication)
Review,+vol.+39,+no.+1,+pp.+68–73,+Dec.+2008.+
[165]+ S.+Balasubramanian,+S.+Bhattacharya,+and+V.+KRISHNAN,+“Pricing+Information+
Goods:+A+Strategic+Analysis+of+the+Selling+and+Pay<per<use+Mechanisms,”+Insead,+
pp.+1–63,+Nov.+2011.+
[166]+ Y.+Zhai,+M.+Liu,+J.+Zhai,+X.+Ma,+and+W.+Chen,+“Cloud+versus+in<house+cluster:+Eval<
uating+Amazon+cluster+compute+instances+for+running+MPI+applications,”+pre<
sented+at+the+High+Performance+Computing,+Networking,+Storage+and+Analysis+
(SC),+2011+International+Conference+for,+New+York,+New+York,+USA,+2011,+pp.+1–
10.+
[167]+ R.+Dave,+“Mobile+Virtual+Network+Operator+Systems+on+Cloud:,”+pp.+1–107,+Mar.+
2014.+
[168]+ D.+Kossmann+and+T.+Kraska,+“Data+Management+in+the+Cloud:+Promises,+State<of<
the<art,+and+Open+Questions,”+Datenbank)Spektrum,+vol.+10,+no.+3,+pp.+121–129,+
Nov.+2010.+
[169]+ S.+C.+Misra+and+A.+Mondal,+“Identification+of+a+company's+suitability+for+the+adop<
tion+of+cloud+computing+and+modelling+its+corresponding+Return+on+Invest<
ment,”+Mathematical)and)Computer)Modelling,+vol.+53,+no.+3,+pp.+504–521,+Feb.+
2011.+
[170]+ A.+Kim+and+I.+S.+Moskowitz,+“Incentivized+Cloud+Computing:+A+Principal+Agent+
Solution+to+the+Cloud+Computing+Dilemma,”+Naval)Research)Laboratory,+2010.+
[171]+ J.+Karlsson,+O.+Torreno,+D.+Ramet,+G.+Klambauer,+M.+Cano,+and+O.+Trelles,+“Ena<
bling+Large<Scale+Bioinformatics+Data+Analysis+with+Cloud+Computing,”+pre<
sented+at+the+2012+IEEE+10th+International+Symposium+on+Parallel+and+Distrib<
uted+Processing+with+Applications+(ISPA),+2012,+pp.+640–645.+
[172]+ C.+Ji,+Y.+Li,+W.+Qiu,+U.+Awada,+and+K.+Li,+“Big+Data+Processing+in+Cloud+Computing+
Environments,”+presented+at+the+2012+12th+International+Symposium+on+Perva<
sive+Systems,+Algorithms,+and+Networks+(I<SPAN),+2012,+pp.+17–23.+
[173]+ shekhar,+“Spatial+Big<Data+Challenges+Intersecting+Mobility+and+Cloud+Compu<
ting,”+pp.+1–9,+Feb.+2012.+
[174]+ D.+Kossmann,+T.+Kraska,+and+S.+Loesing,+“An+evaluation+of+alternative+architec<
tures+for+transaction+processing+in+the+cloud,”+presented+at+the+Proceedings+of+
the+2010+ACM,+2010.+
[175]+ S.+Chaudhuri,+“What+next?:+a+half<dozen+data+management+research+goals+for+big+
data+and+the+cloud,”+presented+at+the+PODS+'12:+Proceedings+of+the+31st+sympo<
sium+on+Principles+of+Database+Systems,+2012,+pp.+1–4.+
[176]+ C.+Bennett,+R.+L.+Grossman,+D.+Locke,+J.+Seidman,+and+S.+Vejcik,+“MalStone:+To<

$ 311$
References+

wards+A+Benchmark+for+Analytics+on+Large+Data+Clouds,”+arXiv.org,+vol.+cs.DC.+
07<Jul<2010.+
[177]+ G.+De+Francisci+Morales,+“Cloud+computing+for+large+scale+data+analysis,”+IMT):)
Institutions)Markets)Technologies,+pp.+1–46,+Feb.+2010.+
[178]+ S.+Tsuchiya,+“Big+Data+Processing+in+Cloud+Environments,”+FUJITSU)Sci.)Tech.)J.,)
Vol.),)No.),)pp.)April,+pp.+1–10,+Mar.+2012.+
[179]+ R.+L.+Grossman,+“The+Case+for+Cloud+Computing,”+IT)Professional,+vol.+11,+no.+2,+
pp.+23–27,+2009.+
[180]+ T.+Ercan,+“Effective+use+of+cloud+computing+in+educational+institutions,”+Procedia)
:)Social)and)Behavioral)Sciences,+vol.+2,+no.+2,+pp.+938–942,+Jan.+2010.+
[181]+ A.+Rosenthal,+P.+Mork,+M.+H.+Li,+J.+Stanford,+D.+Koester,+and+P.+Reynolds,+“Cloud+
computing:+A+new+business+paradigm+for+biomedical+information+sharing,”+
Journal)of)Biomedical)Informatics,+vol.+43,+no.+2,+pp.+342–353,+Apr.+2010.+
[182]+ M.+Klems,+J.+Nimis,+and+S.+Tai,+“Do+clouds+compute?+a+framework+for+estimating+
the+value+of+cloud+computing,”+E:Business)Systems)Markets,+2009.+
[183]+ X.+Xu,+“From+cloud+computing+to+cloud+manufacturing,”+Robotics)and)Computer)
Integrated)Manufacturing,+vol.+28,+no.+1,+pp.+75–86,+Feb.+2012.+
[184]+ A.+J.+Ferrer,+F.+Hernández,+J.+Tordsson,+E.+Elmroth,+A.+Ali<Eldin,+C.+Zsigri,+R.+Sir<
vent,+J.+Guitart,+R.+M.+Badia,+K.+Djemame,+W.+Ziegler,+T.+Dimitrakos,+S.+K.+Nair,+G.+
Kousiouris,+K.+Konstanteli,+T.+Varvarigou,+B.+Hudzia,+A.+Kipp,+S.+Wesner,+M.+Cor<
rales,+N.+Forgó,+T.+Sharif,+and+C.+Sheridan,+“OPTIMIS:+A+holistic+approach+to+
cloud+service+provisioning,”+Future)Generation)Computer)Systems,+vol.+28,+no.+1,+
pp.+66–77,+Jan.+2012.+
[185]+ A.+Nathani,+S.+Chaudhary,+and+G.+Somani,+“Policy+based+resource+allocation+in+
IaaS+cloud,”+Future)Generation)Computer)Systems,+vol.+28,+no.+1,+pp.+94–103,+Jan.+
2012.+
[186]+ A.+Andrzejak,+D.+Kondo,+and+S.+Yi,+“Decision+Model+for+Cloud+Computing+under+
SLA+Constraints,”+Modeling,)Analysis)&)Simulation)of)Computer)and)Telecommu:
nication)Systems)(MASCOTS),)2010)IEEE)International)Symposium)on,+pp.+257–
266,+2010.+
[187]+ A.+Celesti,+F.+Tusa,+M.+Villari,+and+A.+Puliafito,+“How+to+Enhance+Cloud+Architec<
tures+to+Enable+Cross<Federation,”+presented+at+the+CLOUD+'10:+Proceedings+of+
the+2010+IEEE+3rd+International+Conference+on+Cloud+Computing,+2010,+pp.+
337–345.+
[188]+ T.+Voith,+K.+Oberle,+and+M.+Stein,+“Quality+of+service+provisioning+for+distributed+
data+center+inter<connectivity+enabled+by+network+virtualization,”+Future)Gen:
eration)Computer)Systems,+vol.+28,+no.+3,+pp.+554–562,+Mar.+2012.+
[189]+ A.+Celesti,+M.+Fazio,+M.+Villari,+and+A.+Puliafito,+“Virtual+machine+provisioning+
through+satellite+communications+in+federated+Cloud+environments,”+Future)

$ 312$
References+

Generation)Computer)Systems,+vol.+28,+no.+1,+pp.+85–93,+Jan.+2012.+
[190]+ H.+Ghanbari,+B.+Simmons,+M.+Litoiu,+and+G.+Iszlai,+“Feedback<based+optimization+
of+a+private+cloud,”+Future)Generation)Computer)Systems,+vol.+28,+no.+1,+pp.+104–
111,+Jan.+2012.+
[191]+ B.+Dougherty,+J.+White,+and+D.+C.+Schmidt,+“Model<driven+auto<scaling+of+green+
cloud+computing+infrastructure,”+Future)Generation)Computer)Systems,+vol.+28,+
no.+2,+pp.+371–378,+Feb.+2012.+
[192]+ R.+N.+Calheiros,+A.+N.+Toosi,+C.+Vecchiola,+and+R.+Buyya,+“A+coordinator+for+scaling+
elastic+applications+across+multiple+clouds,”+Future)Generation)Computer)Sys:
tems,+vol.+28,+no.+8,+pp.+1350–1362,+Oct.+2012.+
[193]+ D.+Villegas,+N.+Bobroff,+I.+Rodero,+J.+Delgado,+Y.+Liu,+A.+Devarakonda,+L.+Fong,+S.+M.+
Sadjadi,+and+M.+Parashar,+“Cloud+federation+in+a+layered+service+model,”+Journal)
of)Computer)and)System)Sciences,+vol.+78,+no.+5,+pp.+1330–1344,+Sep.+2012.+
[194]+ R.+Buyya+and+K.+Sukumar,+“Platforms+for+Building+and+Deploying+Applications+
for+Cloud+Computing,”+arXiv.org,+vol.+cs.DC.+p.+4379,+21<Apr<2011.+
[195]+ G.+Koslovski,+P.+Gonçalves,+and+P.+Vicat<Blanc,+“Dynamically+provisioned+virtual+
infrastructures:+specification,+allocation+and+execution,”+HAL)HAL)Id)tel:,+2013.+
[196]+ D.+S.+Katz,+S.+Jha,+M.+Parashar,+O.+Rana,+and+J.+Weissman,+“Survey+and+Analysis+of+
Production+Distributed+Computing+Infrastructures,”+arXiv.org,+vol.+cs.DC.+13<
Aug<2012.+
[197]+ A.+Guazzelli,+“Efficient+Deployment+of+Predictive+Analytics+through+Open+Stand<
ards+and+Cloud+Computing,”+SIGKDD)Explorations,+pp.+1–7,+May+2009.+
[198]+ G.+Tiers,+“Cloud+Computing+:+les+composantes+d’une+rupture.,”+IESEG,+pp.+1–25,+
Apr.+2012.+
[199]+ W.+Venters+and+E.+A.+Whitley,+“A+critical+review+of+cloud+computing:+researching+
desires+and+realities,”+Journal)of)Information)Technology,+vol.+27,+no.+3,+pp.+179–
197,+Aug.+2012.+
[200]+ M.+Armbrust,+A.+Fox,+R.+Griffith,+A.+D.+Joseph,+R.+Katz,+A.+Konwinski,+G.+Lee,+D.+
Patterson,+A.+Rabkin,+I.+Stoica,+and+M.+Zaharia,+“A+view+of+cloud+computing,”+
Commun.)ACM,+vol.+53,+no.+4,+pp.+50–58,+Apr.+2010.+
[201]+ D.+C.+Plummer,+T.+J.+Bittman,+T.+Austin,+and+D.+W.+Cearley,+“Cloud+computing:+
Defining+and+describing+an+emerging+phenomenon,”+Gartner,+2008.+
[202]+ Q.+Zhang,+L.+Cheng,+and+R.+Boutaba,+“Cloud+computing:+state<of<the<art+and+re<
search+challenges,”+J)Internet)Serv)Appl,+vol.+1,+no.+1,+pp.+7–18,+2010.+
[203]+ T.+Dillon,+C.+Wu,+and+E.+Chang,+“Cloud+Computing:+Issues+and+Challenges,”+2010)
24th)IEEE)International)Conference)on)Advanced)Information)Networking)and)
Applications,+pp.+27–33,+2010.+
[204]+ L.+Heilig+and+S.+Voss,+“A+Scientometric+Analysis+of+Cloud+Computing+Literature,”+
Cloud)Computing,)IEEE)Transactions)on,+vol.+2,+no.+3,+pp.+266–278,+2014.+

$ 313$
References+

[205]+ S.+Francis,+“Factors+shaping+the+future+of+Cloud+Computing,”+MIT)Sloan)School)of)
Management,+pp.+1–73,+Aug.+2011.+
[206]+ A.+McAfee,+“What+every+CEO+needs+to+know+about+the+cloud,”+Harvard)Business)
Review,+2011.+
[207]+ R.+L.+Grossman,+“What+is+analytic+infrastructure+and+why+should+you+care?,”+
SIGKDD)Explorations)Newsletter,+vol.+11,+no.+1,+pp.+5–9,+Nov.+2009.+
[208]+ E.+Kaganer,+E.+Carmel,+and+R.+Hirschheim,+“Managing+the+human+cloud,”+Sloan)
Management)…,+2013.+
[209]+ Z.+Xie,+“Economic+Perspectives+of+Cloud+Computing,”+presented+at+the+UCC+'11:+
Proceedings+of+the+2011+Fourth+IEEE+International+Conference+on+Utility+and+
Cloud+Computing,+2011.+
[210]+ F.+Etro,+“The+economic+impact+of+cloud+computing+on+business+creation,+em<
ployment+and+output+in+Europe,”+Review)of)Business)and)Economics,+2009.+
[211]+ B.+P.+Rimal,+E.+Choi,+and+I.+Lumb,+“A+Taxonomy+and+Survey+of+Cloud+Computing+
Systems,”+INC,+pp.+44–51,+2009.+
[212]+ S.+Subashini+and+V.+Kavitha,+“A+survey+on+security+issues+in+service+delivery+
models+of+cloud+computing,”+Journal)of)Network)and)Computer)Applications,+vol.+
34,+no.+1,+pp.+1–11,+Jan.+2011.+
[213]+ F.+Shahzad,+“State<of<the<art+Survey+on+Cloud+Computing+Security+Challenges,+
Approaches+and+Solutions,”+Procedia):)Procedia)Computer)Science,+vol.+37,+pp.+
357–362,+2014.+
[214]+ D.+Zissis+and+D.+Lekkas,+“Addressing+cloud+computing+security+issues+,”+Integra:
tion,)the)VLSI)Journal,+vol.+28,+no.+3,+pp.+583–592,+Mar.+2012.+
[215]+ S.+Varadi,+A.+Kertesz,+and+M.+Parkin,+“The+necessity+of+legally+compliant+data+
management+in&nbsp;European+cloud+architectures,”+Computer)Law)&)Security)
Review,+vol.+28,+no.+5,+pp.+577–586,+Oct.+2012.+
[216]+ A.+Bisong+and+S.+S.+M+Rahman,+“An+Overview+Of+The+Security+Concerns+In+Enter<
prise+Cloud+Computing,”+IJNSA,+vol.+3,+no.+1,+pp.+30–45,+Jan.+2011.+
[217]+ A.+Khajeh<Hosseini,+D.+Greenwood,+J.+W.+Smith,+and+I.+Sommerville,+“The+Cloud+
Adoption+Toolkit:+Supporting+Cloud+Adoption+Decisions+in+the+Enterprise,”+
arXiv.org,+vol.+cs.DC.+11<Aug<2010.+
[218]+ S.+Marston,+Z.+Li,+S.+Bandyopadhyay,+J.+Zhang,+and+A.+Ghalsasi,+“Cloud+computing+
—+The+business+perspective,”+Decision)Support)Systems,+vol.+51,+no.+1,+pp.+176–
189,+Apr.+2011.+
[219]+ A.+B.+Mohammed,+J.+Altmann,+and+J.+Hwang,+“Cloud+Computing+Value+Chains:+
Understanding+Businesses+and+Value+Creation+in+the+Cloud,”+Economic)Models)
and)Algorithms)for)Distributed)Systems,+no.+11,+pp.+187–208,+n/a+2010.+
[220]+ D.+Greenwood,+A.+Khajeh<Hosseini,+J.+Smith,+and+I.+Sommerville,+“The+Cloud+
Adoption+Toolkit:+Addressing+the+Challenges+of+Cloud+Adoption+in+Enterprise,”+

$ 314$
References+

CORD)Conference)Proceedings,+pp.+–,+Mar.+2010.+
[221]+ A.+Sobotta,+“Enhancing+the+Agility+Promoting+Benefits+of+Service<Orientation+
with+Utility+Computing,”+IT)University)of)Copenhagen)ITU,+pp.+1–201,+Jan.+2009.+
[222]+ S.+Cacciola+and+R.+Gibbons,+“Coase+Meets+the+Cloud:+How+and+When+Can+Out<
sourcing+IT+Improve+Organizational+Performance?,”+White)Paper,+2012.+
[223]+ A.+Susarla+and+A.+B.+Whinston,+“Understanding+the+organization+of+managed+
service+providers+[electronic+resource]:+an+analysis+of+customer+satisfaction+and+
contracting+in+markets+for+hosted+IT+services,”+University)of)Texas,+2003.+
[224]+ R.+Muhleman,+“Cloud+Computing:+Should+I+Stay+or+Should+I+Cloud+?,”+Education)
Special)Interest)Group)of)the)AITP,+pp.+1–7,+Oct.+2012.+
[225]+ R.+J.+W.+Welten,+“Towards+the+cloud,”+Tilburg)University,+pp.+1–96,+Nov.+2009.+
[226]+ A.+McAfee+and+E.+Brynjolfsson,+“Investing+in+the+IT+that+makes+a+competitive+
difference,”+Harvard)Business)Review,+2008.+
[227]+ E.+Brynjolfsson,+L.+M.+Hitt,+and+H.+H.+Kim,+“Strength+in+Numbers:+How+Does+Data<
Driven+Decision+making+Affect+Firm+Performance?,”+SSRN)Journal,+2011.+
[228]+ K.+Zhu,+“The+complementarity+of+information+technology+infrastructure+and+e<
commerce+capability:+A+resource<based+assessment+of+their+business+value,”+
Journal)of)Management)Information)Systems,+2004.+
[229]+ J.+D'Ambra,+C.+S.+Wilson,+and+S.+Akter,+“Application+of+the+task<technology+fit+
model+to+structure+and+evaluate+the+adoption+of+E<books+by+Academics,”+…)Sci:
ence)and)Technology,+2013.+
[230]+ E.+Penrose,+The)Theory)of)the)Growth)of)the)Firm.+OUP+Oxford,+2009.+
[231]+ B.+Wernerfelt,+A)Resource:Based)View)Of)THe)Firm.+1982.+
[232]+ J.+Oredo+and+J.+Njihia,+“Challenges+of+Cloud+Computing+in+Business:+Towards+
New+Organizational+Competencies,”+International)Journal)of)Business)and)Social)
Science,+pp.+1–11,+Mar.+2014.+
[233]+ J.+B.+Barney,+Firm)Resources)and)Sustained)Competitive)Advantage.+1991.+
[234]+ W.+C.+Howell+and+E.+A.+Fleishman,+Information)Processing)and)Decision)Making.+
Psychology+Press,+1982.+
[235]+ R.+L.+Priem+and+J.+E.+Butler,+“Is+the+Resource<Based+‘View’+a+Useful+Perspective+
for+Strategic+Management+Research?,”+Academy)of)management)review,+vol.+26,+
no.+1,+pp.+22–40,+Jan.+2001.+
[236]+ M.+Taher,+“Resource<Based+View+Theory,”+in+Information)Systems)Theory,+vol.+
28,+no.+8,+New+York,+NY:+Springer+New+York,+2012,+pp.+151–163.+
[237]+ Y.+K.+Dwivedi,+M.+R.+Wade,+and+S.+L.+Schneberger,+Information)Systems)Theory,+
vol.+29.+New+York,+NY:+Springer+Science+&+Business+Media,+2011.+
[238]+ W.+H.+Delone+and+E.+R.+McLean,+“Information+Systems+Success:+The+Quest+for+the+

$ 315$
References+

Dependent+Variable,”+Information)Systems)Research,+vol.+3,+no.+1,+pp.+60–95,+
Mar.+1992.+
[239]+ C.+E.+Shannon+and+W.+Weaver,+The)Mathematical)Theory)of)Communication.+Uni<
versity,+1975.+
[240]+ P.+Seddon,+“A+respecification+and+extension+of+the+DeLone+and+McLean+model+of+
IS+success,”+Information)System)Research,+vol.+8,+no.+3,+pp.+1–14,+Sep.+1997.+
[241]+ B.+Szajna,+“Determining+information+system+usage:+Some+issues+and+examples,”+
Information)&)Management,+vol.+25,+no.+3,+pp.+147–154,+Sep.+1993.+
[242]+ J.+J.+Jiang+and+G.+Klein,+“User+evaluation+of+information+systems:+by+system+ty<
pology,”+IEEE)Transactions)on)Systems,)Man,)and)Cybernetics,)Part)A:)Systems)
and)Humans,+vol.+29,+no.+1,+pp.+111–116,+Jan.+1999.+
[243]+ G.+A.+Whyte,+Understanding)User)Perceptions)of)Successful)Information)Systems.+
1994.+
[244]+ P.+J.<H.+Hu,+Evaluating)telemedicine)systems)success:)a)revised)model.+IEEE,+2003.+
[245]+ F.+D.+Davis,+“User+Acceptance+of+Information+Systems:+The+Technology+Ac<
ceptance+Model+(TAM),”+Int)J)Man:Machine)Studies,+pp.+475–487,+1993.+
[246]+ M.+Fishbein+and+I.+Ajzen,+Belief,)attitude,)intention,)and)behavior.+Addison+Wesley+
Publishing+Company,+1975.+
[247]+ A.+Subramanian,+“Organizational+innovativeness:+Exploring+the+relationship+
between+organizational+determinants+of+innovation,+types+of+innovations,+and+
measures+of+organizational+performance,”+Omega,)Int.)J.)Mgmt)Sci.,+vol.+24,+pp.+
pp.+631–647,+Jun.+1996.+
[248]+ K.+Mathieson+and+M.+Keil,+“Beyond+the+interface:+ease+of+use+and+
task/technology+fit,”+Information)&)Management,+vol.+34,+no.+4,+Nov.+1998.+
[249]+ M.+Igbaria,+T.+Guimaraes,+and+G.+B.+Davis,+“Testing+the+Determinants+of+Micro<
computer+Usage+via+a+Structural+Equation+Model,”+Journal)of)Management)In:
formation)Systems,+vol.+11,+no.+4,+pp.+87–114,+Dec.+2015.+
[250]+ M.+Y.+Yi,+J.+D.+Jackson,+J.+S.+Park,+and+J.+C.+Probst,+“Understanding+information+
technology+acceptance+by+individual+professionals:+Toward+an+integrative+
view,”+Information)&)Management,+vol.+43,+no.+3,+pp.+350–363,+Apr.+2006.+
[251]+ I.+Klopping+and+E.+McKinney,+“Extending+the+Technology+Acceptance+and+the+
Task+Technology+Fit+Model,”+Information)Technology,)Learning,)and)Perfor:
mance)Journal,+pp.+1–14,+Apr.+2004.+
[252]+ R.+P.+Bagozzi,+“The+Legacy+of+the+Technology+Acceptance+Model+and+a+Proposal+
for+a+Paradigm+Shift.,”+Journal)of)the)association)for)information)systems,+2007.+
[253]+ P.+Legris,+J.+Ingham,+and+P.+Collerette,+“Why+do+people+use+information+technol<
ogy?+A+critical+review+of+the+technology+acceptance+model,”+Information)&)Man:
agement,+2003.+

$ 316$
References+

[254]+ E.+M.+van+Raaij+and+J.+J.+L.+Schepers,+“The+acceptance+and+use+of+a+virtual+learning+
environment+in+China,”+Computers)&)Education,+vol.+50,+no.+3,+pp.+838–852,+Apr.+
2008.+
[255]+ D.+L.+Goodhue,+“Understanding+user+evaluations+of+information+systems,”+Man:
age)Sci,+vol.+41,+no.+12,+pp.+1827–1844,+Dec.+1995.+
[256]+ A.+Parkes,+“Decision+Support+Systems,”+Decision)Support)Systems,+vol.+54,+no.+2,+
pp.+997–1009,+Jan.+2013.+
[257]+ M.+Aljukhadar,+S.+Senecal,+and+J.+Nantel,+“Information+&+Management,”+Infor:
mation)&)Management,+vol.+51,+no.+4,+pp.+391–397,+Jun.+2014.+
[258]+ J.+Gebauer+and+Y.+Tang,+“Applying+the+Theory+of+Task<Technology+Fit+to+Mobile+
Information+Systems:+The+Role+of+User+Mobility,”+Sixth)International)Conference)
on)the)Management)of)Mobile)Business)ICMB,+pp.+1–8,+Apr.+2007.+
[259]+ S.+Jarupathirun+and+F.+M.+Zahedi,+“Exploring+the+influence+of+perceptual+factors+
in+the+success+of+web<based+spatial+DSS,”+Decision)Support)Systems,+vol.+43,+no.+
3,+pp.+933–951,+Apr.+2007.+
[260]+ E.+Ammenwerth,+C.+Iller,+and+C.+Mahler,+“IT<adoption+and+the+interaction+of+task,+
technology+and+individuals:+a+fit+framework+and+a+case+study,”+BMC)Medical)In:
formatics)and)…,+2006.+
[261]+ A.+Kankanhalli,+B.+C.+Y.+Tan,+and+K.+K.+Wei,+“Understanding+seeking+from+elec<
tronic+knowledge+repositories:+An+empirical+study,”+Journal)of)the)American)So:
ciety)for)Information)Science)and)Technology,+vol.+56,+no.+11,+pp.+1156–1166,+
Sep.+2005.+
[262]+ A.+Lee+and+T.<M.+Lim,+“Enhance+Task<Technology+Fit+Model+by+Task+Categoriza<
tion+Characteristics+for+a+Proposed+Knowledge+Creation+and+Sharing+Model+via+
Weblogs,”+)th)International)Conference)on)IT)in)Asia)CITA,+pp.+1–6,+Aug.+2011.+
[263]+ I.+Zigurs+and+D.+Khazanchi,+“From+Profiles+to+Patterns:+A+New+View+of+Task<
Technology+Fit,”+Information)Systems)Management,+vol.+25,+no.+1,+pp.+8–13,+Jan.+
2008.+
[264]+ C.+D.+Smith+and+J.+T.+Mentzer,+“Forecasting+task<technology+fit:+The+influence+of+
individuals,+systems+and+procedures+on+forecast+performance,”+International)
Journal)of)Forecasting,+vol.+26,+no.+1,+pp.+144–161,+Jan.+2010.+
[265]+ H.+H.+Chang,+“Task<technology+fit+and+user+acceptance+of+online+auction,”+Journal)
of)Human)Computer)Studies,+vol.+68,+no.+1,+pp.+69–89,+Nov.+2009.+
[266]+ Y.+Liu,+Y.+Lee,+and+A.+N.+K.+Chen,+“Decision+Support+Systems,”+Decision)Support)
Systems,+vol.+51,+no.+3,+pp.+688–700,+Jun.+2011.+
[267]+ A.+Bhattacherjee+and+C.+Sanford,+“Influence+processes+for+information+technolo<
gy+acceptance:+an+elaboration+likelihood+model,”+MIS)Quarterly,+vol.+30,+no.+4,+
Dec.+2006.+
[268]+ D.+S.+Staples+and+P.+Seddon,+“Testing+the+technology<to<performance+chain+mod<

$ 317$
References+

el,”+Journal)of)Organizational)and)End)User)…,+2004.+
[269]+ D.+Michael,+“Towards+a+Unified+Theory+of+Fit:+Task,+Technology+and+Individual,”+
Information)Systems)Foundations,+pp.+1–21,+Nov.+2007.+
[270]+ M.+L.+Gribbins,+C.+Subramaniam,+and+M.+J.+Shaw,+“Process<Technology+Fit:+Ex<
tending+Task<Technology+Fit+to+Assess+Enterprise+Information+Technologies.,”+
ICIS,+2006.+
[271]+ A.+Majchrzak,+A.+Malhotra,+and+R.+John,+“Perceived+Individual+Collaboration+
Know<How+Development+Through+Information+Technology–Enabled+Contextu<
alization:+Evidence+from+Distributed+Teams,”+Information)Systems)Research,+vol.+
16,+no.+1,+pp.+9–27,+Mar.+2005.+
[272]+ P.+Zhang+and+U.+Y.+Eseryel,+“Task+in+HCI+research+in+the+management+infor<
mation+systems+(MIS)+literature:+A+critical+survey,”+Proceedings)of)the)11th)In:
ternational)Conference)on)Human:Computer)Interaction,+2005.+
[273]+ D.+M.+Strong+and+O.+Volkoff,+“Understanding+organization<enterprise+system+fit:+
a+path+to+theorizing+the+information+technology+artifact,”+MIS)Quarterly,+vol.+34,+
no.+4,+Dec.+2010.+
[274]+ S.+Devaraj+and+R.+Kohli,+“Performance+Impacts+of+Information+Technology:+Is+
Actual+Usage+the+Missing+Link?,”+Manage)Sci,+pp.+1–17,+Feb.+2003.+
[275]+ J.+D'Ambra+and+R.+E.+Rice,+“Emerging+factors+in+user+evaluation+of+the+World+
Wide+Web,”+Information)&)Management,+2001.+
[276]+ C.<C.+Lee,+H.+K.+Cheng,+and+H.<H.+Cheng,+“An+empirical+study+of+mobile+commerce+
in+insurance+industry:+Task–technology+fit+and+individual+differences,”+Decision)
Support)Systems,+vol.+43,+no.+1,+pp.+95–110,+Feb.+2007.+
[277]+ W.+D.+Nance+and+D.+W.+Straub,+“An+investigation+of+task/technology+fit+and+in<
formation+technology+choices+in+knowledge+work,”+Journal)of)Information)Tech:
nology,+1996.+
[278]+ I.+Junglas,+C.+Abraham,+and+B.+Ives,+“Decision+Support+Systems,”+Decision)Support)
Systems,+vol.+46,+no.+3,+pp.+634–647,+Feb.+2009.+
[279]+ N.+Basoglu+and+S.+Cayir,+“Users+and+information+technology+interoperability:+
Analysis+of+task+information+fit+model,”+presented+at+the+Management+of+Engi<
neering+&+Technology,+2009.+PICMET+2009.+Portland+International+Conference+
on,+2009,+pp.+3144–3153.+
[280]+ M.+L.+Heine,+V.+Grover,+and+M.+K.+Malhotra,+“The+relationship+between+technolo<
gy+and+performance:+a+meta<analysis+of+technology+models,”+Omega,+vol.+31,+no.+
3,+pp.+189–204,+Jun.+2003.+
[281]+ Y.+Benslimane+and+M.+Plaisent,+“Applying+the+task<technology+fit+model+to+
WWW<based+conceptualization+and+measurement,”+System)Sciences,+2003.+
[282]+ J.+Gebauer+and+M.+Ginsburg,+“Exploring+the+black+box+of+task<technology+fit,”+
Commun.)ACM,+vol.+52,+no.+1,+Jan.+2009.+

$ 318$
References+

[283]+ A.+Ciganek,+S.+Jarupathirun,+and+C.+Kerdpitak,+Eds.,+“Improving+Performance+
Through+Task+Technology+Fit:+A+Case+Study,”+International)Conference)on)IT)
Thailand,+pp.+pp.+1–4,+Mar.+2009.+
[284]+ D.+Suryaningrum,+“Assessing+Individual+Performance+on+Information+Technolo<
gy+Adoption:+A+New+Model,”+Global)Journal)of)Business)Research,+pp.+1–16,+Sep.+
2012.+
[285]+ T.+J.+McGill+and+J.+E.+Klobas,+“A+task–technology+fit+view+of+learning+management+
system+impact.,”+Computers)&)Education,+vol.+52,+no.+2,+pp.+496–508,+Feb.+2009.+
[286]+ H.+L.+Bleich+and+W.+V.+Slack,+“Reflections+on+electronic+medical+records:+When+
doctors+will+use+them+and+when+they+will+not,”+International)Journal)of)Medical)
Informatics,+vol.+79,+no.+1,+pp.+1–4,+Jan.+2010.+
[287]+ M.+Tsiknakis+and+A.+Kouroubali,+“Organizational+factors+affecting+successful+
adoption+of+innovative+eHealth+services:+A+case+study+employing+the+FITT+
framework,”+International)Journal)of)Medical)Informatics,+vol.+78,+no.+1,+pp.+39–
52,+Jan.+2009.+
[288]+ S.+Sawyer+and+K.+Crowston,+“IS+in+Organizations+and+Society,”+pp.+1–18,+Apr.+
2004.+
[289]+ I.+Zigurs+and+B.+K.+Buckland,+“A+theory+of+task/technology+fit+and+group+support+
systems+effectiveness,”+MIS)Quarterly,+1998.+
[290]+ R.+Agarwal+and+J.+Prasad,+“A+Conceptual+and+Operational+Definition+of+Personal+
Innovativeness+in+the+Domain+of+Information+Technology,”+Information)Systems)
Research,+vol.+9,+no.+2,+pp.+204–215,+Jun.+1998.+
[291]+ S.<Y.+Hung,+“Expert+versus+novice+use+of+the+executive+support+systems:+an+em<
pirical+study,”+Information)&)Management,+vol.+40,+no.+3,+pp.+177–189,+Jan.+2003.+
[292]+ M.+T.+Dishaw+and+D.+M.+Strong,+“Extending+task+technology+fit+with+computer+
self<efficacy,”+vol.+37,+no.+2,+p.+96,+Sep.+2006.+
[293]+ J.+Gebauer+and+M.+Shaw,+“A+theory+of+task/technology+fit+for+mobile+applications+
to+support+organizational+processes,”+University)of)Illinois,+2002.+
[294]+ E.+DePoy+and+L.+N.+Gitlin,+Introduction)to)Research.+Elsevier+Health+Sciences,+
2015.+
[295]+ J.+W.+Creswell,+Research)Design.+SAGE+Publications,+2013.+
[296]+ E.+G.+Guba+and+Y.+S.+Lincoln,+Fourth)Generation)Evaluation.+SAGE,+1989.+
[297]+ M.+Crotty,+The)Foundations)of)Social)Research.+SAGE,+1998.+
[298]+ A.+Burney,+Inductive)and)deductive)research)approach.+Retrieved,+2008.+
[299]+ R.+Galliers,+Information)Systems)Research.+Alfred+Waller+Limited,+1992.+
[300]+ M.+N.+K.+Saunders,+P.+Lewis,+and+A.+Thornhill,+Research)Methods)for)Business)Stu:
dents.+Pearson+Higher+Ed,+2012.+

$ 319$
References+

[301]+ M.+Aliaga+and+B.+Gunderson,+Interactive)Statistics.+Prentice+Hall,+2006.+
[302]+ M.+L.+Markus+and+D.+Robey,+The)Organizational)Validity)of)Management)Infor:
mation)Systems.+1980.+
[303]+ B.+Kaplan,+D.+P.+Truex,+and+D.+Wastell,+Information)Systems)Research,+vol.+143.+
Boston:+Springer+Science+&+Business+Media,+2004.+
[304]+ R.+K.+Yin,+Case)Study)Research.+SAGE+Publications,+2013.+
[305]+ D.+Cooper+and+P.+Schindler,+Business)Research)Methods.+McGraw<Hill+Higher+Ed<
ucation,+2013.+
[306]+ J.+L.+Pearce+and+H.+B.+Gregersen,+“Task+interdependence+and+extrarole+behavior:+
A+test+of+the+mediating+effects+of+felt+responsibility,”+Journal)of)Applied)Psychol:
ogy,+vol.+76,+no.+6,+pp.+838–844,+Dec.+1991.+
[307]+ J.+D.+Thompson,+Organizations)in)Action.+Transaction+Publishers,+2011.+
[308]+ J.+E.+McGrath,+Groups.+Prentice+Hall,+1984.+
[309]+ G.+F.+Templeton+and+T.+A.+Byrd,+“Determinants+of+the+Relative+Advantage+of+a+
Structured+SDM+During+the+Adoption+Stage+of+Implementation,”+Information)
Technology)and)Management,+vol.+4,+no.+4,+pp.+409–428,+Oct.+2003.+
[310]+ W.+Fan,+“Mining+Big+Data:+Current+Status,+and+Forecast+to+the+Future,”+pp.+1–5,+
Dec.+2012.+
[311]+ H.+P.+Borgman,+B.+Bahli,+H.+Heier,+and+F.+Schewski,+“Cloudrise:+Exploring+Cloud+
Computing+Adoption+and+Governance+with+the+TOE+Framework,”+presented+at+
the+HICSS+'13:+Proceedings+of+the+2013+46th+Hawaii+International+Conference+
on+System+Sciences,+2013.+
[312]+ D.+R.+Compeau+and+C.+A.+Higgins,+“Computer+self<efficacy:+development+of+a+
measure+and+initial+test,”+MIS)Quarterly,+vol.+19,+no.+2,+pp.+189–211,+Jun.+1995.+
[313]+ T.+C.+Lin+and+C.+C.+Huang,+“Understanding+knowledge+management+system+usage+
antecedents:+An+integration+of+social+cognitive+theory+and+task+technology+fit,”+
Information)&)Management,+2008.+
[314]+ A.+S.+Bharadwaj,+“A+resource<based+perspective+on+information+technology+ca<
pability+and+firm+performance:+an+empirical+investigation,”+MIS)Quarterly,+pp.+
169–196,+2000.+
[315]+ S.+L.+Jarvenpaa+and+D.+S.+Staples,+“The+use+of+collaborative+electronic+media+for+
information+sharing:+an+exploratory+study+of+determinants,”+The)Journal)of)Stra:
tegic)Information)Systems,+vol.+9,+no.+2,+pp.+129–154,+Sep.+2000.+
[316]+ J.+E.+Bailey+and+S.+W.+Pearson,+“Development+of+a+Tool+for+Measuring+and+Ana<
lyzing+Computer+User+Satisfaction,”+Manage)Sci,+vol.+29,+no.+5,+pp.+530–545,+May+
1983.+
[317]+ D.+C.+Yen,+F.<F.+Cheng,+Y.<W.+Huang,+and+C.<S.+Wu,+“Determinants+of+users’+inten<
tion+to+adopt+wireless+technology:+An+empirical+study+by+integrating+TTF+with+

$ 320$
References+

TAM,”+Computers)in)Human)Behavior,+vol.+26,+no.+5,+pp.+906–915,+Sep.+2010.+
[318]+ A.+H.+Gold,+A.+Malhotra,+and+A.+H.+Segars,+“Knowledge+Management:+An+Organi<
zational+Capabilities+Perspective,”+Journal)of)Management)Information)Systems,+
Jan.+2015.+
[319]+ Y.<M.+Li+and+T.<Y.+Li,+“Deriving+Market+Intelligence+from+Microblogs,”+Decision)
Support)Systems,+pp.+1–42,+Feb.+2013.+
[320]+ G.+C.+Moore+and+I.+Benbasat,+“Development+of+an+Instrument+to+Measure+the+
Perceptions+of+Adopting+an+Information+Technology+Innovation,”+Information)
Systems)Research,+vol.+2,+no.+3,+pp.+192–222,+Sep.+1991.+
[321]+ W.+D.+Nance+and+D.+Straub,+“An+Investigation+of+Task/Technology+fit+and+In<
frmation+technology+choices+in+knowledge+work,”+Journal)of)Information)Tech:
nology,+pp.+1–14,+Feb.+2005.+
[322]+ I.+Junglas,+C.+Abraham,+and+R.+T.+Watson,+“Task<technology+fit+for+mobile+locata<
ble+information+systems,”+Decision)Support)Systems,+vol.+45,+no.+4,+pp.+1–12,+Oct.+
2008.+
[323]+ W.+H.+Delone+and+E.+R.+McLean,+“The+DeLone+and+McLean+Model+of+Information+
Systems+Success:A+Ten<Year+Update,”+Journal)of)Management)Information)Sys:
tems,+pp.+1–22,+Oct.+2003.+
[324]+ P.+Luarn+and+K.<L.+Huang,+“Factors+Influencing+Government+Employee+Perfor<
mance+via+Information+Systems+Use:+an+Empirical+Study,”+Electronic)Journal)of)
e:Government,+pp.+1–14,+Nov.+2010.+
[325]+ G.+Torkzadeh+and+W.+J.+Doll,+“The+development+of+a+tool+for+measuring+the+per<
ceived+impact+of+information+technology+on+work,”+Omega,+vol.+27,+no.+3,+pp.+
327–339,+Jun.+1999.+
[326]+ J.+F.+Hair,+C.+M.+Ringle,+and+M.+Sarstedt,+“PLS<SEM:+Indeed+a+Silver+Bullet,”+Journal)
of)Marketing)Theory)and)Practice,+vol.+19,+no.+2,+pp.+139–152,+Dec.+2014.+
[327]+ M.+J.+Vilares+and+P.+S.+Coelho,+“Likelihood+and+PLS+Estimators+for+Structural+
Equation+Modeling:+An+Assessment+of+Sample+Size,+Skewness+and+Model+Mis<
specification+Effects,”+in+Advances)in)Regression,)Survival)Analysis,)Extreme)Val:
ues,)Markov)Processes)and)Other)Statistical)Applications,+no.+2,+Springer+Berlin+
Heidelberg,+2013,+pp.+11–33.+
[328]+ W.+Chin+and+B.+Marcolin,+“The+Partial+Least+Squares+Approach+for+Causal+Model<
ing+in+IS+Research,”+ICIS)1994)Proceedings,+1994.+
[329]+ W.+W.+Chin,+B.+L.+Marcolin,+and+P.+R.+Newsted,+A)Partial)Least)Squares)Latent)Var:
iable)Modeling)Approach)for)Measuring)Interaction)Effects:)Results)from)a)Monte)
Carlo)Simulation)Study)and)an)Electronic:Mail)Emotion/Adoption)Study.+Infor<
mation+Systems+Research,+1996.+
[330]+ C.+M.+Ringle,+“A+Critical+Look+at+the+Use+of+PLS<SEM+in+MIS+Quarterly,”+MIS)Quar:
terly)Vol.)No.)pp.)iii:xivMarch,+pp.+1–18,+Mar.+2014.+

$ 321$
References+

[331]+ C.+Fornell+and+F.+L.+Bookstein,+“Two+Structural+Equation+Models:+LISREL+and+
PLS+Applied+to+Consumer+Exit<Voice+Theory,”+Journal)of)Marketing)Research,+
vol.+19,+no.+4,+p.+440,+Nov.+1982.+
[332]+ J.+Henseler,+C.+M.+Ringle,+and+R.+R.+Sinkovics,+“The+Use+of+Partial+Least+Squares+
Path+Modeling+in+International+Marketing,”+Emerald)Group)Publishing,+2009.+
[333]+ J.+Joseph+F+Hair,+G.+T.+M.+Hult,+C.+Ringle,+and+M.+Sarstedt,+A)Primer)on)Partial)
Least)Squares)Structural)Equation)Modeling)(PLS:SEM).+SAGE+Publications,+
2013.+
[334]+ V.+E.+Vinzi,+W.+W.+Chin,+J.+Henseler,+and+H.+Wang,+Handbook)of)Partial)Least)
Squares.+Berlin,+Heidelberg:+Springer+Science+&+Business+Media,+2010.+
[335]+ E.+G.+Carmines+and+R.+A.+Zeller,+Reliability)and)Validity)Assessment.+SAGE+Publica<
tions,+1979.+
[336]+ C.+Barroso,+G.+C.+Carrión,+and+J.+L.+Roldán,+“Applying+Maximum+Likelihood+and+
PLS+on+Different+Sample+Sizes:+Studies+on+SERVQUAL+Model+and+Employee+Be<
havior+Model,”+in+Handbook)of)Partial)Least)Squares,+no.+20,+Berlin,+Heidelberg:+
Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg,+2010,+pp.+427–447.+
[337]+ G.+A.+Marcoulides,+Modern)Methods)for)Business)Research.+Psychology+Press,+
1998.+
[338]+ D.+Barclay,+C.+Higgins,+and+R.+Thompson,+The)partial)least)squares)(PLS))ap:
proach)to)causal)modeling:)Personal)computer)adoption)and)use)as)an)illustra:
tion.+Technology+studies,+1995.+
[339]+ C.+Fornell+and+D.+F.+Larcker,+“Evaluating+Structural+Equation+Models+with+Unob<
servable+Variables+and+Measurement+Error,”+Journal)of)Marketing)Research,+vol.+
18,+no.+1,+p.+39,+Feb.+1981.+
[340]+ D.+Straub,+M.+C.+Boudreau,+and+D.+Gefen,+“Validation+guidelines+for+IS+positivist+
research,”+Communications)of)the)Association)for)Information)Systems,+2004.+
[341]+ J.+C.+Nunnally,+I.+H.+Bernstein,+and+J.+Berge,+Psychometric)theory.+1967.+
[342]+ D.+X.+Peng+and+F.+Lai,+“Using+partial+least+squares+in+operations+management+
research:+A+practical+guideline+and+summary+of+past+research,”+Journal)of)Oper:
ations)Management,+vol.+30,+no.+6,+pp.+467–480,+Sep.+2012.+
[343]+ W.+W.+Chin,+“Issues+and+Opinions+on+Structural+equation+modeling,”+MIS)Quar:
terly,+vol.+22,+no.+1,+pp.+7–16,+Jan.+2003.+
[344]+ J.+Cohen,+“A+power+primer.,”+Psychological)Bulletin,+vol.+112,+no.+1,+pp.+155–159,+
Jul.+1992.+
[345]+ J.+F.+Hair,+Multivariate)Data)Analysis.+Prentice+Hall,+2010.+
[346]+ R.<A.+Thietart,+Doing)Management)Research.+SAGE,+2001.+
[347]+ W.+P.+Zijlstra,+L.+A.+van+der+Ark,+and+K.+Sijtsma,+“Outlier+Detection+in+Test+and+
Questionnaire+Data,”+Multivariate)Behavioral)Research,+vol.+42,+no.+3,+pp.+531–

$ 322$
References+

555,+Dec.+2007.+
[348]+ D.+Cousineau+and+S.+Chartier,+“Outliers+detection+and+treatment:+a+review.,”+In:
ternational)Journal)of)Psychological)Research,+vol.+3,+no.+1,+pp.+58–67,+Jun.+2015.+
[349]+ M.+Hubert,+P.+J.+Rousseeuw,+and+S.+Van+Aelst,+“High<Breakdown+Robust+Multivar<
iate+Methods,”+arXiv.org,+vol.+stat.ME,+no.+1.+Institute+of+Mathematical+Statistics,+
pp.+arXiv:0808.0657–119,+05<Aug<2008.+
[350]+ S.+Jamieson,+“Likert+scales:+how+to+(ab)+use+them,”+Medical)education,+2004.+
[351]+ A.+Diamantopoulos,+Formative)indicators:)Introduction)to)the)special)issue.+Jour<
nal+of+Business+Research,+2008.+
[352]+ J.+Cohen,+P.+Cohen,+S.+G.+West,+and+L.+S.+Aiken,+Applied)Multiple)Regres:
sion/Correlation)Analysis)for)the)Behavioral)Sciences.+Routledge,+2013.+
[353]+ R.+T.+Cenfetelli+and+G.+Bassellier,+“Interpretation+of+formative+measurement+in+
information+systems+research,”+MIS)Quarterly,+2009.+
[354]+ J.+C.+Nunnally+and+I.+H.+Bernstein,+The)assessment)of)reliability.+Psychometric+
theory,+1994.+
[355]+ J.+Henseler,+C.+M.+Ringle,+and+M.+Sarstedt,+“A+new+criterion+for+assessing+discri<
minant+validity+in+variance<based+structural+equation+modeling,”+J.)of)the)Acad.)
Mark.)Sci.,+vol.+43,+no.+1,+pp.+115–135,+2015.+
[356]+ J.+Gebauer+and+M.+J.+Shaw,+“Task<technology+fit+for+mobile+information+systems,”+
Journal)of)Information)Technology,+2010.+
+

$ 323$